University of Zimbabwe

Civil Engineering Department

Compiled By

Tsuro Charmaine

Supervisors 1st :
2nd :

Eng. Z. Hoko
Mr. Makaya

A proposal submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements of
the Bsc. Honors in Civil Engineering

REG. #
(R076612L)

Evaluation of water losses at characterized points in a

distribution system so as to improve the quality and quantity of
water reaching the demand centre using Centenary Township as
a case study.

Abstract
Safe drinking water is a necessity to life, and so it becomes a mandate for
the water utility to provide the resource within acceptable quality standards
and quantity requirements to meet the needs of the consumer. The growing
concern that many public water systems (PWS) are facing at the moment,
including Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA), is that of providing
enough water to meet demand at a reasonable cost whilst maintaining
quality standards to protect public health(Finn, 2009). It therefore becomes
of prime concern to investigate the contribution of water losses in reducing
both quantity and quality of the resource in the distribution system, hence a
justification of carrying out this project.
The project is in line with Millennium Development Goal number 7c which
seeks to enhance environmental sustainability and halve the proportion of
people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation
by 2015(World Health Organization,2010). This research seeks to analyse the
impact of water losses on the quality and quantity of water reticulated within
the Centenary water distribution system.

Background of the Centenary Water Distribution

Centenary is a village in Mashonaland Central province in Zimbabwe, whose
water distribution is managed by ZINWA. The community basically abstracts
its water in the pick-up works from Musengedzi River, from which the raw
water is then passed on into the purification works and eventually to the
storage works upon which it reaches the consumers in the township and the
suburbs respectively (Centenary W/S pipeline DWG WS-9-D4, 1980).
The distance through which the 150mm diameter raw water pumping main
has to move from abstraction to the purification works is approximately

300m, whilst that from pure water pump house to the storage is
approximately 5.7 km in length. In between this distance, the clear water is
conveyed in 200mm diameter Asbestos Cement (A.C) pipes of varying
classes. The area is mountainous, enabling the storage works to be situated
between two big boulders on high ground such that distribution to the entire
consumers is entirely due to gravity.
The reticulation system for Centenary is now suffering from ageing effects,
being established in 1980 and coupled with the fact that there is poor
maintenance. This is proving to be a major problem for this area as far as
water losses are concerned. It should be noted that within Manyame
catchment area, it is this town which presents a lot of trouble as far as losses
in distribution are concerned presenting 8% station treatment losses and
61% reticulation losses (Nyakatembo, 2010).
Like any other distribution system, the management of Centenary Water
supply requires careful attention to capacity, finance and water quality
thereby necessitating an intense study into all possible losses occurring
within the distribution as these affect proper functioning of the distribution
channel. The main aim of carrying out this project is then to evaluate the
water losses at characterized points in the Centenary distribution system so
as to improve the quality and quantity of water reaching the demand centre.

Objectives
To satisfy the purposes outlined in the above, this research shall be broken
down into four main objectives as indicated below.

 Analysis of apparent and real water losses otherwise known as unaccounted for water.
This shall involve a thorough investigation into both losses. As for
the apparent losses, concentration shall be on the non physical
losses that occur in utility operations due to customer meter
inaccuracies, systematic data handling errors in customer billing
systems and unauthorized consumption. Real losses on the other
hand, shall include an investigation into leakage and storage
overflows (American Water Works Association, 2010). All these
losses mentioned in the above inflate ZINWAs production costs and
stress water resources since they represent water that is extracted
and treated, yet never reaches beneficial use. The investigation of
such losses will therefore result in reduced revenue costs to the
water utility.
Investigating the degradation of the quality of water
Leakages may result in the degradation of quality of treated water
being distributed in the system, especially in cases where water loss
occurs in areas exposed to high risk of contamination. Entry of subsoil
or contaminated water through leaky pipes and joints especially in
intermittent system may cause the degradation of water quality in the
water distribution system (Water Treatments, 2008). It therefore
becomes necessary to evaluate the relationship between quality of
water received by the consumer to that being pumped into the
distribution system before, and after the leakages.
Ensuring increase in the carrying capacity of the distribution system.
An investigation into the pipe network characteristics (age, length,
size, material) is required so as to evaluate losses that may occur and
possible changes in the quantity of water that may be received due to

network ageing and population increase. Most problems which occur in

a distribution channel are as a result of the distribution system being
overwhelmed by the increase in loading due to increased demand. This
will eventually result in the collapse of the system, hence need to
study the networks characteristics so as to recommend increase in
capacity where need be.

Ensuring adequate pressure at tail ends of the system.

Pressure in a distribution system should be properly managed as high
pressures may result in excessive leakages and bursts, resulting in
wasted resources and increased costs due to repairs as well as
interruptions to customer supplies. Lower pressures may also enable a
company to standardize on pipes and fittings which have a lower
pressure rating and are therefore cheaper (Federation of Canadian
Municipalities and National Research Council, 2003). Pressure control
valves should be regularly maintained as they may have a large impact
on water loss, similarly pressure relief valves should have their
pressure set points regularly verified to ensure they do not open
prematurely,

thus

wasting

water.

(Federation

of

Canadian

Municipalities and National Research Council, 2003)

Methodology
At the moment, ZINWA does not use specialized equipment to measure
losses occurring in the system. The key gadgets which can be used for
estimating any losses that may occur within the system are the raw water
master meter (which measures quantity of raw water into the sedimentation

tank), clear water master meter (which quantifies water from sump into the
reservoir) then the 80mm and 50mm bulk meters in the Gato township and
suburbs distribution respectively (which quantify bulk water into the
network).
A meter gauge also present within the distribution will aid in the estimation
of losses. Within each propertys boundary, both external and internal meters
are fitted, but for estimating losses only the external ones at property
boundaries will be useful for assessing the supply pipe leakages. Other data
from miscellaneous water taken in which may comprise of fire fighting and
hydrant washing, sewer flushing and jetting, water main flushing and
distribution system maintenance and in other cases building water and
highway washing shall also be considered so as to reach an almost accurate
percentage loss( Leak Detection Course 1997).
Quality testing of water shall also be carried out in areas where losses are
expected so as to evaluate the degree of contamination, thereby giving a
measure of the safety of water for various purposes.

References
Michael Finn 2009, Review draft control and mitigation of drinking water
losses in distribution systems, United States Environmental Protection
Agency, accessed 17 December 2010, <http//www.epa.gov/safewater>

WHO 2010, WHO / Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), WHO, accessed

23

December

2010,

<http//www.who.int/topics/millennium_development_goals>
Nyakatembo, July 2010, Water loss Assessment at Centenary, Memorandum
Ref W/S 266 presented to ZINWA Manyame Catchment Manager, Harare
American Water Works Association 2010, Apparent and Real Losses,
American Water Works Association, accessed 17 December 2010, <
http//www.awwa.org/Resources>
Federation of Canadian Municipalities and National Research Council 2003,
Water Use and Loss in Water Distribution Systems, Federation of Canadian
Municipalities and National Research Council, accessed 17 December 2010,
<http//www.infraguide.gc.ca>

Leak Detection, Course handout distributed in the unit, Leak Detection,

University of Zimbabwe Civil Engineering Department( Institute of Water and
Sanitation Development), Mt. Pleasant on 15 Sept, 1997.
Water Treatments 2008, Degradation of Water Quality, Water Treatments,
accessed 5 January 2011, <http//www.thewatertreatments.com>