INTRODUCTION

Historical Backgrounds
The existence of composite is not new. The word composite has become very
popular in recent four-five decades due to the use of modern composite materials in various
applications. The composites have existed from 10000 BC. For example, one can see the
article by Ashby [1]. The evolution of materials and their relative importance over the years
have been depicted. The common composite was straw bricks, used as construction material.
Then the next composite material can be seen from Egypt around 4000 BC where fibrous
composite materials were used for preparing the writing material. These were the laminated
writing materials fabricated from the papyrus plant. Further, Egyptians made containers from
coarse fibers that were drawn from heat softened glass.
One more important application of composites can be seen around 1200 BC from
Mongols. Mongols invented the so called modern composite bow. The history shows that
the earliest proof of existence of composite bows dates back to 3000 BC - as predicted by
Angara Dating. The bow used various materials like wood, horn, sinew (tendon), leather,
bamboo and antler. The horn and antler were used to make the main body of the bow as it is
very flexible and resilient. Sinews were used to join and cover the horn and antler together.
Glue was prepared from the bladder of fish which is used to glue all the things in place. The
string of the bow was made from sinew, horse hair and silk. The composite bow so prepared
used to take almost a year for fabrication. The bows were so powerful that one could shoot
the arrows almost 1.5 km away. Until the discovery of gun-powder the composite bow used
to be a very lethal weapon as it was a short and handy weapon.
As said, Need is the mother of all inventions, the modern composites, that is,
polymer composites came into existence during the Second World War. During the Second
World War due to constraint impositions on various nations for crossing boundaries as well
as importing and exporting the materials, there was scarcity of materials, especially in the
military applications. During this period the fighter planes were the most advanced
instruments of war. The light weight yet strong materials were in high demand. Further,
applications like housing of electronic radar equipments require non-metallic materials.
Hence, the Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastics (GFRP) were first used in these applications.
Phenolic resins were used as the matrix material. The first use of composite laminates can
be seen in the Havilland Mosquito Bomber of the British Royal Air Force.
The composites exist in day to day life applications as well. The most common
existence is in the form of concrete. Concrete is a composite made from gravel, sand and
cement. Further, when it is used along with steel to form structural components in
construction, it forms one further form of composite. The other material is wood which is a
composite made from cellulose and lignin. The advanced forms of wood composites can be
ply-woods. These can be particle bonded composites or mixture of wooden planks/blocks
with some binding agent. Now days, these are widely used to make furniture and as
construction materials.

WHY A COMPOSITE?
Over the last thirty years composite materials, plastics and ceramics have been the
dominant emerging materials. The volume and number of applications of composite

materials have grown steadily, penetrating and conquering new markets relentlessly.
Modern composite materials constitute a significant proportion of the engineered materials
market ranging from everyday products to sophisticated niche applications.
While composites have already proven their worth as weight-saving materials,
the current challenge is to make them cost effective. The efforts to produce economically
attractive composite components have resulted in several innovative manufacturing
techniques currently being used in the composites industry. It is obvious, especially for
composites, that the improvement in manufacturing technology alone is not enough
to overcome the cost hurdle. It is essential that there be an integrated effort in design,
material, process, tooling, quality assurance, manufacturing, and even program management
for composites to become competitive with metals.
The
composites
industry has begun to recognize that the commercial
applications of composites promise to offer much larger business opportunities than the
aerospace sector due to the sheer size of transportation industry. Thus the shift of composite
applications from aircraft to other commercial uses has become prominent in recent years.
Further, the need of composite for lighter construction materials and more
seismic resistant structures has placed high emphasis on the use of new and advanced
materials that not only decreases dead weight but also absorbs the shock & vibration through
tailored microstructures. Composites are now extensively being used for rehabilitation/
strengthening of pre-existing structures that have to be retrofitted to make them
seismic resistant, or to repair damage caused by seismic activity.
Unlike conventional materials (e.g., steel), the properties of the composite material
can be designed considering the structural aspects. The design of a structural component
using composites involves both material and structural design. Composite properties
(e.g. stiffness, thermal expansion etc.) can be varied continuously over a broad range
of values under the control of the designer. Careful selection of reinforcement type
enables finished product characteristics to be tailored to almost any specific
engineering requirement
Whilst the use of composites will be a clear choice in many instances, material
selection in others will depend on factors such as working lifetime requirements, number
of items to be produced (run length), complexity of product shape, possible savings in
assembly costs and on the experience & skills the designer in tapping the optimum
potential of composites. In some instances, best results may be achieved through the use of
composites in conjunction with traditional materials.

1.1 DEFINITION OF COMPOSITE

The most widely used meaning is the following one, which has been stated by Jartiz [1]
Composites are multifunctional material systems that provide characteristics not
obtainable from any discrete material. They are cohesive structures made by physically
combining two or more compatible materials, different in composition and characteristics
and sometimes in form

The weakness of this definition resided in the fact that it allows one to classify among the
composites any mixture of materials without indicating either its specificity or the laws
which should give it which distinguishes it from other very banal, meaningless
mixtures.
Kelly [2] very clearly stresses that the composites should not be regarded simple as a
combination of two materials. In the broader significance; the combination has its own
distinctive properties. In terms of strength to resistance to heat or some other
desirable quality, it is better than either of the components alone or radically different
from either of them.
Beghezan [3] defines as The composites are compound materials which differ from
alloys by the fact that the individual components retain their characteristics but are so
incorporated into the composite as to take advantage only of their attributes and not of
their short comings, in order to obtain improved materials
Van Suchetclan [4] explains composite materials as heterogeneous materials consisting of
two or more solid phases, which are in intimate contact with each other on a microscopic
scale. They can be also considered as homogeneous materials on a microscopic scale in the
sense that any portion of it will have the same physical property.

1.2 PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE

Composites are extremely versatile products - their benefits being:
High Strength to Weight Ratio:
Fiber composites are extremely strong for their weight. By refining the laminate many
characteristics can be enhanced. A common laminate of say 3 mm Chopped strand mat, is
quite flexible compared to say a 3 mm ply. However it will bend a long way more than the
ply before yielding. Stiffness should not be confused with Strength. A carbon fiber laminate
on the other hand, will have a stiffness of many times that of mild steel of the same thickness,
increased ultimate strength.
Light weight:
A standard Fiber glass laminate has a specific gravity in the region of 1.5, compared to Alloy
of 2.7 or steel of 7.8. When you then start looking at Carbon laminates, strengths can be
many times that of steel, but only a fraction of the weight. A DVD case lid was produced
using carbon fiber to reduce the case's overall weight so that it could be carried as cabin
baggage whilst travelling, and for improved security. It was used by support crew for the All
Blacks during their 1999 Rugby World Cup campaign.
Fire Resistance:
The ability for composites to withstand fire has been steadily improving over the years. There
is two types of systems to be considered:Fire Retardent - are self-extinguishing laminates, usually made with chlorinated resins and
additives such as Antimony trioxide. These release CO2 when burning so when the flame
source is removed, the self-extinguish.

.
Fire Resistant - More difficult and made with the likes of Phenolic Resins. These are
difficult to use, are cured with formaldehyde, and require a high degree of post curing to
achieve true fire resistance. Other materials are also becoming more readily available to be
used as intumescent layers, which expand and blanket the surface, preventing spread of
flame. There is a paint on coating usually applied to the back of the product laminate, plus a
thin fiber film to go under the Gel coat.
Electrical:
Fiber glass Developments Ltd produced the Insulator Support straps for the Tranz Rail main
trunk electrification. The straps, although only 4mm thick, meet the required loads of 22kN,
as well as easily meeting insulation requirements
Chemical:
Weathering Resistance Composite products have good weathering properties and resist the
attack of a wide range of chemicals. This depends almost entirely on the resin used in
manufacture, but by careful selection resistance to all but the most extreme conditions can
be achieved. Because of this, composites are used in the manufacture of chemical storage
tanks, pipes, chimneys and ducts, boat hulls and vehicle bodies.
FDL manufactured architectural panels for the construction of the Auckland Marine Rescue
Centre. Composite panels were chosen because of their ability to withstand salty sea side
condition without corrosion
Color:
Almost any shade of any color can be incorporated into the product during manufacture by
pigmenting the gel coat used. Costs are therefore reduced by no further finishing or painting.
Soluble dyes can be used if a translucent product is desired. We do not however, recommend
dark colors. These produce excessive heat on the surface which can lead to the surface
deteriorating and showing print through, where the Resin matrix cures more and shrinks,
bringing the fibers to the surface. In extreme cases delamination can occur.
Translucency:
Polyester resins are widely used to manufacture translucent mouldings and sheets. Light
transmission of up to 85% can be achieved.
Design flexibility:
Because of the versatility of composites, product design is only limited by your imagination.
Low thermal conductivity:
Fiberglass Developments has been involved in the development and production of
specialized meat containers which maintain prime cuts of chilled meat at the correct
temperature for Export markets. They are manufactured using the RTM process, with special
reinforcing and foam inserts.

Manufacturing Economy:
Fiberglass Developments produces several models of fuel pump covers for Fuel quip.
Fiberglass is an ideal material for producing items of this type for many reasons, including
being very economical. Because of its versatile properties, fiberglass can be used in many
varied applications.

1.3 CLASSIFICATION
Composite materials can be classified in different ways [5]. Classification based on the
geometry of a representative unit of reinforcement is convenient since it is the geometry
of the reinforcement which is responsible for the mechanical properties and high
performance of the composites. A typical classification is presented in table1.1. The two
broad classes of composites are (1) Particulate composites and (2) Fibrous composites.
1.3.1 Particulate Composites
As the name itself indicates, the reinforcement is of particle nature (platelets are also
included in this class). It may be spherical, cubic, tetragonal, a platelet, or of other regular or
irregular shape, but it is approximately equiaxed. In general, particles are not very effective in
improving fracture resistance but they enhance the stiffness of the composite to a limited extent.
Particle fillers are widely used to improve the properties of matrix materials such as to modify
the thermal and electrical conductivities, improve performance at elevated temperatures, reduce
friction, increase wear and abrasion resistance, improve machinability, increase surface hardness
and reduce shrinkage.

1.3.2

Fibrous composites

A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its crosssectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of
contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the
fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension
discourages the growth of incipient cracks normal to the reinforcement that might
otherwise lead to failure, particularly with brittle matrices.
Man-made filaments or fibers of non-polymeric materials exhibit much higher
strength along their length since large flaws, which may be present in the bulk material,
are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the
case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for
high strength and stiffness.
Fibers, because of their small cross- sectional dimensions, are not directly usable in
engineering applications. They are, therefore, embedded in matrix materials to form fibrous
composites. The matrix serves to bind the fibers together, transfer loads to the fibers, and protect
them against environmental attack and damage due to handling. In discontinuous fiber reinforced
composites, the load transfer function of the matrix is more critical than in continuous fiber
composites.

1.4 COMPONENTS OF A COMPOSITE MATERIAL

In its most basic form a composite material is one, which is composed of at
least two elements working together to produce material properties that are different to the
properties of those elements on their own. In practice, most composites consist of a
bulk material (the matrix), and a reinforcement of some kind, added primarily to
increase the strength and stiffness of the matrix.
1.4.1

Role of matrix in a composite

Many materials when they are in a fibrous form exhibit very good strength
property but to achieve these properties the fibers should be bonded by a suitable matrix.
The matrix isolates the fibers from one another in order to prevent abrasion and formation
of new surface flaws and acts as a bridge to hold the fibers in place. A good matrix should
possess ability to deform easily under applied load, transfer the load onto the fibers
and evenly distributive stress concentration.
1.4.2 Materials used as matrices in composites
In its most basic form a composite material is one, which is composed of at
least two elements working together to produce material properties that are different to the
properties of those elements on their own. In practice, most composites consist of a
bulk material (the matrix) and a reinforcement of some kind, added primarily to
increase the strength and stiffness of the matrix.

(a) BULK PHASES

(1) Metal Matrices
Metal matrix composites possess some attractive properties, when compared with
organic matrices. These include (i) strength retention at higher temperatures, (ii) higher
transverse strength, (iii) better electrical conductivity, (iv) superior thermal conductivity,
(v) higher erosion resistance etc. However, the major disadvantage of metal matrix
composites is their higher densities and consequently lower specific mechanical
properties compared to polymer matrix composites. Another notable difficulty is the
high-energy requirement for fabrication of such composites
(2) Polymer Matrices
A very large number of polymeric materials, both thermosetting and thermoplastic, are
used as matrix materials for the composites. Generally speaking, the resinous binders
(polymer matrices) are selected on the basis of adhesive strength, fatigue resistance, heat
resistance, chemical and moisture resistance etc. The resin must have mechanical strength
commensurate with that of the reinforcement. It must be easy to use in the fabrication
process selected and also stand up to the service conditions. Apart from these
properties, the resin matrix must be capable of wetting and penetrating into the bundles
of fibers which provide the reinforcement, replacing the dead air spaces therein and
offering those physical characteristics capable of enhancing the performance of fibers.
(3) Ceramic Matrices
Ceramic fibers, such as alumina and SiC (Silicon Carbide) are advantageous in very high

temperature applications, and also where environment attack is an issue. Since ceramics
have poor properties in tension and shear, most applications as reinforcement are in the
particulate form (e.g. zinc and calcium phosphate). Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)
used in very high temperature environments, these materials use a ceramic as the matrix
and reinforce it with short fibers, or whiskers such as those made from silicon carbide and
boron nitride.

(b) REINFORCEMENT
The role of the reinforcement in a composite material is fundamentally one of increasing
the mechanical properties of the neat resin system. All of the different fibers used in
composites have different properties and so affect the properties of the composite
in different ways. For most of the applications, the fibers need to be arranged into some
form of sheet, known as a fabric, to make handling possible. Different ways for assembling
fibers into sheets and the variety of fiber orientations possible to achieve different
characteristics.

(c) INTERFACE
It has characteristics that are not depicted by any of the component in isolation.
The interface is a bounding surface or zone where a discontinuity occurs, whether physical,
mechanical, chemical etc. The matrix material must wet the fiber. Coupling agents are
frequently used to improve wet ability. Well wetted fibers increase the interface surfaces
area. To obtain desirable properties in a composite, the applied load should be
effectively transferred from the matrix to the fibers via the interface. This means that
the interface must be large and exhibit strong adhesion between fibers and matrix. Failure
at the interface (called deboning) may or may not be desirable.

TYPES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

The composite materials are broadly classified into the following categories shown in
Figure 1.1

1. Fiber-reinforced composites
Reinforced-composites are popularly being used in many industrial applications because of
their inherent high specific strength and stiffness. Due to their excellent structural
performance, the composites are gaining potential also in tribological applications. Fiber
reinforced composites materials consists of fiber of high strength and modulus bonded in
to a matrix with distinct interfaces (boundary) between them [4,5]. In this form both fibers
and matrix retain their physical and chemical identities. Yet they produce a combination of
properties that cannot be achieved with either of the constituents acting alone. In general,
fibers are the principal load carrying candidates, while the surrounding matrix keeps them
in the desired location and orientation [6, 7]. A Fibrous composite can be classified into
two broad groups: continuous (long) fiber composite and discontinuous (short) fiber
composite.

2. Continuous or long fiber composite

Continuous or long fiber composite consists of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase in
the form of continuous fibers. A continuous fiber is geometrically characterized as having
a very high length-to- diameter ratio. They are generally stronger and stiffer than bulk
material. Based on the manner in which fibers are packed within the matrix, it is again
subdivided in to two categories: (a) unidirectional reinforcement and (b) bidirectional
reinforcement. In unidirectional reinforcement, the fibers are oriented in one direction only
where as in bidirectional reinforcement the fibers are oriented in two directions either at
right angle to one another (cross-ply), or at some desired angle (angle-ply). When fibers are
large and continuous, they impart certain degree of anisotropy to the properties of the
composites particularly when they are oriented. Multi-axially oriented continuous fiber
composites are also display near isotropic properties.

3. Discontinuous or short fiber composite

Short-fiber reinforced composites consist of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase in
form of discontinuous fibers (length < 100* diameter). The low cost, ease of fabricating
complex parts, and isotropic nature are enough to make the short fiber composites the
material of choice for large-scale production. Consequently, the short-fiber reinforced
composites have successfully established its place in lightly loaded component
manufacturing. Further the discontinuous fiber reinforced composite divided into: (a)
biased or preferred oriented fiber composite and (b) random oriented fiber composite. In
the former, the fibers are oriented in predetermined directions, whereas in the latter type,
fibers remain randomly. The orientation of short fibers can be done by sprinkling of fiber
on to given plane or addition of matrix in liquid or solid state before or after the fiber
deposition. The discontinuities can produce a material response that is anisotropic, but the
random reinforcement produces nearly isotropic properties.

4. Laminate Composites
Laminate Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix.
Generally, these layers are arranged alternatively for the better bonding between
reinforcement and the matrix. These laminates can have uni-directional or bi-directional
orientation of the fiber reinforcement according to the end use of the composite. The
different types of composite laminates are: unidirectional, angle-ply, cross-ply and
symmetric laminates. A hybrid laminate can also be fabricated by the use of different
constituent materials or of the same material with different reinforcing pattern. In most of
the applications of laminate composites, man-made fibers are used due to their good
combination of physico-mechanical and thermal behavior.

5. Particulate Composite
Particulate composite consists of the composite material in which the filler materials are
roughly round. An example of this type of composite would be the unreinforced concrete
where the cement is the matrix and the sand serves as the filler. Lead particles in copper
matrix is another example where both the matrix and the filler are metals. Cermet is a metal
matrix with ceramic filler. Particulate composites offer isotropic properties of composite

along with increase in toughness. Particulate composites are used with all three types of
matrix materials metals, polymers and ceramics.

6. Flake composites
Flakes are often used in place of fibers as can be densely packed. Metal flakes that are in
close contact with each other in polymer matrices can conduct electricity or heat, while mica
flakes and glass can resist both. Flakes are not expensive to produce and usually cost less
than fibers. But they fall short of expectations in aspects like control of size, shapeand show
defects in the end product. Glass flakes tend to have notches orcracks around the edges,
which weaken the final product. They are also resistant to be lined up parallel to each other
in a matrix, causing uneven strength.

Continuous fiber composites

Particulate composites

Random fiber composites

Flake composites

Laminate composites

Figure-1.1 Schematic diagram of different types of Composite

APPLICATIONS OF COMPOSITES
Composites are one of the most widely used materials because of their adaptability to
different situations and the relative ease of combination with other materials to serve specific
purposes and exhibit desirable properties.
In surface transportation, reinforced plastics are the kind of composites used because of their
huge size. They provide ample scope and receptiveness to design changes, materials and

processes. The strength-weight ratio is higher than other materials. Their stiffness and cost
effectiveness offered, apart from easy availability of raw materials, make them the obvious
choice for applications in surface transportation.
In heavy transport vehicles, the composites are used in processing of component parts with
cost-effectiveness. Good reproductivity and resilience handling by semi-skilled workers are
the basic requirements of a good composite material. While the costs of achieving advanced
composites may not justify the savings obtained in terms of weight vis-a-vis vehicle
production, carbon fibers reinforced epoxies have been used in racing cars and recently for
the safety of cars.
Polyester resin with suitable fillers and reinforcements were the first applications of
composites in road transportation. The choice was dictated by properties like low cost, ease
in designing and production of functional parts etc. Using a variety of reinforcements,
polyester has continued to be used in improving the system and other applications.
Most of the thermoplastics are combined with reinforcing fibers in various proportions.
Several methods are used to produce vehicle parts from thermo plastics. Selection of the
material is made from the final nature of the component, the volume required, apart from
cost-effectiveness and mechanical strength.
Components that need conventional paint finishing are generally made with thermosetting
resins, while thermoplastics are used to build parts that are moulded and can be pigmented.
Press moulded reinforced polyester possess the capability to produce large parts in
considerable volume with cost-effectiveness.
In manufacturing of automobile parts, glass and sisal fibers usually find the maximum use.
Sisal costs very less and this alone has prompted extensive research to come up with
applications in which sisal is the dominant reinforcing material in filled polyester resin, in
parts where specific mechanical properties are required and appearance is not very important.
Heater housings, which find uses for sisal, are produced by compression moulding. Since a
variety of glass fibers are available, it is used as reinforcement for a large range of parts of
different types. Rovings, non-woven mats are the commonly used low cost versions. Woven
cloth is applied in special cases, where particular properties are required as cloth is not known
to be amenable to large quantity production methods.
A reinforced-plastic composite is likely to cost more than sheet steel, when considered on
the basis of cost and performance. In such a case, other qualities must necessarily justify the
high expenditure. Mechanical properties of the parts, which affect the thickness and weight,
must offer enough savings to render them more effective than steel. It however shows a
higher machining waste than reinforced plastics.

REFERENCES
1.

Jartiz, A.E., Design 1965, p.18.

2.

Kelly, A. Sci. American 217, (B), (1967): p. 161.

3.

Berghezan,A.Nucleus,8(5),1966,(Nucleus A Editeur,1,rhe,Chalgrin,Paris, 16(e).

4.

Suchetclan Van, Philips Res. Repts. Volume 27, (1972): p. 28.

5.

Agarwal B.D. and Broutman L.J., Analysis and performance of fiber composites
John Wiley & Sons, New York, (1980): p. 3-12.

6.

Chand N., Rohatgi P.K., Natural fibers and their composites, Publishers, Periodical
Experts, Delhi, (1994).

7.

Chand N., Dwivedi U.K., Effect of coupling agent on high stress abrasive wear of
chopped jute/PP composites, Journal of Wear, Volume 261, (2006): p. 1057.

8.

Tong J., Ren L., Li J., Chen B., Abrasive wear behaviour of bamboo, Tribol. Int.,
volume 28, No. 5, (1995): p. 323-327.

9.

Jain S., Kumar R., Jindal U.C., Mechanical behaviour of bamboo and bamboo
composites. J. Mat. Sci., Volume 27, (1992): p. 4598-4604.

10.

Elsunni M. M., and Collier J. R. Processing of Sugar Cane Rind into Nonwoven
Fibers. Journal of American Society of Sugar Cane Technologists, Volume 16,
(1996): p. 94 110.

11.

Paturau J.M., By-Products of Sugar Cane Industry, 3rd Edition, Elsevier,

Amsterdam (1989).

12.

Mohanty A.K, Misra MDrzal LT 92001). Compos Interfaces, Vol 8: p.313.

13.

Rowell RM, Young RA, Rowell JK (1997) Paper and composites from agro-based
resources. CRC Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton RL.

14.

Alvarez VA, Ruscekaite RA, Vazquez A. Journal of Composite Material, Volume 37,
No.17, (2003): p.1575.

15.

Frederick TW, Norman W (2004) Natural fibers plastics and composites. Kluwer
Academic Publishers, New York.

16.

Dhingra A.K., metal replacement by composite, JOM, Volume 38, No. 03, (1986):
p. 17.

17.

Mehrabian R., Riek R.G. and Flemings M.C., Preparation and casting of MetalParticulate Non-Metal Composites, Metall Trans, Volume 5A, (1974): p. 1899
1905.

PLAN OF STUDY & LITERATURE SURVEY

On
TRIBOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Submitted By

DEEPAK KUMAR BEHERA

[Roll No: 214ME1283]
Under the Guidance of
Dr. Samir Kumar Acharya
Sp-Machine Design & Analysis

Mechanical Engineering Department

National Institute of Technology, Rourkela
Rourkela-769008

Table of Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Historical Backgrounds.
Why a composite.
Definition of Composite.
Properties of Composite material.
Classification of Composite.
Component of Composite material.
Types of Composite materials.
Application of composite.