1 History
1.1
Evolution
HISTORY
10
11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19
Mayan numerals
Greek mathematician Pythagoras (c. 570 c. 495 BC), commonly credited with discovering the Pythagorean theorem
increasing series of abstractions, or alternatively an expansion of subject matter. The rst abstraction, which
is shared by many animals,[19] was probably that of
numbers: the realization that a collection of two apples
and a collection of two oranges (for example) have something in common, namely quantity of their members.
Evidenced by tallies found on bone, in addition to recognizing how to count physical objects, prehistoric peoples
may have also recognized how to count abstract quanti- 1.2 Etymology
ties, like time days, seasons, years.[20]
The word mathematics comes from the Greek
More complex mathematics did not appear until around
(mthma), which, in the ancient Greek language, means
3000 BC, when the Babylonians and Egyptians began that which is learnt,[24] what one gets to know,
using arithmetic, algebra and geometry for taxation and hence also study and science, and in modern Greek
other nancial calculations, for building and construction, just lesson. The word mthma is derived from
and for astronomy.[21] The earliest uses of mathematics (manthano), while the modern Greek equivwere in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving alent is (mathaino), both of which mean to
patterns and the recording of time.
learn. In Greece, the word for mathematics came to
In Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic have the narrower and more technical meaning math(addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) rst ematical study even in Classical times.[25] Its adjecappears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre- tive is (mathmatiks), meaning related
dated writing and numeral systems have been many and to learning or studious, which likewise further came to
diverse, with the rst known written numerals created by mean mathematical. In particular,
Egyptians in Middle Kingdom texts such as the Rhind (mathmatik tkhn), Latin: ars mathematica, meant
Mathematical Papyrus.
the mathematical art.
Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a sys- In Latin, and in English until around 1700, the term math-
3
ematics more commonly meant astrology (or sometimes astronomy) rather than mathematics"; the meaning gradually changed to its present one from about 1500
to 1800. This has resulted in several mistranslations: a
particularly notorious one is Saint Augustine's warning
that Christians should beware of mathematici meaning astrologers, which is sometimes mistranslated as a condemnation of mathematicians.[26]
The apparent plural form in English, like the French plural form les mathmatiques (and the less commonly used
singular derivative la mathmatique), goes back to the
Latin neuter plural mathematica (Cicero), based on the
Greek plural (ta mathmatik), used by
Aristotle (384322 BC), and meaning roughly all things
mathematical"; although it is plausible that English borrowed only the adjective mathematic(al) and formed the
noun mathematics anew, after the pattern of physics and
metaphysics, which were inherited from the Greek.[27] In
English, the noun mathematics takes singular verb forms.
It is often shortened to maths or, in English-speaking
North America, math.[28]
Denitions of mathematics
Aristotle dened mathematics as the science of quantity, and this denition prevailed until the 18th
century.[29] Starting in the 19th century, when the study
of mathematics increased in rigor and began to address
abstract topics such as group theory and projective geometry, which have no clear-cut relation to quantity and
measurement, mathematicians and philosophers began to
propose a variety of new denitions.[30] Some of these
denitions emphasize the deductive character of much 3 Inspiration, pure and applied
of mathematics, some emphasize its abstractness, some
mathematics, and aesthetics
emphasize certain topics within mathematics. Today, no
consensus on the denition of mathematics prevails, even
among professionals.[7] There is not even consensus on
whether mathematics is an art or a science.[8] A great Main article: Mathematical beauty
many professional mathematicians take no interest in a
denition of mathematics, or consider it undenable.[7]
Some just say, Mathematics is what mathematicians
do.[7]
Three leading types of denition of mathematics are
called logicist, intuitionist, and formalist, each reecting a
dierent philosophical school of thought.[31] All have severe problems, none has widespread acceptance, and no
reconciliation seems possible.[31]
An early denition of mathematics in terms of logic
was Benjamin Peirce's the science that draws necessary conclusions (1870).[32] In the Principia Mathematica, Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead advanced the philosophical program known as logicism, and
attempted to prove that all mathematical concepts, state-
transform. G.H. Hardy in A Mathematicians Apology expressed the belief that these aesthetic considerations are,
in themselves, sucient to justify the study of pure mathematics. He identied criteria such as signicance, unexpectedness, inevitability, and economy as factors that
contribute to a mathematical aesthetic.[38] Mathematicians often strive to nd proofs that are particularly elegant, proofs from The Book of God according to Paul
Erds.[39][40] The popularity of recreational mathematics
is another sign of the pleasure many nd in solving mathematical questions.
Mathematics arises from many dierent kinds of problems. At rst these were found in commerce, land measurement, architecture and later astronomy; today, all sciences suggest problems studied by mathematicians, and
many problems arise within mathematics itself. For example, the physicist Richard Feynman invented the path
integral formulation of quantum mechanics using a combination of mathematical reasoning and physical insight,
and todays string theory, a still-developing scientic theory which attempts to unify the four fundamental forces
of nature, continues to inspire new mathematics.[35]
Some mathematics is relevant only in the area that inspired it, and is applied to solve further problems in that
area. But often mathematics inspired by one area proves
useful in many areas, and joins the general stock of mathematical concepts. A distinction is often made between
pure mathematics and applied mathematics. However
pure mathematics topics often turn out to have applications, e.g. number theory in cryptography. This remarkable fact that even the purest mathematics often turns
out to have practical applications is what Eugene Wigner
has called "the unreasonable eectiveness of mathematics".[36] As in most areas of study, the explosion of knowledge in the scientic age has led to specialization: there
are now hundreds of specialized areas in mathematics
and the latest Mathematics Subject Classication runs
to 46 pages.[37] Several areas of applied mathematics
have merged with related traditions outside of mathematics and become disciplines in their own right, including
statistics, operations research, and computer science.
Leonhard Euler, who created and popularized much of the mathematical notation used today
invented until the 16th century.[41] Before that, mathematics was written out in words, a painstaking process
that limited mathematical discovery.[42] Euler (1707
1783) was responsible for many of the notations in use
today. Modern notation makes mathematics much easier for the professional, but beginners often nd it daunting. It is extremely compressed: a few symbols contain
a great deal of information. Like musical notation, modern mathematical notation has a strict syntax (which to a
limited extent varies from author to author and from discipline to discipline) and encodes information that would
be dicult to write in any other way.
5.1
Mathematical logic is concerned with setting mathematics within a rigorous axiomatic framework, and studying
the implications of such a framework. As such, it is home
to Gdels incompleteness theorems which (informally)
imply that any eective formal system that contains basic arithmetic, if sound (meaning that all theorems that
can be proven are true), is necessarily incomplete (meaning that there are true theorems which cannot be proved
in that system). Whatever nite collection of numbertheoretical axioms is taken as a foundation, Gdel showed
how to construct a formal statement that is a true numbertheoretical fact, but which does not follow from those ax5 Fields of mathematics
ioms. Therefore no formal system is a complete axiomatization of full number theory. Modern logic is divided into
See also: Areas of mathematics and Glossary of areas of recursion theory, model theory, and proof theory, and is
closely linked to theoretical computer science, as well as
mathematics
Mathematics can, broadly speaking, be subdivided into to category theory.
the study of quantity, structure, space, and change (i.e. Theoretical computer science includes computability thearithmetic, algebra, geometry, and analysis). In addition ory, computational complexity theory, and information
to these main concerns, there are also subdivisions dedi- theory. Computability theory examines the limitations
cated to exploring links from the heart of mathematics to of various theoretical models of the computer, including
other elds: to logic, to set theory (foundations), to the the most well-known model the Turing machine. Comempirical mathematics of the various sciences (applied plexity theory is the study of tractability by computer;
mathematics), and more recently to the rigorous study of some problems, although theoretically solvable by comuncertainty.
puter, are so expensive in terms of time or space that solv-
5 FIELDS OF MATHEMATICS
5.2
5.2.1
Pure mathematics
Quantity
The study of quantity starts with numbers, rst the familiar natural numbers and integers (whole numbers)
and arithmetical operations on them, which are characterized in arithmetic. The deeper properties of integers
are studied in number theory, from which come such pop- 5.2.3 Space
ular results as Fermats Last Theorem. The twin prime
conjecture and Goldbachs conjecture are two unsolved The study of space originates with geometry in particular, Euclidean geometry. Trigonometry is the branch
problems in number theory.
of mathematics that deals with relationships between the
As the number system is further developed, the intesides and the angles of triangles and with the trigonometgers are recognized as a subset of the rational numbers
ric functions; it combines space and numbers, and en("fractions"). These, in turn, are contained within the real
compasses the well-known Pythagorean theorem. The
numbers, which are used to represent continuous quantimodern study of space generalizes these ideas to inties. Real numbers are generalized to complex numbers.
clude higher-dimensional geometry, non-Euclidean geThese are the rst steps of a hierarchy of numbers that
ometries (which play a central role in general relativity)
goes on to include quaternions and octonions. Considerand topology. Quantity and space both play a role in
ation of the natural numbers also leads to the transnite
analytic geometry, dierential geometry, and algebraic
numbers, which formalize the concept of "innity". Angeometry. Convex and discrete geometry were develother area of study is size, which leads to the cardinal
oped to solve problems in number theory and functional
numbers and then to another conception of innity: the
analysis but now are pursued with an eye on applications
aleph numbers, which allow meaningful comparison of
in optimization and computer science. Within dierenthe size of innitely large sets.
tial geometry are the concepts of ber bundles and calculus on manifolds, in particular, vector and tensor calculus. Within algebraic geometry is the description of
geometric objects as solution sets of polynomial equations, combining the concepts of quantity and space,
5.2.2 Structure
and also the study of topological groups, which combine structure and space. Lie groups are used to study
Many mathematical objects, such as sets of numbers and space, structure, and change. Topology in all its many
functions, exhibit internal structure as a consequence of ramications may have been the greatest growth area in
operations or relations that are dened on the set. Math- 20th-century mathematics; it includes point-set topology,
ematics then studies properties of those sets that can be set-theoretic topology, algebraic topology and dierential
expressed in terms of that structure; for instance number topology. In particular, instances of modern day topology
theory studies properties of the set of integers that can be are metrizability theory, axiomatic set theory, homotopy
expressed in terms of arithmetic operations. Moreover, theory, and Morse theory. Topology also includes the
it frequently happens that dierent such structured sets now solved Poincar conjecture, and the still unsolved
(or structures) exhibit similar properties, which makes it areas of the Hodge conjecture. Other results in geompossible, by a further step of abstraction, to state axioms etry and topology, including the four color theorem and
for a class of structures, and then study at once the whole Kepler conjecture, have been proved only with the help
class of structures satisfying these axioms. Thus one can of computers.
study groups, rings, elds and other abstract systems; together such studies (for structures dened by algebraic
operations) constitute the domain of abstract algebra.
7
5.2.4
Change
The Wolf Prize in Mathematics, instituted in 1978, recognizes lifetime achievement, and another major international award, the Abel Prize, was introduced in 2003.
The Chern Medal was introduced in 2010 to recognize
lifetime achievement. These accolades are awarded in
recognition of a particular body of work, which may be
innovational, or provide a solution to an outstanding problem in an established eld.
A famous list of 23 open problems, called "Hilberts problems", was compiled in 1900 by German mathematician
David Hilbert. This list achieved great celebrity among
mathematicians, and at least nine of the problems have
now been solved. A new list of seven important problems,
titled the "Millennium Prize Problems", was published in
2000. A solution to each of these problems carries a $1
Statistical theory studies decision problems such as min- million reward, and only one (the Riemann hypothesis) is
imizing the risk (expected loss) of a statistical action, duplicated in Hilberts problems.
9 NOTES
applied a version of falsicationism to mathematics itself.
An alternative view is that certain scientic elds (such as
theoretical physics) are mathematics with axioms that are
intended to correspond to reality. The theoretical physicist J.M. Ziman proposed that science is public knowledge, and thus includes mathematics.[58] Mathematics
shares much in common with many elds in the physical sciences, notably the exploration of the logical consequences of assumptions. Intuition and experimentation
also play a role in the formulation of conjectures in
both mathematics and the (other) sciences. Experimental
mathematics continues to grow in importance within
mathematics, and computation and simulation are playing
an increasing role in both the sciences and mathematics.
known
as
the
prince
of
Mathematics as science
9 Notes
[1] No likeness or description of Euclids physical appearance
made during his lifetime survived antiquity. Therefore,
Euclids depiction in works of art depends on the artists
imagination (see Euclid).
[2] mathematics, n.". Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford
University Press. 2012. Retrieved June 16, 2012. The
science of space, number, quantity, and arrangement,
reality?" He, too, is concerned with The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences.
[17] Claire Voisin, Artist of the Abstract. .cnrs.fr. Retrieved
October 13, 2013.
[18] Peterson
[19] Dehaene, Stanislas; Dehaene-Lambertz, Ghislaine; Cohen, Laurent (Aug 1998). Abstract representations
of numbers in the animal and human brain. Trends
in Neuroscience 21 (8): 355361. doi:10.1016/S01662236(98)01263-6. PMID 9720604.
[20] See, for example, Raymond L. Wilder, Evolution of Mathematical Concepts; an Elementary Study, passim
[21] Kline 1990, Chapter 1.
[22] "A History of Greek Mathematics: From Thales to Euclid".
Thomas Little Heath (1981). ISBN 0-486-24073-8
[23] Sevryuk
[24] mathematic. Online Etymology Dictionary.
[25] Both senses can be found in Plato. . Liddell,
Henry George; Scott, Robert; A GreekEnglish Lexicon at
the Perseus Project
[26] Cipra, Barry (1982). St. Augustine v. The Mathematicians. osu.edu. Ohio State University Mathematics department. Retrieved July 14, 2014.
[27] The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, Oxford
English Dictionary, sub mathematics, mathematic,
mathematics
[28] maths, n." and math, n.3". Oxford English Dictionary,
on-line version (2012).
[29] James Franklin, Aristotelian Realism in Philosophy of
Mathematics, ed. A.D. Irvine, p. 104. Elsevier (2009).
[30] Cajori, Florian (1893). A History of Mathematics. American Mathematical Society (1991 reprint). pp. 2856.
ISBN 0-8218-2102-4.
[11] Eves
[13] Waltershausen
10
10
REFERENCES
[38] Hardy, G.H. (1940). A Mathematicians Apology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42706-1.
[58] Ziman
[41] Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols. Retrieved September 14, 2014.
10 References
Courant, Richard and H. Robbins, What Is Mathematics? : An Elementary Approach to Ideas and
Methods, Oxford University Press, USA; 2 edition
(July 18, 1996). ISBN 0-19-510519-2.
Einstein, Albert (1923). Sidelights on Relativity: I.
Ether and relativity. II. Geometry and experience
(translated by G.B. Jeery, D.Sc., and W. Perrett,
Ph.D). E.P. Dutton & Co., New York.
du Sautoy, Marcus, A Brief History of Mathematics,
BBC Radio 4 (2010).
Eves, Howard, An Introduction to the History of
Mathematics, Sixth Edition, Saunders, 1990, ISBN
0-03-029558-0.
Kline, Morris, Mathematical Thought from Ancient
to Modern Times, Oxford University Press, USA;
Paperback edition (March 1, 1990). ISBN 0-19506135-7.
Monastyrsky, Michael (2001). Some Trends in
Modern Mathematics and the Fields Medal (PDF).
Canadian Mathematical Society. Retrieved July 28,
2006.
Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, ed. John
Simpson and Edmund Weiner, Clarendon Press,
1989, ISBN 0-19-861186-2.
The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, 1983
reprint. ISBN 0-19-861112-9.
Pappas, Theoni, The Joy Of Mathematics, Wide
World Publishing; Revised edition (June 1989).
ISBN 0-933174-65-9.
Peirce, Benjamin (1881). Peirce, Charles Sanders,
ed. Linear associative algebra. American Journal of Mathematics (Corrected, expanded, and annotated revision with an 1875 paper by B. Peirce
and annotations by his son, C.S. Peirce, of the 1872
lithograph ed.) (Johns Hopkins University) 4 (14):
97229. doi:10.2307/2369153. JSTOR 2369153.
Corrected, expanded, and annotated revision with
an 1875 paper by B. Peirce and annotations by his
son, C. S. Peirce, of the 1872 lithograph ed. Google
Eprint and as an extract, D. Van Nostrand, 1882,
Google Eprint..
11
Peterson, Ivars, Mathematical Tourist, New and
Updated Snapshots of Modern Mathematics, Owl
Books, 2001, ISBN 0-8050-7159-8.
Popper, Karl R. (1995). On knowledge. In Search
of a Better World: Lectures and Essays from Thirty
Years. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-13548-6.
Riehm, Carl (August 2002). The Early History of
the Fields Medal (PDF). Notices of the AMS (AMS)
49 (7): 778782.
Sevryuk, Mikhail B. (January 2006). Book Reviews (PDF). Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 43 (1): 101109. doi:10.1090/S02730979-05-01069-4. Retrieved June 24, 2006.
Waltershausen, Wolfgang Sartorius von (1965)
[rst published 1856].
Gauss zum Gedchtniss. Sndig Reprint Verlag H. R. Wohlwend.
ASIN B0000BN5SQ. ISBN 3-253-01702-8. ASIN
3253017028.
11
Further reading
Benson, Donald C., The Moment of Proof: Mathematical Epiphanies, Oxford University Press, USA;
New Ed edition (December 14, 2000). ISBN 0-19513919-4.
Boyer, Carl B., A History of Mathematics, Wiley;
2nd edition, revised by Uta C. Merzbach, (March
6, 1991). ISBN 0-471-54397-7.A concise history of mathematics from the Concept of Number
to contemporary Mathematics.
12 External links
Mathematics on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen
now)
Free Mathematics books Free Mathematics books
collection.
Encyclopaedia of Mathematics online encyclopaedia from Springer, Graduate-level reference work
with over 8,000 entries, illuminating nearly 50,000
notions in mathematics.
HyperMath site at Georgia State University
FreeScience Library The mathematics section of
FreeScience library
Rusin, Dave: The Mathematical Atlas. A guided
tour through the various branches of modern mathematics. (Can also be found at NIU.edu.)
Polyanin, Andrei: EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations. An online resource focusing on
algebraic, ordinary dierential, partial dierential
(mathematical physics), integral, and other mathematical equations.
Cain, George: Online Mathematics Textbooks
available free online.
Tricki, Wiki-style site that is intended to develop
into a large store of useful mathematical problemsolving techniques.
Mathematical Structures, list information about
classes of mathematical structures.
Davis, Philip J. and Hersh, Reuben, The Mathematical Experience. Mariner Books; Reprint edition
(January 14, 1999). ISBN 0-395-92968-7.
12
Citizendium: Theory (mathematics).
du Sautoy, Marcus, A Brief History of Mathematics,
BBC Radio 4 (2010).
MathOverow A Q&A site for research-level mathematics
Math Khan Academy
National Museum of Mathematics, located in New
York City
12
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Images
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Article for abacus, 9th edition Encyclopedia Britannica, volume 1 (1875); scanned and uploaded by Malcolm Farmer Original artist:
Encyclopdia Britannica
File:Arbitrary-gametree-solved.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Arbitrary-gametree-solved.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Arbitrary-gametree-solved.png Original artist:
derivative work: Qef (talk)
File:BernoullisLawDerivationDiagram.svg
BernoullisLawDerivationDiagram.svg License:
nal artist: MannyMax (original)
Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Image:BernoullisLawDerivationDiagram.png Origi-
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http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Signal_transduction_
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Signal_transduction_v1.png Original artist:
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Content license
Content license
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