1.

User demands and wireless technologies

The advance of wireless technologies from Second Generation (2G) is being driven by a
wide range of user demands.
For example, with voice communication, there is a demand for enhanced Quality of
Service (QoS) from wireless networks so that sound quality is clearer and any delays are
avoided. There is also demand for integrated wideband multimedia services such as email access and software downloading.
It was thought that 3G and 3.5G would meet these demands. However, this has not been
the case and it is now expected that a new set of technologies, 4G, will do this.
The International Telecommunication Union - Radiocommunication Standardization
Sector (ITU-R) predicts trends in the evolution of wireless technologies. It suggests that
existing radio access networks will continue to evolve as they have and that, with the
arrival of 4G, we will see a fusion of the existing elements of cellular systems with newly
developed ones.
It also expects nomadic wireless access systems to be more prevalent, allowing roaming
and more mobility in offices.
It also predicts that wireless systems will have more in common with each other and that
seamless internetworking will be the norm.
The main user requirements driving the development of current wireless systems are

global mobile access

higher QoS

increased access to multimedia services

ubiquity and diversity

global mobile access

Current users expect that 4G wireless services will be global, allowing enhanced terminal
and personal mobility throughout the world.
higher QoS
The quality of wireless communications is increasing all the time and, with 4G, users will
expect that the QoS for wireless services will be characterized by better coverage, more
intelligible sound, no drop, and lower call blocking and latency.
increased access to multimedia services

Current user needs for more complex wideband multimedia services and the continued
convergence of information technology (IT) and telecommunications mean that mobile
users of the future will want to be able to download software, access e-mail, upload files,
and talk on the phone, all from a single terminal.
ubiquity and diversity
Users demand both ubiquity and diversity from wireless communications. They need
phone networks to be ubiquitous so they can travel anywhere, at any time, and access the
network. However, they will also need the systems to be versatile in order to make
customized services based on diverse individual needs available.
These two demands are, in many ways, conflicting, so it's important for 4G systems to be
flexible so that they can meet them simultaneously.

Question
Which user needs are driving the development of 4G technologies?
Options:
1. Access to multimedia services
2. Global mobile access
3. Higher QoS
4. Ubiquity and homogeneity

Answer
Global mobile access, higher QoS, and access to multimedia services are the user
needs driving the development of 4G technologies.
Option 1 is correct. Current users expect easy and simple access to multimedia
services for voice, data, message, video, and the Web via a single user terminal.
Option 2 is correct. It is expected that 4G wireless services will be global, allowing
enhanced terminal and personal mobility throughout the world.
Option 3 is correct. Current wireless users expect a higher QoS from mobile
communications. They expect better coverage and more intelligible sound. They
also expect lower drop, call blocking, and latency, which is related to delay, data
rate, and bit error requirements.
Option 4 is incorrect. Although it's true that current users want mobile access to be
ubiquitous, this conflicts somewhat with a different demand - diversity. It's more
likely that mobile communications of the future will try and meet these two
demands so that technologies will tend towards diversity rather than homogeneity.

2. Shortcomings of 3G and 3.5G

Many of the things that current users of wireless technologies expect are not being met
by 3G and 3.5G technologies.
Some of the shortcomings of 3G and 3.5G include

the cost of deployment and upgrade

a lack in system integration and QoS

unsuitability for high-performance applications

an excess of standards

a network design that is too basic

bandwidth that is too narrow

incompatibility with new modulation schemes

the cost of deployment and upgrade

One of the main problems associated with 3G is that, even though it comprises advanced
wireless technologies that provide multimedia data services, comprehensive wireless
networks have yet to become widely available. This is because it's expensive to deploy
them or to upgrade existing system equipment.
a lack in system integration and QoS
System integration is a problem for 3G and 3.5G technologies. Disparate technologies still
exist, such as GPRS, CDMA2000, and WLAN, which need to be unified into a single
wireless access system. When 4G is fully implemented, it is expected that the Internet will
act as the core network for wireless networks.
Wireless network architecture will consist of a set of overlapping wireless Internet access
domains, such as WPAN, WLAN, WMAN, and WWAN, and a mobile host will have
multimode wireless interfaces to connect to different wireless networks. 3G is currently not
equipped in this way.
unsuitability for high-performance applications
User demands for full-motion video, wireless teleconferencing, and other multimedia
experiences require a high performance that 3G and 3.5G technologies are unable to
provide. 4G systems will provide a network technology that extends 3G capacity by an
order of magnitude.
an excess of standards

Because there are many different standards for 3G, it's difficult to roam and interoperate
across networks. To achieve global mobility and service portability, these need to be
unified.
a network design that is too basic
The 3G and 3.5G network is based primarily on a wide area concept and is too basic - 4G
requires hybrid networks that utilize both wireless LANs (WLANs) and cell or base station
Wide Area Network (WAN) design.
bandwidth that is too narrow
With users demanding more from their wireless technologies, data rates must increase.
However, there isn't enough bandwidth in 3G and 3.5G technologies to transfer large email attachments quickly, or to stream audio or video at broadcast quality.
incompatibility with new modulation schemes
In recent years, new modulation schemes for wireless technologies have been developed
that make more efficient use of the radio spectrum. Unfortunately, these can't be retrofitted
into the existing 3G or 3.5G infrastructure.
Another problem associated with 3G and 3.5G is that it has the wrong kind of network
architecture if you want to use the Internet as the core network.
Voice signals are carried on a circuit-switched infrastructure that 3G inherited from 2G, as
opposed to using the Internet Protocol (IP). And, although the 3G architecture is
centralized, it has a complex and expensive infrastructure and is strictly based on
hierarchical networks.

Question
3G and 3.5G technologies are unsuitable for meeting the needs of future highperformance applications.
Identify the elements that 4G will need that are currently not provided by 3G and
3.5G.
Options:
1. A centralized infrastructure
2. Global mobility
3. Hybrid networks

Answer
Global mobility and hybrid networks are two elements needed by 4G that are not
being provided by 3G.

Option 1 is incorrect. Although 3G architecture is actually centralized, it's not

centralized on the Internet, which is what 4G aims to be. Instead, 3G has an
expensive, circuit-switched infrastructure and is strictly based on hierarchical
networks.
Option 2 is correct. As of yet, 3G systems aren't global. It is expected that 4G
wireless services will be global, allowing enhanced terminal and personal mobility
throughout the world.
Option 3 is correct. 4G systems need to make use of hybrid networks that
combine cellular systems with WLAN technologies, which 3G systems currently
don't do.

3. 4G and the future

In the future, mobile IT will play a key role in wireless communications. Computers,
people, and cell phones will communicate with each other through networks. Different
communication relationships, such as person to person, machine to machine, and
machine to person, will exist.
This increase in complexity presents a number of challenges for 4G technologies.
The challenges for 4G are

understanding the importance of wireless data

developing new radio 4G technologies

diversifying mobile devices

providing open access to all Internet applications

increasing bandwidth

developing new wireless services

meeting a wide range of QoS requirements

understanding the importance of wireless data

3G has met the need for an enhanced capacity for narrowband voice data. 4G services will
be expected to meet the need to transfer data just as quickly. Mobile data rates of 100
Mbps are expected and these will be over IP rather than voice circuits.
developing new radio 4G technologies
New radio 4G technologies include Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks (MANETs), which are
adaptable wireless networks with no fixed infrastructure. Personal Area Networks (PANs)
will also be commonplace - these are short-range networks that allow devices in your

home to communicate with each other - for example, your PDA will be able to
communicate with your fridge.
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) will also emerge - these are networks of tiny devices
equipped with wireless communication. To achieve all this, IP will be used over every radio
link.
diversifying mobile devices
With the arrival of 4G, there will be many new devices that will be wireless transmitters and
receivers, including watches, pagers, and pocket PCs IP will be the standard on every
mobile device.
providing open access to all Internet applications
4G networks will allow open access to all IP applications, unlike 3G where Internet
applications are filtered or restricted by a service provider using Wireless Application
Protocol (WAP) or iMode.
increasing bandwidth
Because of the many emerging bandwidth-hungry applications, 4G systems will need to
provide more bandwidth than 3G.
developing new wireless services
New wireless services in 4G might include dynamic service creation and deployment and
programmable mobile networks.
meeting a wide range of QoS requirements
Various QoS requirements will need to be met, such as providing for real-time and non
real-time web data and microflows, continuous media, and bursty TCP data. All this will be
over IP and networks will be interconnected and have to deliver support to mixed media.

Question
What are some of the challenges facing 4G systems?
Options:
1. Meeting demands for increasingly complex communication relationships
2. Providing open access to Internet applications
3. To move away from a reliance on packet-switched technologies such as IP

Answer
Providing open access to Internet applications and meeting demands for
increasingly complex communication relationships are two of the challenges facing
4G.

Option 1 is correct. 4G will be characterized by an increased dependence on

mobile IT to account for more complex communication relationships. Computers,
people, and cell phones will communicate with each other through networks.
Different communication relationships, such as person to person, machine to
machine, and machine to person, will exist.
Option 2 is correct. 4G networks will allow open access to all IP applications, as
distinct from 3G where Internet applications are filtered or restricted by a service
provider using Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) or iMode.
Option 3 is incorrect. IP will actually play a core role in 4G wireless networks.

Question
Identify the true statements about the development of wireless technologies from
2G to 4G.
Options:
1. A circuit-switched infrastructure will be employed
2. Current wireless technologies will need to be unified into a single wireless
access system
3. New, more spectrally efficient modulation schemes for wireless technologies will
be developed and retrofitted into existing 3G or 3.5G infrastructures
4. Users expect comprehensive, global coverage with enhanced multimedia from a
single terminal
5. Various devices will act as wireless transmitters and receivers, and IP will be the
standard on all devices

Answer
4G will provide comprehensive, global coverage with enhanced multimedia from a
single terminal. Current wireless technologies, such as GPRS, CDMA2000, and
WLAN, will be unified into a single wireless access system. Watches, pagers, and
pocket PCs will act as wireless transmitters and receivers, and IP will be the
standard on all devices.
Option 1 is incorrect. The current 2G circuit-switched system that is employed by
3G is insufficient to meet user demands. The Internet will, instead, need to be
used as a core network, and IP will be the standard, rather than circuit-switching.
Option 2 is correct. It is expected that, by 4G, comprehensive system integration
will have occurred. Disparate technologies, such as GPRS, CDMA2000, and
WLAN, will be unified into a single wireless access system.

Option 3 is incorrect. More spectrally efficient modulation schemes have already

been developed. However, they are incompatible with 3G or 3.5G infrastructures
and will work instead with new 4G systems.
Option 4 is correct. It is expected that current user demands for an enhanced
multimedia experience from a single terminal as well as global availability of
wireless services will be met by 4G.
4G systems will make this possible using overlapping wireless Internet access
domains, such as WPAN, WLAN, WMAN, and WWAN, and mobile hosts will have
multimode wireless interfaces to connect to different wireless networks.
Option 5 is correct. It will be possible for any electronic device to act as a wireless
transmitter or receiver. Because IP will be the standard, communication will be
easy. New types of mini-networks, such as MANETs, PANs, and WSNs, will help
all these devices communicate at short range.

Summary
Users of wireless have various demands that need to be met by 4G technologies. For
example, there is a demand for enhanced Quality of Service (QoS) from wireless
networks so that sound quality is clearer and there's no delay. There is also a demand for
integrated wideband multimedia services, such as e-mail access and software
downloading. The ITU-R predicts that existing radio access networks will continue to
evolve as they have and that, by 4G, we will see a fusion of the existing elements of
cellular systems with newly developed ones.
3G and 3.5G systems are insufficient to meet the demands of wireless users. Their
shortcomings are the cost of deployment and upgrade, a lack in system integration and
QoS, unsuitability for high-performance applications, too many standards, too basic a
network design, too narrow a bandwidth, and incompatibility with new modulation
schemes.
In the future, mobile IT will play a key role in wireless communications and an increase in
complexity presents a number of challenges for 4G technologies. For 4G, data rates of
100 Mbps are expected. New radio 4G technologies, such as MANETs and PANs, will be
developed, as will new wireless devices, such as pocket PCs and watches that can
communicate with other devices. Open access to all Internet applications will be available
and there will be an increase in bandwidth. New wireless services will be developed and
4G will also focus on meeting a wide range of QoS requirement

1. Characteristics of 4G

4G technologies are designed to meet the needs of users who want to access
multimedia, make phone calls, and have the same level of service wherever they are
located.
The defining features of 4G networks are

high speed

high network capacity

fast and seamless handovers across multiple networks

next-generation multimedia support

high speed
On average, 4G systems will have a speed of 20 Mbps when traveling and 100 Mbps
when the user is stationary.
high network capacity
4G is expected to have a much higher capacity than 3G - at least ten times the capacity, in
fact. This means, for example, that a 10 Mb file, which takes 200 seconds to download
now, would take only one second on a 4G device. One use of this feature would be the
streaming of high-definition video on phone handsets.
fast and seamless handovers across multiple networks
With global roaming, quick and imperceptible handovers as a traveling user goes from one
wireless network to another will become the norm.
next-generation multimedia support
It will be possible for large volumes of multimedia data to be transmitted over 4G networks
at a low cost.
Although 4G's infrastructure is, as yet, not finalized, a consensus has been reached on
the technologies that will be used to implement it. In order to provide seamless transition
for cell phone users between different network types, for example, one possible setup
would provide mediation in an intermediate network called an overlay access network.
Operational parameters, such as frequency, channel information, and interface
technologies, would be set up in the overlay access network to be in harmony so that the
cell phone, once on the access network, doesn't have to concern itself with mediation
when changing between the different network types.
Another way of setting up the network architecture would be to have no intermediate
network, in which case the cell phone itself would need to do all mediation.

When a user changes from one network type to the other, the phone would negotiate the
handover and agree all the new operational parameters. This model would require
significant processing power on the part of the cell phone.

Question
Identify the defining characteristics of 4G services.
Options:
1. Ability to download a 10 Mb file in one second
2. A peak speed of more than 200 Mbps in stationary mode
3. Global roaming support across multiple mobile networks

Answer
Downloading a 10 Mb file in one second and global roaming support across
multiple mobile networks will be two of the features of 4G.
Option 1 is correct. 4G systems will have a much higher capacity than 3G. A 10
Mb file will typically take only one second to download on a 4G device.
Option 2 is incorrect. On average, 4G systems will have a speed of 20 Mbps when
traveling and 100 Mbps when the user is stationary.
Option 3 is correct. For global roaming, quick and imperceptible handovers as a
traveling user goes from one wireless network to another will become the norm.
One problem with high data rates is the interference that results from it, known as
intersymbol interference (ISI). 4G technologies aim to limit this and to use the available
bandwidth in a spectrally efficient manner. The technologies in contention to do this are

Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

CDMA is in common use and is well-known. It is a spread spectrum technology and uses a
code - as opposed to time divisions - to regulate the flow of packets of information in a
wireless connection.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
OFDM is a multi-carrier (MC) technique that will be used for WLANs and large city
networks. It cancels out distortion in a way that makes best use of the radio spectrum and
doesn't require multiple local oscillators.

4G systems will combine CDMA and OFDM and apply this combination, OFDM-CDMA, to
a wide-area environment. This will allow large throughputs per user.
Various types of OFDM and CDMA combinations have been proposed or are being put
into use to counteract interference. For example, MCDS-CDMA combines DS-CDMA and
OFDM. Other examples of combinations are MC-CDMA, MCDS-CDMA, TFL-CDMA, and
VSF-OFCDM.

Question
Identify the characteristics of OFDM.
Options:
1. It's a spread spectrum technology
2. It can be combined with DS-CDMA
3. It can cancel multipath distortion in a spectrally efficient manner

Answer
OFDM can cancel multipath distortion in a spectrally efficient manner and can be
combined with DS-CDMA.
Option 1 is incorrect. OFDM is a multi-carrier technique although it can be
combined with spread spectrum techniques, such as CDMA.
Option 2 is correct. OFDM can be combined with DS-CDMA - where MCDSCDMA is the result. Other combinations of OFDM and CDMA include OFDMCDMA, MC-CDMA, MCDS-CDMA, TFL-CDMA, and VSF-OFCDM.
Option 3 is correct. OFDM cancels out distortion in a way that makes best use of
the radio spectrum and doesn't require multiple local oscillators.

2. Adaptive modulation
Radio signals can take different paths to reach their destination and, as a result, phase
modulated radio signals have a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) that's sometimes very good
and other times very poor.
The current, fixed modulation scheme accepts the worst-case scenario for the bit error
rate (BER) that's required. Because of this, a poor SNR may be the end result despite the
fact that other, better signal rates are also occurring. This isn't a particularly efficient use
of the spectrum.

Although combining OFDM with CDMA allows 4G systems to be more spectrally efficient
than previous systems, this can be further enhanced by setting up the digital modulation
format so that it changes depending on the condition of the channel. This is known as
adaptive modulation. You would usually employ a modulation scheme like this in order to
maintain a particular BER.
For example, the modulation scheme order would be higher if channel conditions were
good, whereas it would be lower if conditions were poor.
The result is a higher data throughput in favorable conditions and a lower data throughput
in less favorable conditions - but the average throughput is higher than with present
schemes.
Different adaptive modulation schemes that are currently being developed adapt the
transmission power, data rate, coding schemes, or modulation schemes - or a
combination thereof - to maintain a constant BER and achieve a good SNR.
There are also other, alternative methods for performing adaptive modulation, depending
on the requirements. For example, one way of performing adaptive modulation is the
burst-by-burst Adaptive Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (AQAM) method. This method
is suitable when a fixed BER is not a priority, but a certain data throughput is. For
example, this may be useful for videoconferencing, in which case speech and video
information is transported.
Other techniques based on signaling, channel estimation, and channel coding have also
been proposed.
For an adaptive modulation scheme to work, you need to

estimate the channel quality

ensure that the receiver is aware of the parameters used

estimate the channel quality

An adaptive modulation scheme needs to be able to reliably predict the channel quality
during an upcoming timeslot in which data is transmitted. This is so that the correct
transmission parameters are employed for the transmission and that the appropriate
modulation scheme is used for the subcarriers.
ensure that the receiver is aware of the parameters used
The receiver of information needs to know what transmission parameters are being
employed by the sender of data packets. Some adaptive modulation schemes ensure this
by conveying the information within the packet itself - despite the fact that this may take up
valuable bandwidth. Other schemes estimate the parameters using blind detection
mechanisms.

Question

What does adaptive modulation offer for 4G?

Options:
1. It always varies the BER
2. It provides a higher data throughput in favorable conditions
3. It reduces throughput in worsening conditions
4. It varies the transmission parameters

Answer
Adaptive modulation provides a higher data throughput in favorable channel
conditions and a reduced throughput in less favorable conditions. It also varies the
transmission parameters.
Option 1 is incorrect. In most cases, adaptive modulation aims to achieve a fixed
BER. There are cases when having a fixed BER isn't a priority but in those cases,
a fixed data throughput is ensured instead.
Option 2 is correct. Adaptive modulation schemes ensure a higher data
throughput in favorable conditions instead of accepting the worst-case scenario for
the BER that's required.
Option 3 is correct. Adaptive modulation has reduced data throughput in less
favorable channel conditions. This is balanced by a higher throughput during more
favorable conditions.
Option 4 is correct. Adaptive modulation varies transmission power, data rate,
coding schemes, or modulation schemes - or a combination thereof - to maintain a
constant BER and achieve a good SNR.
Additional technologies that will be employed in 4G are

software-defined radios (SDRs)

smart antennas

open platform architectures

software-defined radios (SDRs)

SDRs are personal devices, such as cell phones, PDAs, or PCs, that use software to
perform wireless operations. For example, you can control, via software, modulation
techniques, wideband or narrowband operations, communication security, and waveforms.
Or your SDR may scan the wireless environment to find the cheapest or most convenient
method of transmitting data.

SDRs may also perform the operations presently performed by hardware, such as
generating a radio signal.
smart antennas
Smart antennas, such as multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) systems, respond
automatically to received signals according to a predefined algorithm. This means that the
antenna "focuses" on the signal and not the surrounding noise and interference. This
reduces the number of dropped calls, improves call quality, and keeps the communication
channel free of unnecessary data.
open platform architectures
Open platform architectures, such as Open Wireless Architecture (OWA), will provide a
common communication model whereby different standards, including TDMA, CDMA, and
OFDM, and technologies, such as cell phones, cordless phones, and WLANs, can be
combined and complement each other.
For the users, this means global access to wireless services and the resulting mobility that
this affords, as well as comprehensive access to multimedia, such as video, the Web, and
GPS, from a single terminal.

Question
Match each 4G technology with its description.
Options:
1. Open platform architectures
2. Smart antennas
3. Software-defined radios (SDRs)
Targets:
A.
Personal devices that perform wireless operations
B. Provide a common communication model whereby different standards and
technologies can combine and complement each other
C. Respond automatically to received signals according to a predefined algorithm

Answer
SDRs will be personal devices that perform wireless operations, smart antennas
will respond automatically to received signals according to a predefined algorithm,
and open platform architectures will provide a common communication model for
different standards and technologies.

Open platform architectures, such as Open Wireless Architecture (OWA), will

provide a common communication model whereby different standards, including
TDMA, CDMA, and OFDM, and technologies, such as cell phones, cordless
phones, and WLANs, can be combined and complement each other.
Smart antennas will respond automatically to received signals according to a
predefined algorithm thus reducing the number of dropped calls and improving call
quality.
SDRs will be devices, such as cell phones, PDAs, or PCs, that use software to
perform wireless operations.

Question
Identify the true statements about 4G technologies.
Options:
1. 4G systems will apply various combinations of OFDM and TDMA to a wide-area
environment
2. 4G systems will be faster and have a higher capacity for data and voice
3. In 4G, the mobile device itself will need to perform all mediation when a user
goes from one area to another
4. Transmission power, data rate, coding schemes, and modulation schemes will
fluctuate in one call
5. There will be devices that can scan the airwaves for the cheapest call and
antennas that ensure better call quality

Answer
4G systems will be faster and have a higher capacity for data and voice.
Transmission power, data rate, coding schemes, and modulation schemes will
fluctuate in one call. And devices will be able to scan the airwaves for the
cheapest call and smart antennas will ensure better call quality.
Option 1 is incorrect. 4G systems will combine CDMA, not TDMA, with OFDM and
apply this combination to a wide-area environment.
Option 2 is correct. 4G systems will have a speed of 20 Mbps when traveling, 100
Mbps when the user is stationary, and will have 10 times the capacity of current
systems.

Option 3 is incorrect. The architecture of 4G systems is not yet decided and,

although it may be the case that mobile devices will perform all the mediation, an
overlay access network may be set up to provide this instead.
Option 4 is correct. Adaptive modulation will be employed in 4G systems.
Depending on the scheme used, transmission power, data rate, coding schemes,
and modulation schemes - or a combination thereof - will be modified to ensure a
fixed BER and a good SNR.
Option 5 is correct. SDRs are devices, such as PDAs or cell phones, that use
software to scan the airwaves to find the cheapest call or the best connectivity.
Smart antennas will also be employed in 4G. These can adapt according to an
algorithm thus ensuring good quality calls and fewer calls being dropped.

Summary
The defining features of 4G networks are high speed, high network capacity, fast and
seamless handovers across multiple networks, and next-generation multimedia support.
4G's infrastructure is, as yet, not finalized. 4G technologies aim to limit intersymbol
interference (ISI) by combining CDMA with OFDM and applying this to a wide-area
environment.
Adaptive modulation schemes are currently being developed that adapt the transmission
power, data rate, coding schemes, or modulation schemes - or a combination thereof - to
maintain a constant BER and achieve a good SNR. The result is a higher data throughput
in favorable conditions and a lower data throughput in less favorable conditions.
Additional technologies that will be employed in 4G are software-defined radios (SDRs),
smart antennas, and open platform architectures.

1. From 1G to 4G
The progression of wireless technologies from 1G through 3G and beyond has been
characterized by a progression in services.
Each of these generations has its own set of applications and services:

1G

1G

2G

3G

Beyond IMT-2000 to 4G

The First Generation of wireless technologies were analog and their networks were circuit
switched. They provided basic voice telephony - they had a low capacity and were
unsuitable for multimedia. The coverage they provided was limited to regions that were
local to the user.
2G
The Second Generation of wireless technologies were digital but still used circuit-switched
networks. In addition to voice telephony, they provided basic data applications although the
data speed was low. Some efforts were made to provide packet-switched networks and
higher data rates, as well as transnational and global roaming.
3G
The Third Generation of wireless technologies were entirely digital. It was intended for 3G
to be entirely based on packet-switched networks, but this was not entirely realized - 3G
networks use both packet-switched and circuit-switched technologies.
They also provide some data and multimedia streaming, and data rates are higher than
2G. Global roaming and coverage are the norm with 3G.
Beyond IMT-2000 to 4G
It is the intention for technologies from IMT-2000 onwards namely, 4G - to be entirely
digital and based on packet-switched networks. They'll all be IP-based and provide a
variety of more advanced multimedia applications, which the user will be able to control
from a single terminal.
They will operate on a flexible platform that is usable by a number of access systems. Data
rates will be high and there will be an improved Quality of Service (QoS). Global coverage
and roaming will continue to be available.

Question
Match the features with the wireless technology that provides them.
Options:
1. First Generation
2. Second Generation
3. Third Generation
4. Fourth Generation
Targets:
A.
Analog and circuit switched
B. Digital, all packet switched, and IP based, with advanced multimedia

C. Digital, both packet and circuit switched, with some multimedia

D. Digital, circuit switched, with low data rates

Answer
First Generation technologies are analog and circuit switched. Second Generation
technologies are digital and circuit switched, with low data rates. Third Generation
technologies are digital, both packet and circuit switched, with some multimedia.
And Fourth Generation technologies will be digital, all packet switched, and IP
based, with advanced multimedia.
1G technologies were analog and their networks were circuit switched. They
provided basic voice telephony - they had a low capacity and were unsuitable for
multimedia.
2G technologies were digital but they still used circuit-switched networks. In
addition to voice telephony, they provided basic data applications although the
data speed was low.
3G technologies are entirely digital and 3G networks use both packet-switched
and circuit-switched technologies. They also provide some data and multimedia
streaming.
4G will be entirely digital and based on packet-switched networks. They'll all be IP
based and provide a variety of more advanced multimedia applications, which the
user will be able to control from a single terminal.
4G technologies will be centered on the user, providing users with more intuitive control
over applications, services, and devices.
It will be possible to personalize 4G services and applications given that they will be more
adaptive. Their availability will be ubiquitous.
One of the main aims of 4G is to provide a high QoS and seamless handovers to users,
groups of users, communities, and devices, regardless of where they are or what network
they're in.
Another aim is to allow users, application developers, service and content providers, and
manufacturers to create their own services based on the 4G architecture.

Question
What features will 4G applications provide to facilitate the user?
Options:

1. Adaptive services
2. Intuitive applications
3. Seamless handovers between circuit-switched networks
4. Ubiquitous personalized applications and services

Answer
Adaptive services, intuitive applications, and ubiquitous personalized applications
and services will all be features of 4G applications and services that facilitate the
user.
Option 1 is correct. 4G services and applications will be more adaptive, so it will
be possible for the user to personalize them and for developers, manufacturers,
and content providers to create their own services.
Option 2 is correct. 4G will provide users with more intuitive control over
applications, services, and devices.
Option 3 is incorrect. Although seamless handovers will be a feature of 4G
systems, this will not be over circuit-switched networks, but over packet-switched
networks.
Option 4 is correct. It will be possible to personalize 4G services and applications,
and their availability will be ubiquitous.

2. The 4G infrastructure
The architecture that 4G technologies will use will integrate different technologies in order
to provide the breadth of adaptable services to users.
4G architecture will be layered to support global roaming across multiple wireless and
mobile networks - for example, from a cellular network to a satellite-based network to a
high-bandwidth wireless LAN.
The 4G architecture will be centered on an IP core and will have the following hierarchy of
layers:

Global layer

Regional layer

National layer

Local Area layer

Personal Network layer

Global layer
The Global layer will employ a global QoS scheme and will encompass existing and
emerging satellite networks and technologies, such as Satellite Code Division Multiple
Access (SAT-CDMA) and Satellite Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (SW-CDMA).
Regional layer
The Regional layer will consist of regional broadcast networks and will utilize technology
such as Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) and Digital Video Broadcasting - Terrestrial
(DVB-T).
National layer
The National layer will overlap somewhat with the Regional layer and will encompass 2G
and 3G cellular networks.
Local Area layer
The Local Area layer will consist of wireless LANs and will utilize "hot spot" technologies.
Personal Network layer
The Personal Network layer will consist of small, Personal Area Networks (PANs) and will
be mainly concerned with short-range communication over individual links.

Question
Match the 4G architecture layers with their associated technology.
Options:
1. Global layer
2. Local Area layer
3. National layer
4. Personal Network layer
5. Regional layer
Targets:
A.
2G and 3G cellular networks
B. DAB and DVB-T technologies
C. PANs
D. Satellite networks
E. WLANs

Answer
The Global layer will include satellite technology, the Regional layer will use DAB
and DVB-T technologies, and the National layer will encompass the 2G and 3G
cellular networks. The Local Area layer will include WLANs and the Personal
Network layer will contain PANs.
The Global layer will employ a global QoS scheme and will encompass existing
and emerging satellite networks and technologies, such as SAT-CDMA and SWCDMA.
The Local Area layer will encompass WLANs and utilize "hot spot" technologies.
The National layer will encompass 2G and 3G cellular networks.
The Personal Network layer will contain PANs and will be mainly concerned with
short-range communication over individual links.
The Regional layer will use broadcast technologies, such as DAB and DVB-T.
To support better user mobility on a variety of mobile terminals, without compromising
QoS, a number of different technologies need to be integrated, including WPAN, WLAN,
MANET, 2G, 2.5G, 3G, satellite, DAB, and DVB-T.
A number of research projects are currently taking place throughout the world in an effort
to integrate different wireless technologies effectively as part of the 4G architecture.
These include

ETSI BRAN/3GPP

WINE GLASS

MOBY DICK

SUITED

BRAIN and MIND

ETSI BRAN/3GPP
The ETSI/BRAN project seeks to integrate Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
(UMTS) and HIPERLAN/2 (H/2) technologies.
One strand of the research, focused on loose coupling, provides centralized authentication
and signaling to the user but doesn't provide seamless handover. The other strand,
focused on tight coupling of the standards, allows for seamless internetworking although it
makes signaling more complex.

WINE GLASS
The Wireless IP Network as a Generic Platform for Location Aware Service Support (WINE
GLASS) project uses enhanced IP-based techniques to incorporate WLAN and UMTS in a
wireless IPv6 architecture.
MOBY DICK
The Mobility and Differentiated Services in a Future IP Network (MOBY DICK) project
seeks to find out if the IPv6 architecture will adequately replace the existing connectionoriented mobile networks. It tests mobility on a heterogeneous network that supports QoS
as well as authentication, authorization, and accounting.
SUITED
The Multi-Segment System for Broadband Ubiquitous Access to Internet Services and
Demonstrator (SUITED) project is creating an integrated system - the Global Mobile
Broadband System (GMBS). This contains UMTS, GPRS, and WLAN components, and is
IP based. It consists of a multisegment infrastructure.
BRAIN and MIND
The Broadband Radio Access for IP-based Networks and Mobile IP-based Network
Developments (BRAIN and MIND) projects aim to provide customized broadband
multimedia to users by utilizing different wireless technologies, such as PANs, ad hoc
networks, GPRS, UMTS, and WLAN.
Some additional research projects on integrating wireless technologies in a 4G
architecture include

TRUST and SCOUT

MOBIVAS

FLOWS

FuTURE

TRUST and SCOUT

The Transparently Re-configurable Ubiquitous Terminal (TRUST) and Smart User-centric
Communication environment (SCOUT) projects address integration by utilizing
reconfigurable wireless access networks and tight coupling. This provides seamless
internetworking, improved QoS, and better mobility, although high levels of signaling are
necessary.
MOBIVAS
The Mobile Value-Added Services (MOBIVAS) project provides a middleware platform that
resides on an IP backbone outside an access network, such as a GPRS or UMTS network.
Value-added services are provided to the user for example, personalized downloadable
applications and user profile management.

FLOWS
The Flexible Convergence of Wireless Standards and Services (FLOWS) project uses an
IP-based network on which a number of wireless access points are deployed, using GSM,
UMTS, or H/2. It focuses on the business needs of users and uses a variety of standards.
It generally focuses more on terminal and radio access systems, rather than plan for an
integrated global system.
FuTURE
The Future Technology for Universal Radio Environment (FuTURE) project is taking place
in China and is investigating various physical layer technologies, such as WLAN, ad hoc
networks, MIMO, and RF. It has proposed a number of possible handover methods and
access schemes for example, Large Area Synchronized CDMA (LAS-CDMA), developed
by FuTURE, has been accepted by 3GPP2 as a candidate for their B3G air interface
standard.
There are a number of requirements that must be met at the network, terminal, user, and
service level before a truly integrated 4G architecture can be achieved.
At the network level, mobility and security need to be managed in a uniform way. When a
user is roaming between physical areas, they will need sessions to continue without
disturbance. End-to-end QoS and authentication, authorization, and accounting (AAA)
systems in different networks also need to be able to cooperate and exchange
information.
Routing is another issue that needs to be considered because ad hoc networks, mobile
wireless, and wired networks all have different requirements.
For terminals, support for a number of different communication modes will be necessary,
and terminals will also need to be adaptable and reconfigurable. Terminals will need to be
always best connected (ABC). A user connected to applications with an ABC-enabled
terminal should be able to roam between wireless networks without losing data or having
to restart the application.
There will also be some requirements for users. For example, user profiles with individual
users' preferences will need to be managed. Users will need to each have a unique
identifier that is independent of the terminal, location, or network that the user is usually
in.
With 4G, services will need to be flexible and fast. Service advertisement, continuity, and
adaptability are all issues that need to be considered as well. For example, services will
need to adapt to limitations of certain networks and terminals. Service deployment and
delivery will also need to be managed so that the diversity of infrastructures is not a
problem.

Security and privacy need to be considered for every layer of a 4G system. One proposed
method is for users to authenticate themselves using smart cards that contain credit card
details. Terminals would contain a public key encryption system.
Another proposed security measure is the provision of end-to-end security services for
user applications. Robust and flexible encryption methods would be used to secure
communication, as well as stored data and removable memory.

Question
Identify the correct description of the FuTURE project.
Options:
1. It allows centralized authentication and signaling information related to a user
2. It focuses on the physical layer architecture of future wireless systems
3. Its framework consists of an integrated system known as the Global Mobile
Broadband System (GMBS)
4. It takes advantage of the reconfigurability of wireless access networks to provide
a high level of integration
5. It will establish whether IPv6 is a suitable replacement for connection-oriented
mobile networks

Answer
The FuTURE project focuses on the physical layer architecture of future wireless
systems.
Option 1 is incorrect. One strand of the ETSI/BRAN project allows centralized
authentication and signaling information related to a user.
Option 2 is correct. The FuTURE project focuses on the physical layer architecture
of future wireless systems.
Option 3 is incorrect. The SUITED project's framework consists of an integrated
system known as the Global Mobile Broadband System (GMBS).
Option 4 is incorrect. The TRUST project uses the reconfigurability of wireless
access networks to provide a high level of integration.
Option 5 is incorrect. The MOBY DICK project will establish whether IPv6 is a
suitable replacement for connection-oriented mobile networks.

Summary
From 1G through 4G, each generation of wireless technologies has its own set of
applications and services. 1G technologies are analog and circuit switched and 2G
technologies are digital and circuit switched, with low data rates. 3G technologies are
digital and packet and circuit switched, with some multimedia, and 4G technologies will
be digital, all packet switched, and IP based, with advanced multimedia. 4G applications
will facilitate the user by providing adaptive services, intuitive applications, and ubiquitous
personalized applications and services.
The 4G architecture will be centered on an IP core and will have a hierarchy of layers a
Global layer, a Regional layer, a National layer, a Local Area layer, and a Personal
Network layer. A number of research projects are currently taking place in an effort to
integrate wireless technologies effectively in a 4G architecture, such as ETSI/BRAN,
WINE GLASS, and FuTURE. However, there are a number of requirements that must be
met at the network, terminal, user, and service level before a truly integrated 4G
architecture can be achieved.

Recognizing the properties of 4G

Learning objective

After completing this topic, you should be able to recognize the properties and technologies of
4G.

Exercise overview
In this exercise, you're required to analyze the issues associated with changing from 3G to 4G
wireless technology.
This involves the following tasks:

identifying the benefits of changing to 4G technology

identifying 4G technologies

You work as a consultant in the area of wireless service provision.

You are currently working with a client who is considering whether to roll out 3G or 3.5G services
in their network now or wait until 4G services become available in the future.

Task 1: Identifying the benefits of changing to 4G

First you need to advise your client about some potential shortcomings of 3G and 3.5G
technologies.

Step 1 of 2
Which aspect of 3G makes it difficult to roam and interoperate across networks?
Options:
1. 3G has an unsuitable service architecture
2. 3G has multiple standards
3. 3G is based primarily on a WLAN concept
4. 3G is not backward compatible with earlier technologies

Result
Because there are many different standards for 3G, it's difficult to roam and interoperate across
networks.
Option 1 is incorrect. Global roaming and coverage are possible within the 3G service architecture.
Option 2 is correct. Because there are many different standards for 3G, it's difficult to roam and
interoperate across networks. To achieve global mobility and service portability, these need to be
unified.
Option 3 is incorrect. 3G uses different air interface standards such as CDMA2000 and WCDMA.
However, the 3G specification does not include WLAN.
Option 4 is incorrect. 3G has, in fact, many things in common with earlier technologies, such as 2G,
and uses many of the same networks as 2G so global roaming that was available with 2G is still
possible with 3G.

Step 2 of 2
Which properties characterize 4G?
Options:
1. Circuit-switched technology
2. Consistent Quality of Service (QoS)
3. Limited global coverage
4. Multiple access technologies

Result
Consistent Quality of Service (QoS) and multiple access technologies will be characteristic
properties of 4G.
Option 1 is incorrect. 4G will use a packet-switched, not a circuit-switched system.
Option 2 is correct. One of the aims of 4G development is to provide consistent QoS, as well as
more multimedia, seamless handovers, and higher data rates.
Option 3 is incorrect. With 4G, global coverage will be comprehensive and global roaming will be
possible.
Option 4 is correct. Current 4G research is focusing on new multiple access technologies that will
enhance the overall bandwidth efficiency and fit the all-IP wireless applications. For example, 4G
systems will combine current CDMA and OFDM technologies and apply this combination, OFDMCDMA, to a wide-area environment.

Task 2: Identifying 4G technologies

Having identified some of the reasons for changing to 4G, you now need to identify some of
4G's technologies.

Step 1 of 4
What are the principle contending multiple access technologies in 4G?
Options:
1. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
2. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
3. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
4. Plain Old Telephone Systems (POTS)

Result
The contending multiple access technologies in 4G are CDMA and OFDM.
Option 1 is correct. CDMA is in common use, is well known, and is one of the contending
technologies for 4G. There are different types of CDMA such as DS-CDMA and MC-CDMA.
Option 2 is incorrect. FDMA is an analog system. It is expected that 4G will be entirely digital so it's
not likely that FDMA will be used.

Option 3 is correct. OFDM is a multi-carrier (MC) technique that will be used for WLANs and large
city networks. With 4G, it will be combined with CDMA to create a new technology, OFDM-CDMA.
Option 4 is incorrect. POTS is the original analog telephone system that uses telephone wires. It will
not be part of 4G systems.

Step 2 of 4
Your client has identified smart antennas as a possible 4G technology to invest in and has asked
you about the benefits of this technology.
Identify the features of smart antennas.
Options:
1. They may use multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) technology
2. They reduce the number of dropped calls and improve call quality
3. They respond automatically to received signals according to a predefined algorithm
4. They scan the wireless environment to find the cheapest or most convenient method of
transmitting data

Result
Smart antennas respond automatically to received signals according to a predefined algorithm. They
may use MIMO technology and they reduce the number of dropped calls and improve call quality.
Option 1 is correct. Many smart antennas use MIMO technology. Spectral efficiency is increased
through the use of multiple antenna arrays at both the transmitter and receiver.
Option 2 is correct. Smart antennas reduce the number of dropped calls and improve call quality by
keeping the communication channel free of unnecessary data.
Option 3 is correct. Smart antennas respond automatically to received signals according to a
predefined algorithm. They "focus" on the signal and not the surrounding noise and interference.
Option 4 is incorrect. Many personal devices, such as PDAs, PCs, and cell phones, will scan the
wireless 4G environment to find the cheapest or most convenient method of transmitting data.
Collectively, these are known as software-defined radios (SDRs). Smart antennas, however, will
enable SDRs to operate more efficiently in a changing network environment.

Step 3 of 4
One of the technologies you have identified as important to 4G is adaptive modulation.
How does adaptive modulation improve transmission rates?

Options:
1. By accepting the worst case scenario for the BER that's required
2. By adapting the transmission scheme to the current channel characteristics
3. By providing a constant BER, even when the SNR varies
4. By providing a higher data throughput when the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) on a channel is low

Result
Adaptive modulation improves transmission rates by adapting the transmission scheme to the
current channel characteristics thereby providing a constant BER, even when the SNR varies.
Option 1 is incorrect. Adaptive modulation doesn't accept the worst case scenario. In standard
modulation schemes, the BER is maintained at an acceptable level by assuming the channel
conditions are bad. Throughput is low in order to maintain the BER at an appropriate level.
In adaptive modulation, throughput is increased during good conditions while still maintaing the BER
thereby increasing spectral efficiency.
Option 2 is correct. Adaptive modulation automatically changes the transmission rates depending on
the conditions of the channel carrying the signal. For example, when the SNR is high, the
transmission rate is increased.
Option 3 is correct. The SNR on most radio channels varies constantly. Current modulation
schemes simply use the lowest SNR in order to get a constant BER. Adaptive modulation, on the
other hand, still achieves a constant BER by adapting the transmission rate to the SNR on the
channel at any one time.
Option 4 is incorrect. If the SNR is low, this means that a high data throughput is impossible. An
adaptive modulation scheme would accept a low data throughput in this instance and then increase
the transmission rate when conditions are more favorable - on average, the throughput would level
off.

Step 4 of 4
Finally, you brief your client on some of the current research being carried out on 4G technologies.
Match the research projects with their descriptions.
Options:
1. BRAIN and MIND
2. ETSI BRAN/3GPP
3. TRUST and SCOUT

4. WINE GLASS
Targets:
A.

Incorporates WLAN and UMTS in a wireless IPv6 architecture

B. Integrates UMTS and H/2 technologies
C. Provides customized broadband multimedia to users by utilizing different wireless technologies
D. Uses reconfigurable wireless access networks and tight coupling

Result
ETSI BRAN/3GPP integrates UMTS and H/2 technologies and BRAIN and MIND provide
customized broadband multimedia to users by utilizing different wireless technologies. WINE
GLASS incorporates WLAN and UMTS in a wireless IPv6 architecture and TRUST and SCOUT use
reconfigurable wireless access networks and tight coupling.
The BRAIN and MIND projects aim to provide customized broadband multimedia to users by
utilizing different wireless technologies such as PANs, ad hoc networks, GPRS, UMTS, and WLAN.
The ETSI BRAN/3GPP project seeks to integrate UMTS and H/2 technologies. It has two strands one is focused on a loose coupling and the other on a tight coupling of the standards.
The TRUST and SCOUT projects address integration by utilizing reconfigurable wireless access
networks and tight coupling thereby providing seamless internetworking, improved QoS, and better
mobility.
The WINE GLASS project uses enhanced IP-based techniques to incorporate WLAN and UMTS in
a wireless IPv6 architecture.

OFDM and 4G
Learning objective

After completing this topic, you should be able to recognize the role of OFDM in 4G
communication.

1. Characteristics of OFDM
OFDM is a special form of Multi-Carrier Modulation (MCM) that uses a parallel bit stream with
densely spaced subcarriers and overlapping spectra.
It is used in the proprietary enhanced 3G technology, FLASH-OFDM, as well as in the 4G
technology, MC-CDMA.

It makes efficient use of the spectrum by keeping the subcarriers orthogonal to one another.
Each subcarrier is small enough in bandwidth to experience frequency flat fading.
OFDM is currently used a little in 3G - for example, European radio and television standards,
such as DAB and DVB-T, use it, as do xDSL systems. It is expected to be used widely in 4G
wireless systems.
The design of the transmitter in an OFDM system assists in creating orthogonal subcarriers. It
consists of the following parts:

S/P converter

Modulators

S/P converter
A signal, with a bandwidth of B passes through a serial-to-parallel (S/P) converter, which reduces
the rate by a certain factor, N.
Modulators
After the signal has passed through the S/P converter, the resulting bit streams are then passed
through a modulator to individual carriers and summed together.
If a carrier's separation is greater than the bandwidth of each of its subcarriers, 2B/N, then the
subcarriers don't overlap and the bandwidth will be 2B - twice as wide as the original signal. This
is regular Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM).
If the carriers are separated by multiples of 1/NT, where T is the period of the signal, however,
the subcarriers overlap and the bandwidth of the original signal, B, can be used.
And, because the subcarriers overlap, each one is transmitted orthogonally to each of its
adjacent subcarriers, so the receiver can distinguish each one.
OFDM transmitters will conform to the Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) transmitter design,
which contains a guard interval that stops intersymbol interference (ISI).
The receiver must contain a guard remover.

Question
Identify the true statements about OFDM.
Options:
1. It's a type of Multi-Carrier Modulation
2. It's exclusive to 4G
3. Subcarriers are kept parallel to each other

4. It's the transmission method of choice for European radio and TV

Answer
OFDM is a type of Multi-Carrier Modulation and is the transmission method of choice for European
radio and TV.
Option 1 is correct. OFDM is a special form of MCM that uses a parallel bit stream with densely
spaced subcarriers and overlapping spectra.
Option 2 is incorrect. OFDM is used in some 3G systems. For example, it's used in xDSL systems. It
is also used in the proprietary enhanced 3G technology FLASH-OFDM.
Option 3 is incorrect. The subcarriers are kept orthogonal to one another. This means they can
overlap without making them indistinguishable at the receiver end.
Option 4 is correct. As well as being used in xDSL, OFDM is used in European radio and television
wireless systems, such as DAB and DVB-T.

Question
How is the spectrum technique of OFDM different from regular FDM?
Options:
1. The carriers are separated by multiples of 2/NT, where N is the factor by which the incoming
signal is reduced and T is the period of the signal
2. The signal has non-overlapping subcarriers
3. The subcarriers are orthogonal to each other

Answer
The spectrum technique of OFDM differs from regular FDM in that the subcarriers are orthogonal to
each other.
Option 1 is incorrect. If the carriers were separated by 2/NT, this would be regular FDM because
there would be enough bandwidth for the subcarriers to be side by side without overlapping. With
OFDM, the subcarriers are separated by 1/NT.
Option 2 is incorrect. The signal may have overlapping subcarriers, but this doesn't pose a problem
because the subcarriers are orthogonal to each other.
Option 3 is correct. With OFDM, you make each subcarrier orthogonal to each of its adjacent ones.
This allows you to fit more information into a narrow bandwidth.

2. OFCDM and VSF-OFCDM

Multi-Carrier CDMA is a 4G technology that combines OFDM and CDMA. Orthogonal Frequency
and Code Division Multiplexing (OFCDM) is based on Multi-Carrier CDMA.
With OFCDM, spreading and channel coding is applied in the frequency domain over parallel
subcarriers. OFCDM makes full use of the frequency diversity effect - in other words, it makes
flexible use of frequency, time, and code resources.
A low symbol rate mitigates the impact of multipath interference (MPI).
OFCDM allows a broad-bandwidth, large-capacity wireless system that has better performance
than DS-CDMA, the most popular 3G standard.
By combining OFCDM with Variable Spreading Factor (VSF) packet wireless access, you get
VSF-OFCDM.
VSF-OFCDM changes the Spreading Factor (SF) depending on the cell structure, channel load,
and radio link conditions. In short, it adapts depending on the environment.
It allows for a higher capacity, regardless of whether you have, say, a multi-cell or an isolated
cell system - the SF is modified appropriately and the maximum radio link capacity is still
achieved.

Note
If the SF is equal to a value of 1, OFCDM is equivalent to regular OFDM. So VSF-OFCDM
accommodates both.
VSF-OFCDM can adapt to the following environments that use the same air interface:

Multi-cell

Isolated cell

Multi-cell
In a multi-cell environment, such as a cellular system, the SF is the product of the spread in
frequency and the spread in time - as such, it is a two-dimensional spread.
The spread that occurs is based on the propagation conditions, such as delay spread, mobility of
user equipment, and interference from other cells. The SF is greater than 1 in order to achieve
frequency reuse and a higher capacity.
Isolated cell

In an isolated cell environment, such as a hot spot area or an indoor office, the SF is, again, two
dimensional, and is also based on propagation conditions. But the SF is reduced to 1 - regular
OFDM - because OFDM will experience no intercode interference.

Question
Identify the true statements about OFCDM.
Options:
1. It's robust against multipath interference (MPI)
2. It makes flexible use of frequency, time, and code resources
3. When the SF is less than one, OFCDM and OFDM are the same thing
4. It's based on MC-CDMA

Answer
OFCDM is robust against MPI, it makes flexible use of frequency, time, and code resources, and it's
based on MC-CDMA.
Option 1 is correct. Because it employs a low symbol rate, this mitigates the effects of MPI.
Option 2 is correct. With OFCDM, spreading and channel coding is applied in the frequency domain
over parallel subcarriers. OFCDM makes full use of the frequency diversity effect - in other words, it
makes flexible use of frequency, time, and code resources.
Option 3 is incorrect. If you vary the SF, it must be exactly 1 for OFCDM to be equivalent to OFDM.
Option 4 is correct. MC-CDMA is a 4G technology that combines OFDM and CDMA, and OFCDM is
based on MC-CDMA.

Question
What does VSF-OFCDM adaptively change in OFCDM, depending on the conditions?
Options:
1. The frequency diversity effect
2. The multipath interference (MPI)
3. The radio link conditions
4. The SF

Answer

VSF-OFCDM adaptively changes the SF in OFCDM, depending on the conditions.

Option 1 is incorrect. Although VSF-OFCDM makes full use of the frequency diversity effect, it can't
adaptively change it.
Option 2 is incorrect. VSF-OFCDM lowers the symbol rate and mitigates the effect of MPI, but it
can't actually adaptively change it.
Option 3 is incorrect. VSF-OFCDM adapts according to the propagation conditions, such as delay
spread, mobility of User Equipment (UE), and interference from other cells. However, it can't change
any of these conditions.
Option 4 is correct. VSF-OFCDM varies the SF according to the current propagation conditions, cell
structure, and channel load.

Summary
OFDM is a special form of MCM that uses a parallel bit stream with densely spaced subcarriers
and overlapping spectra. It has been used a little in 3G but is expected to be key to 4G. The
design of the transmitter in an OFDM system assists in creating orthogonal subcarriers and
consists of an S/P converter and modulators. With regular Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM), in which the subcarriers are placed side by side, the result is a bandwidth that's twice
that of the original signal. However, with OFDM, the subcarriers overlap and are orthogonal to
each other. This means the same bandwidth is used and the subcarrier data is distinguishable at
the receiver end.
Orthogonal Frequency and Code Division Multiplexing (OFCDM) is based on MC-CDMA. It
makes flexible use of frequency, time, and code resources, and uses a low symbol rate that
mitigates the impact of multipath interference (MPI). VSF-OFCDM changes the Spreading
Factor (SF) depending on the cell structure, channel load, and radio link conditions. VSFOFCDM can adapt to multi-cell or isolated cell environments that use the same air interface.

1. Benefits of smart antennas

A radio antenna is a transponding device that can convert electromagnetic signals
transmitted through space into a physical medium, such as copper wires, coaxial cables,
or waveguides.
Traditional antennas were omnidirectional and radiated signals of equal strength in all
directions. Each user only received a small percentage of the signal energy sent out by
the antenna and there was no preferential gain.
Directional antennas evolved from omnidirectional antennas. They only transmit and
receive signals from a particular direction.

Sectorized and diversity antenna systems use multiple individual antennas and divide the
area they cover into multiple sectors and cells. They were developed to reduce signal
interference and enable greater reuse of radio frequencies.
A smart antenna system uses multiple antenna elements combined with signal
processing functions to optimize its radiation and reception pattern automatically in
response to the signal environment.
Smart antenna systems can improve link quality by negating the effects of multipath
propagation or making efficient use of different paths. They increase mobile network
capacity by reducing interference and allowing transmission of different data streams
from different antennas.
Until recently, the high cost of production prevented the widespread use of smart antenna
systems in commercial networks. However, the arrival of low-cost Digital Signal
Processors (DSPs) and other signal processing technology has made it possible to
develop low-cost smart antennas for cellular communications systems.
There are a number of specific advantages associated with using smart antenna systems:

increased range and coverage

lower power requirements and cost reduction

improved link quality and reliability

increased spectral efficiency

increased range and coverage

Mobile receivers, such as cell phones, have increased range and network coverage due to
the beamforming gain, which is also known as the array gain. This gain is the average
increase in signal power at the receiver caused by a coherent combination of the signals
received by all antenna elements.
It is proportional to the number of elements that receive the signal. It also accommodates
mobile stations with lower battery lifetimes.
lower power requirements and cost reduction
Smart antennas can optimize transmission to a specific network user. This is known as
transmit beamforming gain and it reduces power consumption of the devices and
amplification costs.
improved link quality and reliability
Smart antennas transmit independent replicas of a signal through fading signal
components. This is called diversity gain and improves the quality and reliability of a link.
Smart antennas support different types of diversity, including temporal, frequency, code,

and spatial.
Transmit antennas support diversity gain using special modulation and coding schemes.
Receive diversity relies on the combination of independently fading signal replicas.
increased spectral efficiency
Smart antennas increase the spectral efficiency of a network by enabling precise control of
the transmitted and received power and exploiting the knowledge of the training sequence,
or other properties, of the received signal. This reduces interference and supports larger
numbers of network users sharing the same resources.
Increased data transfer rates can be achieved from the spatial multiplexing gain, which is
associated with multiple data streams that are transmitted simultaneously.
Previously, smart antenna systems focused on maximizing only one of the gains. More
recently, smart antenna strategies can exploit three of the gains - beamforming, diversity,
and multiplexing - by using a trade-off approach.

Question
What are the results of using smart antennas in 4G mobile communication
systems?
Options:
1. Better link quality and reliability
2. Increased range and network coverage
3. Reduced costs and power consumption
4. Sharing resources among fewer users

Answer
Smart antennas will benefit 4G mobile networks by providing better link quality and
reliability, increased range and network coverage, and reduced costs and power
consumption.
Option 1 is correct. By transmitting independent replicas of a signal to the
receiving devices, smart antennas produce a diversity gain for the receiving
devices. This gain improves the quality and reliability of each mobile link.
Option 2 is correct. Beamforming gain, which is also known as array gain,
increases the range and coverage provided to cell phones. The gain is generated
by a coherent combination of the signals received by all antenna elements. Mobile
stations with lower battery lifetimes can also be accommodated due to this gain.

Option 3 is correct. Smart antennas can optimize data transmission to particular

network users. This is called transmit beamforming gain and it reduces the power
consumption of devices and the costs associated with amplifying digital signals.
Option 4 is incorrect. The increased spectral efficiency provided by smart
antennas reduces the interference experienced by mobile users and also supports
larger numbers of network users sharing the same resources.
There are a number of different types of smart antenna systems consisting of multiple
antenna elements. Their configuration depends on whether the signal processing
involved is carried out at the transmitter, receiver, or both ends of the path. These types
include

multiple-input, single-output (MISO)

single-input, multiple-output (SIMO)

multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO)

multiple-input, single-output (MISO)

A smart antenna system that has an antenna array at the transmitter and a single antenna
at the receiver is called an MISO system.
single-input, multiple-output (SIMO)
A smart antenna system that has a single antenna at the transmitter and an antenna array
at the receiver is called an SIMO system.
multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO)
A smart antenna system that has an antenna array at both the transmitter and the receiver
is called an MIMO system.
MIMO systems are considered to be a likely candidate for 4G communication systems.
One major reason for this is their bandwidth efficiency. Bandwidth efficiency enables
systems to meet the increasing demand for mobile services and minimize the effects of
bandwidth saturation.
MIMO systems also enable data transfer rates that are 10 to 20 times higher than existing
wireless systems based on other technologies. Applications such as videophone services
require transfer rates of this magnitude.

Question
What are the features that are associated with using MIMO systems for 4G
networks?
Options:

1. Better bandwidth efficiency

2. Higher data transfer rates
3. Use of a single omnidirectional antenna

Answer
MIMO smart antennas provide better bandwidth efficiency and higher data transfer
rates.
Option 1 is correct. MIMO systems provide a better bandwidth efficiency than
SIMO or MISO systems. This is a crucial factor in a situation where the demand
for services is increasing and the available bandwidth is becoming saturated.
Option 2 is correct. MIMO systems support data transfer rates that are 10 to 20
times higher than other available systems. This enables the provision of real-time
applications such as a videophone service.
Option 3 is incorrect. MIMO systems involve using multiple antennas in
conjunction with signal processing technology. An omnidirectional antenna
broadcasts signals of equal strength in all directions.

2. Smart antenna and receiver architecture

Smart antenna systems that have MIMO transmission encode each block of data and
modulate it to symbols of a complex constellation.
Each transmit antenna has space-time weighting applied to it. On the basis of this
weighting, spatial multiplexing maps each symbol in the code sequence to one of the
antennas. This creates several distinct data pipes across the same bandwidth.
After transmission through the pipes, demultiplexing, weighting, demodulation, and
decoding is performed at the receiver in order to recover the transmitted data.
The transmission schemes that have been proposed for 4G networks should maximize
spectral efficiency and link quality. Each scheme requires the transmitting side, receiving
side, or both sides to have a certain amount of Channel State Information (CSI).
There are two major transmission schemes proposed for use by 4G mobile systems:

spatial multiplexing

space-time coding

Spatial multiplexing requires multiple antennas at both ends of the link and improves the
data rate by transmitting independent information streams on different antennas.

The transmitter does not require knowledge about the orthogonal channels used by the
system.
Layered space-time transmission architectures exploit the spatial multiplexing gain by
sending independent data streams in different layers.
The receiver must demultiplex the spatial channels in order to detect the transmitted
symbols.
There are two types of receivers that can be used for spatial multiplexing. Diagonal Bell
Labs Layers Space-Time (D-BLAST) transmits layers in a diagonal pattern.
Vertical Bell Labs Layers Space-Time (V-BLAST) transmits layers vertically.
As an alternative to spatial multiplexing, space-time coding has been proposed as a
transmission scheme for 4G networks.
There are three types of space-time coding, each of which has its own benefits and
drawbacks:

trellis space-time codes

layered space-time codes

block space-time codes

trellis space-time codes

Trellis space-time codes are complex but they perform very well in a slow-fading
environment, such as indoors in an office.
layered space-time codes
Layered space-time codes are easy to implement but may introduce inaccuracies due to
the errors associated with signal propagation.
block space-time codes
Block space-time codes have a good trade-off between performance and system
complexity.
Space-time coding and V-BLAST are both candidates for use over MISO or MIMO
systems.
There are a number of advantages and disadvantages associated with using different
transmission techniques:

space-time coding

V-BLAST

space-time coding
Space-time coding has spatial diversity gain even though the transmitter does not have
knowledge of the channel being used. However, this lack of channel knowledge means
space-time codes do not provide beamforming gain.
It uses transmission diversity to reduce the negative effects of wireless fading in the
channels.
V-BLAST
V-BLAST performs well when the transmitter has knowledge of the channel being used. It
does incur signal degradation due to channel estimation errors.
It uses the Successive Interference Cancellation (SIC) scheme to reduce the complexity of
the system. This scheme introduces a danger of error propagation. This is inferior to
space-time coding because of the lack of diversity gain at the transmitter.
For future networks such as 4G, developers need to create transmitters and receivers
that can operate in a multiparametric and continuously changing environment.
They also need to design reconfigurable adaptive techniques that can adjust the structure
and parameters of transceivers and achieve the best possible performance in a variety of
scenarios.

Question
Match each feature to the correct type of transmission scheme used in
transceivers.
Options:
1. It has spatial diversity gain but not beamforming gain
2. It incurs signal degradation due to channel estimation errors
3. It performs well when the transmitter has knowledge of the channel
4. It uses the SIC scheme to reduce the system complexity
5. It uses transmission diversity to reduce the effects of wireless fading
Targets:
A.
Space-time coding
B. V-BLAST

Answer

Space-time coding has spatial diversity gain but not beamforming gain and uses
transmission diversity to reduce the effects of wireless fading.
V-BLAST performs well when the transmitter has knowledge of the channel, incurs
signal degradation due to channel estimation errors, and uses the SIC scheme to
reduce the system complexity.

3. Smart antennas in wireless systems

It is envisaged that future wireless systems will create truly personal communications
spaces. These systems will require fast, reconfigurable networks that support features
such as

high data rates

user mobility

adaptability to varying network conditions

integration of different access technologies

The new systems will offer user-centered and flexible service paradigms that rely on new
data communications resources such as cross-layer and contextual information.
Future wireless systems that use smart antenna systems would have a number of
advantages associated with them:

efficient use of the spectrum

minimal costs of establishing new wireless networks

better Quality of Service (QoS) provisions

reconfigurable, robust, and transparent operation across multi-technology

networks

Research into integrating smart antennas in wireless networks is focused on a number of

issues:

processing algorithms

strategies

realization of the proposed techniques

processing algorithms

Smart antenna processing algorithms that can adapt to changing data propagation and
network conditions are being developed. The algorithms should also ensure robustness
against network impairments.
strategies
Innovative smart antenna strategies that optimize network performance at the system level
and provide transparent operation across different wireless systems and platforms are
being researched.
realization of the proposed techniques
A number of proposed smart antenna techniques need to be realized. This requires
analysis of the implementation, complexity, and cost efficiency of these techniques as
applied to wireless networks.

Question
Identify the issues that are being researched to enable the integration of smart
antennas in 4G mobile systems.
Options:
1. Analysis of the implementation, complexity, and cost efficiency of smart antenna
techniques
2. Integration of V-BLAST and space-time coding in a single network
3. Processing algorithms that can adapt to changing network conditions
4. Strategies that optimize network performance at the system level

Answer
The issues that are being researched to enable the integration of smart antennas
in 4G mobile systems include analysis of the implementation, complexity, and cost
efficiency of smart antenna techniques. The development of processing algorithms
that can adapt to changing network conditions is also being researched as well as
the design of strategies that optimize network performance at the system level.
Option 1 is correct. Proposals for a number of smart antenna techniques have
been made. To realize these proposals, the implementation, complexity, and cost
efficiency of the techniques need to be analyzed.
Option 2 is incorrect. A smart antenna in a 4G wireless network can use V-BLAST
or space-time coding transmission schemes, but not both. There are a number of
benefits and drawbacks associated with using either scheme.
Option 3 is correct. Because wireless networks experience changing data
propagation and conditions, adaptive smart antenna processing algorithms are

being developed. The algorithms should ensure robustness against network

impairments.
Option 4 is correct. To enable smart antennas to operate in wireless networks,
innovative strategies that optimize network performance at the system level and
provide transparent operation across different wireless systems and platforms are
being researched.

Summary
A smart antenna system comprises a number of antenna elements coupled with signal
processing functions that optimize the signal radiation and reception automatically as the
network environment changes. By negating the effects of multipath propagation or using
different wireless paths efficiently, smart antenna systems can improve the link quality.
Smart antenna systems that have MIMO transmission offer good bandwidth efficiency
and high data transfer rates.
Two major transmission schemes that are proposed for MIMO systems are spatial
multiplexing and space-time coding. The two types of receivers that can be used for
spatial multiplexing are D-BLAST and V-BLAST. Space-time coding or V-BLAST can be
used in 4G networks.
Future wireless systems that have smart antenna systems will make more efficient use of
the spectrum. They will also incur minimal costs to establish new wireless networks,
provide better QoS, and enable reconfigurable, robust, and transparent operation across
multi-technology networks. Developers are currently focused on creating smart antenna
processing algorithms, implementation strategies, and the realization of the proposed
smart antenna techniques.