1

Summary of Classical Mechanics

Gennaro Auletta

All classical systems obey the principle of least action:

t2

Z
S=

L(q, q,
t)dt,

(1)

t1
4
5
6
7
8

9
10

where S is the action and the trajectory of the system must be such that it takes the
minimal value in the time interval t2 t1 . The quantity q is the first time derivative
of the position q and it therefore represents the speed. L is the Lagrangian function
and is defined as the difference between the kinetic energy (expressed in terms of
the momentum p)
1 p2
(2)
T =
2m
and the potential energy U expressed in terms of q and whose forms depends on the
fields and forces to which to system is subject, i.e.
L = T (p) U (q).

11
12

(3)

Suppose now that there is some variation q of the function q. The condition of the
minimization of the action requires that
t2

Z
S =

L(q, q,
t)dt = 0,

(4)

t1
13

that can be rewritten as

Z

t2

t1
14


L
L
q +
q dt = 0,
q
q

(5)

d
q.
dt

(6)

where
q =

15

Integrating by parts the second term we get:

S =

L
q

t2

t2

q +
t1

t1

L
d L

q
dt q


qdt = 0.

(7)

2
16
17

The first term cancels out because q(t1 ) = q(t2 ) = 0. It only remains the second
integral that is zero when the integrand is also zero:
d L L

= 0.
dt q
q

18
19

(8)

This is the Lagrange equation and can be considered as the equation of motion.
Considering diverse subsystems j, we can deduce:
d L
U
L
=
=
= pj ,
qj
dt qj
qj

20

and therefore
pj =

21

L
= qj mj ,
qj

23
24

which, given Eqs. (9)-(10), can be rewritten as:

X
X
dL =
pj dqj +
pj dqj .

29
30

(14)

the last term of Eq. (13) can be rewritten as:

X
X
X
pj dqj = d(
pj qj )
qj dpj ,
j

28

(13)

Since we have the equality

X
X
X
d(
pj qj ) =
pj dqj +
qj dpj ,
j

27

(11)

j
26

U
,
qj

which, when generalized to a force F , is Newtons second law.

Let us now consider the differential of the Langrange function as a a function of
position and speed:
X L
X L
dL =
dqk ,
(12)
dqj +
qj
qk
j

25

(10)

in full agreement with Eq. (3). From the last two eqs. we immediately derive
mj qj =

22

(9)

(15)

If we substitute the two terms on the right-hand

side (rhs) to the second term on
P
the rhs of Eq. (13) and bring the term d( pj qj ) on the left of the last equation
and change all signs, we obtain:

X
X
X
d
pj qj L =
pj dqj +
qj dpj .
(16)
j

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31
32

Let us now consider the total derivative with respect to time of the Lagrangian
function by taking into account of variables p and q only:


dL X L
L
(17)
=
qj +
qj .
dt
qj
qj
j

33

By taking advantage of Eq. (9) we get:


X  d L
L
dL
qj
+
qj
=
dt
dt qj
qj
j
X d  L 
=
qj
,
dt
qj

(18)

34

what allows us to write the following equation:

X
d
L
qj
L = 0.
dt
qj

(19)

35

In other words, since the term

X

qj

j
36
37
38

L
L
qj

(20)

is invariant during the motion, we take it as the definition of the energy of the
system, the Hamiltonian, which, thanks to Eqs. (2), (9)-(10), and (16), can be
written as:
X
X
X1
H(p, q, t) =
pj qj L =
pj qj
pj qj + U (q)
2
j

= T (p) + U (q).
39
40

(21)

In other words, it is the sum of the kinetic and potential energy, as expected. From
the differential equality
X
dH =
(pj dqj qj dpj )
(22)
j

41
42

we can derive Hamiltons equations (that are the equation of motion by making use
of the Hamiltonian):
qj =

43

H
H
, and pj =
,
pj
qj

(23)

which can also be written in terms of the Poisson brackets as

qj = {qj , H},

pj = {pj , H} .

(24)

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The Poisson brackets for two arbitrary functions f and g are defined as

X  f g
f g

,
{f, g} =
qj pj
pj qj

(25)

and have the following properties

{f, g} = {g, f } ,

(26a)

{f, C} = 0 ,

(26b)

{Cf + C g, h} = C{f, h} + C {g, h} ,

0 = {f, {g, h}} + {g, {h, f }} + {h, {f, g}} ,


 

f
g
,
{f, g} =
, g + f,
t
t
t
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46
47

49

51

52

54

55

(27)

By making use of Eqs. (23) it is clear that the last two terms on the right disappear,
so that we get:
dH
H
=
,
(29)
dt
t
what, in the particular case in which there is no dependence on time, reduces to
dH
= 0,
dt

53

(26e)

Let us now write the total derivative of the Hamiltonian (which is the sum of three
components):
X H
dH
H X H
=
+
qj +
pj .
(28)
dt
t
qj
pj
j

50

(26d)

where C, C 0 are constants and h is a third function. Eq. (26d) is known as Jacobi
identity. The advantage of this notation is that, for any function f of q and p, we
can write its time evolution as
d
f = {f, H} .
dt

48

(26c)

(30)

that can be considered an expression of the law of energy conservation. Since from
Eq. (1) we have
dS
= L,
(31)
dt
we also have compare Eq. (9)
S
= pj .
qj

(32)

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From the latter result the expression

X
S
=L
pj qj
t

(33)

57

follows which, thanks to Eq. (21), allows us to deduce

S
= H.
t

58
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60
61

(34)

The dynamics of a statistical ensemble of classical systems is subjected to the Liouville equation (or continuity equation). Let us denote with (q, p; t) the density of
representative points that at time t are contained in the infinitesimal volume element
dn p dn q in around q and p. Then it is possible to show that we have
d

= {, H} +
=0
dt
t

(35)

62

or, by applying Eq. (27):

63

= {H, } .
(36)
t
Then, the Liouville theorem states that the density of representative points in the
phase space is constant, where with phase space we denote the Cartesian representation whose coordinates are represented by position and momentum.

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