Salts

Solubility of salts
-Salts are ionic compounds and most of them are soluble in water with a few exceptions
-The preparation of salt depends on its solubility in water
Salt
Sodium,
Chlorides
Sulphates
potassium and
ammonium salts,
nitrates
Solubility in
All are soluble
All are soluble except
All are soluble
water
Lead(II) chloride,PbCl2
except
(soluble only in hot water) Barium sulphate,
Mercury(II)chloride,HgCl2 BaSO4
Silver chloride, AgCl
Calcium
sulphate, CaSO4
Lead sulphate,
PbSO4

Carbonates

All are insoluble

except
Potassium
carbonate,
K2CO3
Sodium
carbonate,
Na2CO3
Ammonium
carbonate,
(NH4)2CO3

Methods of salts preparation in a laboratory

Soluble salts : 1) Reaction of acids with alkalis
2) Reaction of acids with insoluble metallic oxides (or hydroxides)
3) Reaction of acids with more electropositive metals (than hydrogen) such as zinc and
magnesium (except potassium, sodium and calcium)
4) Reaction of acids with insoluble metallic carbonates
Insoluble salts are prepared by precipitation methods through double decomposition reactions.

Electrochemical
series
Potassium, K
Sodium, Na
Calcium, Ca
Magnesium, Mg
Aluminium, Al
Zinc, Zn
Iron, Fe
Tin, Sn
Lead, Pb
Hydrogen, H
Copper, Cu
Mercury, Hg
Platinum, Pt

Their salts are prepared by the reactions of

acids with alkalis

HCl(aq) + KOH(aq) = KCL(aq) + H2O(l)

Their salts are prepared by the reactions of

1) Acids + Metals
2) Acids + insoluble metallic oxides
or hydroxides
3) Acids + insoluble metallic
carbonates

H2SO4(aq) + Zn(s) = ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

H2SO4(aq) + ZnO(s) = ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
H2SO4(aq) + ZnCO3(s) = ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l) +
CO2(g)

Their salts are prepared by the reactions of

1) Acids + insoluble metallic
oxides/hydroxides
2) Acids + insoluble metallic

2HNO3(aq) + CuO(s) = Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)

2HNO3(aq) + CuCO3(s) = Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l) +
CO2(g)

carbonates
Silver, Ag
Gold, Au
Preparation of soluble salts through reaction of acid with alkali
-Potassium, sodium and ammonium salts are usually prepared through the reactions of acids with alkalis

Acid
Hydrochloric acid,
HCl
Nitric acid, HNO3
Sulphuric acid,
H2SO4

Alkali
Potassium hydroxide
solution, KOH
Sodium hydroxide
solution, NaOH
Aqueous ammonia
solution, NH3

Salt prepared

Chemical Equation

Preparation of soluble salts through the reaction of acids with metals

-Metal used to react with acids are those more electropositive than hydrogen such as magnesium, zinc and
iron.
-Copper and silver are not prepared by this method as they do not react with dilute acid
-Potassium and sodium are also not prepared by this method due to reactivity and explosion.
-In the reaction of dilute acids with more electropositive metals, salts and hydrogen gas are produced
Acid
Nitric acid, HNO3
Sulphuric acid,
H2SO4
Hydrochloric acid,
HCl

Metal
Magnesium, Mg
Zinc, Zn

Salt prepared

Chemical Equation

Iron, Fe

Preparation of soluble salts through the reaction of acids with insoluble metallic oxide (or
hydroxides)
-Reactions of acids with insoluble metallic oxides (or hydroxides) produce most of the soluble salts
except potassium, sodium and ammonium salts
-The reactions involved are neutralization reaction which produced only salts and water
Acid
Nitric acid,
HNO3
Hydrochloric
acid, HCl
Sulphuric acid,
H2SO4

Metallic oxide
Lead(II) oxide,
PbO
Zinc oxide, ZnO
Copper(II)oxide,
CuO

Salt prepared

Chemical equation

Preparation of soluble salts through the reaction of acids with insoluble metallic carbonates
-Reaction of acids with insoluble metallic carbonates produce most of the soluble salts except potassium,
sodium and ammonium salts
-In this reaction, salt, carbon dioxide and water are produced.
Acid
Hydrochloric
acid, HCl
Sulphuric
acid, H2SO4
Nitric acid,
HNO3

Insoluble Metallic
Carbonate
Magnesium
carbonate, MgCO3
Copper(II)
carbonate, CuCO3
Lead(II)
carbonate, PbCO3

Salt prepared

Chemical equation

Purification of soluble salt by recrystallization

-soluble contain impurities which are soluble or not
-insoluble impurities can be removed by filtration
-soluble impurities must be removed by recrystallization
-during crystallization of salt, soluble impurities are left in the solvent(water)
-Steps of recrystallization
1) Soluble salt is dissolved in a suitable solvent, usually water in a beaker
2) The solution is then heated to evaporate the solvent until solution is saturated
3) Hot saturated solution allowed to cool, the salt reappears as pure crystals
4) The crystals are obtained as residue through filtration
5) Steps 1-4 repeated several times to get a near 100% pure salt
Physical characteristics of crystals
a) All have flat faces, straight edges and sharp corners
b) Have fixed angle between two adjacent faces
c) Crystals of a substance have fixed geometric shapes such as needle-like, rhombus or prism
d) Crystals of the same substance have the same shape but differ in size
-Crystallization occurs if the aqueous saturated solution is left for slow evaporation of water.
-Slower to water evaporates, slower the cyrstallisation, the bigger the crystals are formed.
-During crystallization, salts combine with water molecule to form crystalline solids.
-Water molecules held between ions in crystal lattice are known as water of crystallization.
-Salts contain water of crystallization are hydrated salts
-Presence of water molecule changes the colour of salts
-When hydrated salts are heated, water of crystallization is driven off and anhydrous salt is formed.
CuSO4.5H2O
Hydrated copper(II) suplate (blue)

CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)
anhydrous copper(II) sulphate (white)

Preparation of insoluble salts

-Insoluble salts prepared by precipitation method
-Two different aqueous solutions are mixed together.
-A solution that contains the positive ions of the salts is mixed with another solution that contains the
negative ions of the salt.
-Insoluble salt formed appears as precipitate
-Double decomposition reaction
-Because two different aqueous solutions practically mutually exchanged their pairs of ions to form two
new compounds.
-Insoluble salt formed is obtained as residue of filtration
Solution A with positive
ion
Silver sulphate, Ag2SO4

Solution
B
with
negative ion
Sodium chloride, NaCl

Lead(II) nitrate,
Pb(NO3)2
Calcium chloride, CaCl2

Potassium iodide, KI

Solution with positive

ion
Barium nitrate,
Ba(NO3)2
or barium chloride,
BaCl2

Solution with negative

ion
Sodium sulphate,
Na2SO4
or potassium sulphate,
K2SO4
or sulphuric acid, H2SO4
Sodium chloride, NaCl
or potassium chloride,
KCL
Or hydrochloric acid,
HCL
Potassium
chromate(VI), K2CrO4
or Sodium
chromate(VI), Na2CrO4
Potassium iodide, KI
Or sodium iodide, NaI

Silver nitrate, AgNO3

Or silver sulphate,
Ag2SO4

Lead (II) nitrate,

Pb(NO3)2

Lead (II) nitrate,

Pb(NO3)2

Precipitate C, insoluble
salt

Solution D

Sodium sulphate,
Na2SO4
Insoluble salt
prepared

Ionic Equation

Qualitative analysis of salts

-experimental technique to identify cations and anions in an unknown salt by a series of test and
experiments
Cation
Calcium ion
Magnesium ion
Aluminium ion
Zinc ion
Iron(II) ion
Iron (III) ion
Lead(II) ion
Copper(II) ion
Ammonium ion

Anion
Carbonate ion
Chloride ion
Sulphate ion
Nitrate ion

In order to identify an unknown salt and its ion present, a series of procedures is commonly followed:
a) Making preliminary examination on the physical properties of unknown salt
b) Heating the solid unknown salt and identify the gas evolved
c) Making an aqueous solution of the salt and carry out test with various reagent to identify cation
and anion present
d) Carry out confirmatory test for the ions in the unknown salt
Preliminary examination of salts
-Physical properties of a salt are first examined which includes
a) Physical nature, ie:powder or crystals
b) Color and odour
c) Solubility of the salts in water
Colour of salts
Aqueous solution
Solid

Inference
Blue
Pale green
Brown
Blue
Green
Brown
Brown when hot and yellow
when cool
Yellow when hot and white when
cool
Solid that smells of ammonia

Effects of heating on salts

-Salts decompose when heated
-Decomposition of salts are often accompanied by
a) Production of gases
b) Colour changes due to the formation of residues
-Gases are identified by their
a) Colour
b) Odour
c) Effect on the lighted or glowing wooden splint
d) Effect on damp litmus paper
Gas
Carbon dioxide, CO2

Oxygen, O2

Nitrogen dioxide, NO2

Sulphur dioxide, SO2

Chlorine, Cl2

Ammonia, NH3

Hydrogen, H2

Hydrogen chloride, HCl

Test and Results

Heating of carbonate salts

-Most carbonate salts decompose and liberate carbon dioxide when heated except sodium carbonate and
potassium carbonate
Heating of nitrate salts
-Most nitrate salts decompose when heated and produce nitrogen dioxide and oxygen gas except sodium,
potassium and ammonium nitrate.
Heating of sulphate salts
-Most sulphate are quite stable when heated.
-Sulphate of heavy metal decomposed into metal oxide and sulphur trioxide when heated.
-An exceptional case is heating of hydrated iron(II) sulphate
Gentle heating :

FeSO4.7H2O === FeSO4(s) + 7H2O(l)

Hydrated iron(II) sulphate ( pale green)
Strong heating : 2FeSO4(s) === Fe2O3 (s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g)
Iron(III)oxide (reddish brown residue)
Heating of chlorides salts
-Do not decompose on heating except ammonium chloride
NH4Cl(s) === NH3(g) + HCl(g)
Heating of ammonium salts
-Usually decompose into ammonia gas on heating
(NH4)2SO4(s) === 2NH3(g) + H2SO4(g)
NH4Cl(s) === NH3(g) + HCl (g)

Test for anions

Anion

Confirmatory Test

CO32-

Bubbles with dilute acid and the gas produced will cause limewater milky

SO42-

Mixed with dilute sulphuric acid and barium chloride and a white precipitate is
formed.

Cl-

Mixed with dilute nitric acid followed by silver nitrate solution and a white
precipitate is formed

NO3-

Brown ring test and a brown ring will be formed.

Test for cations

Cation
Ca2+
Mg2+
Al3+
Zn2+
Pb2+
Fe2+

NaOH Solution
White precipitate formed.
Not soluble in excess
White precipitate formed.
Not soluble in excess
White precipitate formed.
Soluble in excess
White precipitate formed.
Soluble in excess
White precipitate formed.
Soluble in excess

NH3 Solution
No reaction

White precipitate formed.

Not soluble in excess
White precipitate formed.
Not soluble in excess
White precipitate formed.
Soluble in excess
White precipitate formed.
Not soluble in excess

Green precipitate formed.

Not soluble in excess
Brown precipitate formed.
Not Soluble in excess

Green precipitate formed.

Not soluble in excess
Brown precipitate formed.
Not soluble in excess

Cu2+

Blue precipitate formed.

Not soluble in excess

NH4+

White precipitate formed.

Soluble in excess

Blue precipitate formed.

Not Soluble in excess and a dark blue
solution is produced
No reaction

Fe3+