4, December 1999
982
I. INTRODUCTION
there is a direct linkage between a circuit parameter and a section of the machine, there is a basis for improved insight into
the explanation of the machine's behavior. Also, fruitful communication between system analysts and machine designers
is promoted when the models used in analysis and operation
can be related directly to those quantities under the control
of the designer. The approach of most system analysts seems
to have been to accept the properties of the machine. Little
attention has been devoted to communicating to the designer
the properties which might be more desirable.
It is the intention of this paper to present a critique of
the conventional equivalent circuits models for synchronous
machines and to suggest alternatives which may be useful in
system analysis. Following normal practice in such transient
circuit models, nonlinearity due to mametic saturation will
usually be ignored in this paper. This assumption allows the
conventional d-q axis approach with its provision for superpositian to be adopted. The authors intend to address the effects
of magnetic nonlinearity in a subsequent paper.
A corollary which follows from the assumption of superposition iS that the major space fields within the machine must be
assumed to be effectively sinusoidally-distributed in circumferential space around the air gap. This is not a necessary assumption in developing separate direct and quadrature circuits
bot is usually implied in superposing the direct and quadrature variables to obtain the terminal voltages and currents and
the developed torque.
~
11. A SIMPLIFICATION
OF CONVENTIONAL
MODELS
Fig. 1 shows conventional transient flux-linkage/current circuits for the direct and quadrature axes. These are third order
models, the most complex usually employed. In these models,
A d , A, and A, are the flux linkages of the stator direct axis,
the field and the quadrature axis respectively. LIis the leakage inductance associated with the stator winding, consisting
of slot, harmonic and end-winding components plus a portion
of the air gap circumferential leakage. L,r and L,, represent
mainly the linear air gap reluctances in the direct and quadrature axes. The quantity n, is the effective field/stator turns
ratio and is given by:
Nir
n, = -
N.,
in which N i e and N.. are the equivalent numbers of sinusoidally distributed turns in the field and in each stator phase
winding. In each case, the equivalent sinusoidally distributed
turns Ne are related to actual turns N by:
983
4
Ne = - k d k , N
U
(2)
where k d and lip are the distribution and pitch factors for
the winding.
3
(3)
2%
where the 3/2 factor Links the 3-phase stator to the single phase
rotor.
The linear direct axis circuit of fig. 1-a can be replaced by
the simpler circuit of fig. 2 without any loss of information
relating terminal quantities. This is accomplished by use of
a simple transformation which was introduced for induction
machine analysis about three decades ago [E], [9]. The result is
now generally designated as a r-type circuit in contrast to the
T-type circuit of fig. 1 because of its structure at the stator
end [lo]. This transformation has been reinvented frequently
since that time in various forms. More recently, its validity for
use with synchronous machines has been established independently by Kirtley in [Ill.
Rfd
=Rf,
and
Ld
984
Ld
V,
W J .
and:
3
--
I d
(9)
A if
111. C O M M E N T A R Y O N THEP A R A M E T E R S
OF
CONVENTIONAL
CIRCUITS
The currently preferred method of deriving equivalent circuits is by parameter fitting to a set of results obtained by
standstill frequency respmse tests [3]-[7]. The usual tests give:
IV. AN ALTERNATEAPPROACH
SSFR test results have been made available t o the authors
for a 500-MW Ontario Hydro turboalternator designated as
Nanticoke-5. Some significant data on this machine is listed
in appendix A. A sketch of a 90-degree cross-section of the
rotor is shown in fig. 3. This rotor has uniformly distributed
aluminum damper bars in both direct and quadrature axes, the
3 bars near the direct axis being somewhat smaller than the
6 bars near the quadrature axis. The slots below the smaller
bars are filled with a non-conducting material.
d axis
damper bars.
L . f o ( s ) , the ratio of
to
id
-field
slots
L d = -15430
6572
and :
- 2.35 pu
985
RE
3 6572
-= 13.93
.A 1001
OCCUTS.
"-
The measured function L d ( s ) is shown in fig. 4. The parameter L d may be derived from the measured magnitude ( L d (
as frequency approaches zero. This value of Ld = 2.15 pu
is somewhat lower than that obtained from the open/short
circuit tests in (10). This is usually attributed to the IOW permeability of the stator and rotor iron at the low values of flux
density used in S S F R tests. Finite element analysis has shown
that this relative permeability can be as low as 150 for S S F R
tests. Considering that the flux path length in iron is about
30 times the gap length and that the iron permeability for
the apen/short circuit tests would be an order of magnitude
higher, the difference of about 9% between the two values of
L d is readily explained.
Lp
RF
tan [ 4 5 = 1.12 s
(13)
2nfmcn
where R F is the field circuit resistance. The base angular
frequency w b is 371 rad./s. then the equivalent field resistance
R f d is:
j-,7=-=
Rfd =
LF
= 0.00105 pu
TFWb
(14)
Rfd =
3 4 = 0.00102 pu
2REzZ,b
(15)
'-r'.q"y.nry,Hzi-
v
L
C. Damper Modeling
A model is required that accommodates various configurations of damper bars. In the Nanticoke-5 machine, the duraluminum damper bars extend over the whole of the rotor
periphery as shown in fig. 3. The bars centered about the
direct axis have about 0.75 the cross-sectional area of those
around the quadrature axis.
At low frequency, the current distribution in each bar can
be considered uniform. Noting that the fields for each axis
can be considered as sinusoidally distributed about that axis,
the effective law-frequency damper resistances R ~ and
D RbQ
reflected into the stator reference frame can be determined by
weighting the resistance of each bar by the value of the sine
function appropriate to its bar position. These resistances will
also include provision for the end winding resistance.
With excitation from the stator, as frequency increases the
current in each bar is forced toward the surface of the bar near
the air gap. The effective penetration or skin depth in the bar
is:
986
6a = pod)-^'^
(16)
where u b is the conductivity ofthe bar material and f is the frequency. Far the duraluminum allay of the bars in Nanticoke5 , with conductivity of about 2 107mho/m,this penetration
depth is approximately 'I5 mm. With a bar depth of about 40
J;
mm, the current distribution can be considered to be approximately uniform far frequencies where the bar depth is less than
36, i.e. for frequency less than about 1 Hz. With skin effect,
the damper bars of depth d can be modeled approximately in
each of the axes as au impedance of the form [14]:
lib
Za = Ra-
sinh(ka) + sin(ka)
cosh(kn) - COS(kb)
(1- j) ohm
(17)
D. Iron
li.
Lci(3) = --(I
Jif)
-3)
E. Model Structure
The proposed structure far direct and quadrature axis models is shown in fig. 7. With stator excitation at high values of
frequency, the currents in both the damper bars and the rotor
iron are farced to near the rotor surface. Since these currents
are side by side around the periphery, their model elements in
fig, I are properly connected in p a r d e l . In these r type circuits, the parameters L L D and LLQ include the stator leakage
and all of the air gap circumferential leakage up to the rotor
surface. In the direct axis, the parameter L F D includes the
leakage around the field winding plus the leakage across the
damper bars.
Modeling
6;= ( ~ ~ , p o u ; f ) m
-~.~
(19)
where p, is the relative permeability of the iron and U ; is the
iron conductivity.
Far the cast steel of the rotor, the conductivity is about 3
10' mho/m. The relative permeability of the steel is estimated
to be about 200 for the low values of flux density that apply
during S S F R tests. These values result in a penetration depth
is approximately
mm. This suggests a penetration depth
Ji
tooth equal to the depth of the damper
into I rotor
bars at
a frequency of about 0.15 Ha and a penetration depth to the
bottom of the quadrature axis rotor slots at a frequency of
about 0. 01 Hz. From this it may be concluded that skin
effect is a major factor in representing the iron over most of the
frequency range of interest in stability and resonance studies.
A square surface of material with conduction limited in
depth by skin effect can be cansidered to have an impedance
of:
Z(s) =
(-)"'"
As an element in
ductance:
(1 j) ohms/square
F. Eualuotion of Parameters
(20)
987
and L , were taken from the asymptotic values as frequency
approached zero leaving 6 parameters to be evaluated for the
direct axis and 4 for the quadrature axis.
Each optimization was based on minimizing the sum of the
squares of the magnitudes of the differences between the measured and model vectors divided by the magnitude of the measured vector as in the general expression:
MACHINEPARAMETERS
[ Parameters I
pu value
988
A reason for the discrepancy in modeling this sG(s) function
is that the skin effect models used assume that high frequency
current is forced to near the rotor surface. With high frequency
currents in the field there will also be skin effect in the iron
around the w d s of the field slots and there may also be skin
effect at the bottoms of the damper bars. A model with an
additional skin effect element connected at an inductance point
closer to the field could be considered to accommodate this
effect.
V. CONCLUSIONS
An alternate set of equivalent circuit models has been presented to represent the frequency response of a turbogenerator
as Seen from its stator terminals. Skin effect elements dependent on frequency are used instead of the constant parameters
of conventional models.
The accuracy of modeling is comparable to that obtained
with third order conventional circuits. The number of parameters to be evaluated in the optimization is 6 for the direct axis
and 4 for the quadrature axis. These may be compared with 7
for each of the direct and quadrature axe8 in the conventional
third order models.
Each parameter of the models can be evaluated directly
from the dimensions and material properties of the generator
and thus provide a direct communication link to the machine
designer.The models are directly applicable for frequency response analysis. They are not readily applicable where time
constants are required.
The authors welcome comments and suggestions from the
user community on the concepts which have been introduced
for discussion in this paper.
APPENDIX
Data far Ontario Hydro Generator - Nanticoke-5.
Rated MVA: s b = 588.2 MVA
Rated stator voltage: V b = 22 kV rms line-to-line
Rated stator current: I b = 15.347 kA
Base stator impedance: Zab = 0.823 ohms
Base stator i n d u c t a n w l s = 2.183 mH
Stator resistance: R. = 1.579 m ohm (25'C)
Field resistance: Rt = 0.106 ohm (25OC)
Field turns: N I = 120
Stator turns per phase: N . =7
Stator winding pitch 7/9
Field current for rated stator voltage on air gap line = 1001 A
Short circuit stator current with lOOlA field current = 6572 A
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors express their thanks to their colleagues Prof. P.
L. Dandeno and Prof. M. R. Iravani for their valuable advice
and comments and to Geoffrey Klempner of Ontario Hydro
for making available the SSFR data and the physical and
magnetic properties of the machine. The authors also wish to
REFERENCES
Slemon, "An equivalent circuit approach to analysis of
synchronous machines with saliency and saturation," I E E E
Paana., Vol. E C - 5 , N o . 8, pages 538-545, 1990
[2] IEEE Committee Report (P.L.Dandeno Chair), "Supplementary definition and associated test methods for obtaining parameters for synchronousmachine stability study simulations,"
IEEE Tmns., Vol. PAS-39, No. 4, pages 1625-1633, 1980
[3] LM. Canay, "Determination of model parameters of machines
from the reactance operators "&a), zp(ja): I F E E Trans.,
Vol. EC-8, No. I, pages 272-279, June 1993.
[4] I.M. Canay, '"Modeling of alternating-current machine having
multiple rotor circuit," IEEE Trona., Vol. E C - 8 , N o . 2, pages
280-296,June 1993.
[5] I. Icamwa, and P. Viarouge, '"Onequivalent circuit structure
for empirical modeling of turbine generator," IEEE Il.ons.,
Vol. E&$, No. 8, pag& 579-592, Sept. 1994.
[a] S. Homing, A. Kehani, and I. Kamwa, "On-line evaluation
of round rotor synchronous machine parameter set estimated
from standstill time-domain data," Pa-149-Ee-0-01-1997
[7] "IEEE test procedure for synchronous machines", IEEE Std
115, 1995.
[8] C.R. Slemon, "Magnetoelectric devices-transducem. transformemand machines," John Wiley and Sons,New York, 1996.
[SI M.Poloujadof, and Ivenes, "Comparison des achema equivalents au moteur asynchrone ployphase," Rwre Generals de
I'Electricite Vol. 76, No. 1, pages 1-6, Jan. 1967.
[lo] G.R. Slemon, "Modelling of induction machines for electric
drives," IEEE T~ane., Vol. IA-25, No. 6 pages 1126-1131,
Nov/Dec 1989.
(111 J.L.Kirtley, "On turbine-generator mtoi equivalent circuits,"
I E E E Trans., Val. PWRS-89. No. I , pages 262-271, Feb. 1994.
1121 V. Atarod, P.L. Dandeno, and M.R. Iravani, "Impact of synchronous machine constantti and models on the analysis of torsional dynamics," I E E E Trona., Vol. PWRS-87, No. 4 , pages
1456-1463, Nov. 1992.
[13] A. Keyhani, and H. Tsai, "Identification of high order synchronous generator from SSFR test data," IEEE Trans, Vol.
EC-9, NO.'^, pages 593-603, Sept. 1994.
[14] S A . Swenn, and J.W. Salmon, "Effective resistance and reactance of a rectangular conductor placed in a. semi-closed slot,"
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[l] G.R.
Gordon E.Slemon is professor emeritus in Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Toronto where he served as
Head of the Electrical Engineering Department from 1966 to 1976,
and as Dean of its Faculty of Applied Science and Engineeringfrom
1979 to 1986. Currently he acts as a consultant to industry and
government as well as continuing his research specialty of electric
machines and drives. He is the author or coauthor of five textbooks
and 160 technical papers. He established the Innovations Foundation at the University of Toronto and is a co-founder and director of
the company, Inverpower Controls Ltd. He is President-Elect of the
Canadain Academy of Engineering. an Honorary Fellow of the Institution of Electrical Engineers (UK) and ai Fellow of the Inetituteof
Electrical and Electronics Engineers and the Engineering Institute
of Canada. In 1990, he received the IEEE Nikola Tesla Award and
Gold Medal.
Mohamed L. Awed received his B.Sc. and MSc. degree from
Cairo University, Egypt, all in electrical engineering in 1990 and
1993 respectively. Since 1990 he has been with the Electrical Engineering Department, Cairo University. He is currently a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Toronto. His research interests include
power system simulation, dynamicsand control, and AI applications
in power systems.