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SaudiAramcoWorld:KramerofSumer

September/October1979

Volume30,Number5

KramerofSumer
WrittenbyMaryLucyWood
PhotographedbyKatrinaThomas
AdditionalphotographsbyRobertArndt

At82,SamuelNoahKramer,ascholarwhodescribeshimselfasamanwho"knows
mostestabouttheleastest,"isstillengagedinwhathecalls"theuniversalquestfor
origins."ForDr.Kramer,nowProfessorEmeritusoftheUniversityofPennsylvania,
thatquesthasmeant52yearsdevotedtothetranslationofman'sfirstwrittenrecords:
theclaytabletsonwhichthepeoplecalledtheSumeriansinscribedthewedgeshaped
writingknownascuneiformabout3,500yearsago.
Accordingtoarcheology,theSumerians,whocalledthemselvesthe"blackheaded
people,"wereamongthefirstcivilizations.Nomads,migratingfromsomeplacestill
unknown,theysettlednearandbetweenthetwogreatriversofMesopotamiathe
TigrisandtheEuphratesaboutthe35thcenturyB.C.,andbegantodevelopthe
fundamentalsofcivilization.Theysystematizedagriculture,developedirrigation,
constructedthefirstwagonwheelandthepotters'wheel,agreattechnological
breakthrough,experimentedwithaformofdemocracy,builtcitiesandProfessor
Kramer'slifelongstudiesshowwrotepoetryandliteraturethatintheWeststillecho
throughthepagesoftheBible.
Overthemillennia,however,Sumervanished,asdiditssuccessors,Babylonand
Assyria.Abandoned,andgraduallycoveredbytheearth,Sumerdisappearedandwas
forgottenforover2,000years,itscitiesandcultureburiedinmoundsofearth
loomingupfromthemuddyflatlandsofthe"landbetweentherivers,"inwhatisnow
southeasternIraq.Butthen,about140yearsago,thefirstofthegreatMiddleEast
archeologistsbegantodigintothosemounds,called"tells",foundartifactsand
graduallyastheyuncoveredtemples,monuments,tombs,sculpture,ornaments,
toolsandfinelyworkedgolddrewaprofileofacomplete,hithertounknown,
civilization.Moreimportant,theyalsounearthedquantitiesofclaytablets,inscribed
withtheearliestknownsystemofwriting,oneofthepivotalachievementsof
mankind.
Inarcheologysuchdiscoveriesarethestuffoflegends.Buttheyarealsojusta
beginning.Foruntiltheyaredeciphered,suchfindsasthetabletsrecentlyunearthed
atEblainSyria(SeeAramcoWorld,MarchApril1978)arerelativelyuseless.The
discoveryofcuneiformtabletsinMesopotamia,therefore,wasjustafirststep.Stillto
comewasthedeciphermentandtranslationofthescriptearlyworkmencalled"a
bird'sfootprints"bymenlikeGeorgeGrotefend,HenryRawlinsonandGeorgeSmith
(SeeAramcoWorld,JanuaryFebruary1971)and,inthiscentury,SamuelNoah
KrameraSumerologist.
ASumerologistis,obviously,aspecialist.Indeed,asDr.Kramerhimselfsaysinthe
introductiontohisbookHistoryBeginsatSumer,heis"oneofthenarrowestof
specialists..."YettheworkoftheSumerologistsinvolvestheminallaspectsofthat
ancientculturebusinesstransactions,codesoflaw,homeremedies,hymns,battles,
mythologyandpoetryallimpressedinwetclaybythescribesofSumernearlyfive
thousandyearsago.
Writing,Dr.Kramersays,wasdevelopedwhen"theneedarosetorecordbusiness
transactionsoratleasttotallyinventoriesandlistsofgiftsbroughttothetemplesas
offerings."Firstattemptswerepictographic,simplelinedrawingsofsuchobjectsas
anearofbarley,abird,anasshead,astarfor"heaven"orabowloffoodwith
actionrepresentedby,forexample,adrawingofafootfor"walking"oraheadand
mouthfor"eating."
Throughthecenturies,however,theSumeriansreducedthepicturestosimplewedge
shapedsymbolsthecuneiformsignsmadebytheendofareedstyluspressedinto
wetclay,andbythesecondhalfofthethirdmillenniumB.C.,Dr.Kramersays,
"Sumerianwritingtechniquehadbecomesufficientlyplasticandflexibletoexpress
withoutdifficultythemostcomplicatedhistoricalandliterarycompositions,manyof
whichhadbeenhandeddownbytheoraltradition."
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ForDr.KrameritwastheSumerianliterarycompositionsthatdrewhimdeeplyinto
Sumerologyin1930andthatstill,49yearslater,absorbhisattentionandtime.
AlthoughhehasretiredfromteachingtoacomfortablehouseinPhiladelphia,filled
withartfromaroundtheworldcollectedbyhiswifeProfessorKramerisstillslim
andvigorous,stillwrites,lecturesandtravelsandthisspringwillpublishstillanother
bookonSumer:FromthePoetryofSumer.Andinspiteofanoccasionalwry
commentabouthimselfasthe"pinpointhistorian"orthe'Toynbeeinreverse,"
ProfessorKramer,indiscussinghisresearchintoSumerianlanguageandliterature,
disclosesacuriosityofenormousproportions,andadiligencenotoftenequaled.
SamuelNoahKramerbeganhispersonaljourneytoSumerwhenhecametothe
UniversityofPennsylvaniaasagraduatestudentin1927andaspartoftheprogram
foradoctor'sdegreeinAssyriologybegantoreadcuneiform.Then,in1930,he
participatedintwodigsinIraq.ThefirstwasatTellBillahinthenorth,nearmodern
Mosul.Herenotabletswerefounddespiteconsiderableeffort,andKramer,whose
wholepurposeinbeingtherewastodeciphertabletinscriptions,begantoregard
himselfasuseless.Hisunhappinesswascompoundedwhenhecamedownwithan
acuteattackofappendicitissoseverethattherewasnotimetomovehimtoBaghdad.
Insteadhewastakentoatworoomhospitalnearbywherethedoctorincharge,
workingwithlimitedequipment,savedhislife.Asouveniroftheeventwasascar
runningvirtuallytheentirelengthofhisstomach.Apparentlytheoperationwas
longerandmorecomplicatedthannormalandthedoctor,withjustifiablepride,
displayedtheappendixratherlikeatrophy.
Afteramonthofslowrecovery,Dr.Kramerwasaskedtogosouthtoasecond
excavationbeingcarriedoutatTellFara,onthesiteofancientShuruppak.The
carefulworkturnedupaquantityoftablets,manyingroups,probablywhereaschool
hadbeen,orwheretheclay"books,"nolongerneeded,hadbeenusedasfillerinclay
walls.Someofthesewerebroughtbacktothemuseumforstudy."Itwasatthispoint
thatIbegantobecuriousabouttheliterarytabletsthatoccasionallycametolight,"
explainedProfessorKramer.
Hiscuriosity,however,couldnotbesatisfiedrightawayas,shortlyafterhisreturn
fromIraq,hewasinvitedtoChicagotohelpinthecompilationofanAssyrian
dictionary."Iwenttoworkonthedictionaryin1932,attheOrientalInstitute,funded
bytheRockefellerFoundation,whereoneoftheeditorswasArnoPoebel,aleading
SumerologistofthedaywhotaughtmetoreadSumerian."
Fouryearslater,hegotthechancetodevelophisinterestinthecuneiformliterary
textswhenhewonaprestigiousGuggenheimFellowshipandwenttoIstanbulto
investigatesomeofwhatarecalledtheNippurtablets."Considerablybeforemy
time,"ProfessorKramerexplained,"between1898and1900,theuniversitysent
expeditionstoexcavatetheancientcityofNippurinIraq,thenunderTurkishcontrol.
Therethearcheologistsfoundsome50,000claytabletsbearingcuneiformwriting.
HalfweresenttoIstanbultotheMuseumoftheAncientOrient,andhalfto
Philadelphia,totheUniversityofPennsylvaniaMuseum."
BythetimethetriptoIstanbulbecamepossible,SamKramerhadmarriedapretty
UniversityofChicagograduatestudent,MillieTokarsky,andhadtwochildren,
DanielandJudy.TheytraveledtoTurkeybyfreighter"andhalfthepassengers
aboardwerethefourKramers,"Millierecalls.
"EverymorningIwashedthefamily'sclothesbyhandandsterilizedbabybottles.We
hadaplaypenondeckandaredcoasterwagontoconveythechildrenaroundtowns
whenwecouldgoashore."
ThecrewtaughtJudy,ageone,towalk,coaxingherbackandforthondeck."She
was,"saysMillieKramer,"thebelleoftheship."Thetripwasuneventfulexceptfora
tensemomentintheStraitofGibraltar.TheSpanishCivilWarwasragingand
Franco'smensearchedthefreighterforweaponstheysuspectedwerebeingsmuggled
toLoyalists.Nonewerefound.
InIstanbulattheMuseumoftheAncientOrient,Kramersettoworkpiecingtogether
approximately200ofthecuneiformliterarytextswrittenintheSumerianlanguage
asdistinctfrom,say,theAssyrianlanguage,whichwasalsowrittenincuneiformbut
wasneverthelessaseparatelanguage.
Itwasnot,Kramersmiled,aneasytaskonthecontrary,copyingwaspainstaking,
eyestraining,dustywork.Withmanyofthebakedclaytabletsbrokenorcrackedand
theinscriptionshalfobliterated,effortstotranslatethemwerefrustrating,particularly
whenDr.Kramerrealizedthatmanytabletswerefragmentsoflargerpieceswhich
couldbeanywhere:inLondonorBerlinorBaghdadorPhiladelphia,orpossiblylost
forever.Buttheeffortsdidleadtoonefascinatingdiscovery:apoeticessayon
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suffering,inSumeriancuneiform,thatboreastartlingresemblancetotheBible's
BookofJob.
EarlyinthiscenturytwofragmentsfromtabletsintheNippurcollectionin
Philadelphiahadbeenpublished,bothdealingwiththethemeofhumansuffering.
Now,inIstanbul,Kramerrecognizedandcopiedtwoadditionalfragmentsbelonging
tothesameessay.Itwasanexcitingdiscoverybutitwasnottheonlyone.Later,after
hehadreturnedtoPhiladelphiaandjoinedthefacultyoftheUniversityof
Pennsylvania,healsoidentifiedthefifthandsixthfragmentsofthesameessayin
fact,heandanassistantwerestartledtodiscover,thetwopiecesinIstanbulhadbeen
brokenofftheverytabletstheywereexamininginPhiladelphia.
Altogether,thesixfragmentsyieldedapoeticessayofsome139lines,thefirstever
foundonsufferingandsubmission,veryliketheBookofJob,butwrittenmorethan
2,000yearsbeforethecompilationoftheOldTestament.AsdescribedbyProfessor
KramerinHistoryBeginsatSumer,theSumerianversionoftheJobstorydoesseem
toparalleltheBiblicalversion.
Intheessay,thesuffererisamanwhohadbeenwealthyandgood,blessedwith
familyandfriends,untilonedaysicknessandadversityoverwhelmhim.Herefuses
toaccusehisgodorcondemnhimforallowingsuchevilinstead,hehumbleshimself
andwithtearsoffersprayerandsupplication.Asarewardforsuchdevotion,thegod
heedstheprayer,deliversthemanfromsuffering,andrestoreshiswellbeing.
TheJobcontribution,furthermore,wasnotProfessorKramer'sonlyadditionto
Sumerology.In1952,againworkinginIstanbul'sMuseumoftheAncientOrient,he
alsoonatipfromanothercuneiformscholartranslatedatabletthatturnedoutto
bepartoftheUrNammucodeoflawwhichantedatesthefamousCodeof
Hammurabibyabout300years.
Earlier,in1947,oneofKramer'sassistantshaddiscoveredatabletintheNippur
CollectionoftheUniversityMuseuminscribedwithalawcodepromulgatedbythe
kingLipitIshtarwhichantedatedHammurabi'scodeby150years.In1948,Taha
Baqir,aformerstudentofProfessorKramer'sandthencuratoroftheIraqMuseumin
Baghdad,announcedtheexcavationoftwotabletsinscribedwithastillearliercode,
butwrittenaboutacenturylaterthantheUrNammuCodediscoveredinIstanbul.
Inthisimportantdiscovery,asProfessorKramerpointsout,luckplayedasignificant
role."InallprobabilityIwouldhavemissedtheUrNammutabletaltogetherhadit
notbeenforanopportuneletterfromF.R.Kraus,professorofcuneiformstudiesat
theUniversityofLeideninHolland.Hementioned'tabletnumber3191'inIstanbul
whichhehadnoticedwhenservingascuratorthere.Isentforthetablet,andafter
daysofhardwork,IrealizedthatwhatIheldinmyhandwasacopyoftheoldestlaw
codeasyetknowntoman."
Histranslation,ProfessorKramerexplained,includedfiveof25knownlawsdatingto
thethirddynastyofUroneofSumer'sancientcitystateswhichruledabout2050
B.C.,some300yearsbeforeKingHammurabiruledBabylon.Theycoverdivorce,
perjuryandadultery,andinsomewayspenaltieswerelighterthanthe"eyeforan
eye"retributionmentionedintheOldTestamentfines,forexample,werespecified
forsomeoffensesinsteadofcorporalpunishment.
In1965,twonewfragmentsoftheUrNammulawcodewererecognizedamongthe
tabletsexcavatedbyLeonardWoolleyatUr.Theseadded39newlaws,manyof
whichareunfortunatelyfragmentary.
TheconstantcomparisonsofSumerianliteraturewiththeBible,ProfessorKramer
says,arebynomeansaccidental.Sumerologistsarefascinatedbytheapparentlinks
betweenSumerianliteratureandOldTestamentstories.ThestoryofDilmun,for
example,isseenbySumerologyasparallelingthestoryofAdamandEve.
AccordingtotheSumerologists,Dilmunwasa"pure,""clean"and"bright"place,in
whichneithersicknessnordeathcontaminatedthefruitfilledgardenwherethegreat
earthmotherNinhursaghadcausedeightdivineplantstogrow.Butthen,thestory
goeson,Enkiusuallyawisegodcomesalongandinnocentlyeatsthemall,and
Ninhursagabandonshimuntil,throughinterventionofacouncilofgods,sherelents.
AswiththestoryofJob,theparallelswithAdamandEveseemclear:agarden,a
forbiddenplantandpunishmentforeatingit.
AnotherBiblicalstorywithpossibleantecedentsinSumerianliteratureisthestoryof
theFloodastranslatedfromoneoftheNippurtabletsbyArnoPoebelin1914.
Althoughmanylinesweremissing,thosethatwerelegiblegavestrongevidenceof
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beingtheearlieststoryoftheDelugeyetfound.
ThisaccounttellsofZiusudra,apious,godfearingking,whoisinstructedbythe
godstobuildagiantboattosavehimself,andpresumablyothers,because"aflood
willsweepoverthecultcenterstodestroytheseedofmankind...isthedecision...of
thegods."Alongbreakinthetextpreventsourknowingpreciselywhataction
followed,untiltheselinesbecomelegible:
Allthewindstorms,exceedinglypowerful,attackedasone,
Atthesametime,thefloodsweepsoverthecultcenters.
After,forsevendaysandsevennights,
Thefloodhadsweptovertheland,
Andthehugeboathadbeentossedaboutbythewindstormsonthegreat
waters,
Utu(sungod)cameforth,whoshedslightonheavenandearth,
Ziusudraopenedawindowonthehugeboat,
TheheroUtubroughthisraysintothegiantboat.
Ziusudra,theking,
ProstratedhimselfbeforeUtu,
Thekingkillsanox,slaughtersasheep.
Asthattranslationsuggests,Sumerianmythologycontainedtantalizingbitsof
informationthathavebeenrepeatedintheBible,and,insomeinstances,verifiedby
science.ButfromthesametranslationitisclearthatSumerianmythologywasalso
literatureatleastastranslatedbyProfessorKramer.
InthestoryofJob,forexample,theKramertranslationwasrichandrhythmic:
Therighteouswords...hisgodaccepted.
Thewordswhichthemanprayerfullyconfessedpleasedthe...god.
Andhisgodwithdrewhishandfromtheevilword...whichoppressesthe
heart...
Theencompassingsicknessdemon,whichhadspreadwideitswings,heswept
away.
Theevilfatewhichhadbeendecreedforhiminaccordancewithhissentence,
Heturnedaside
Heturnedtheman'ssufferingintojoy
Setbyhimthekindlygeniiaswatchandguardian
Gavehim...angelswithgraciousmien.
Andthatisbutoneexample.Dr.Kramer'snumerousandvariedwritingsonthe
Sumeriansarefilledwithlyricalandsignificantstories,essaysandproverbsmanyas
appropriatetodayastheywere5,000yearsago:
Arestlesswomaninthehouse
Addsachetopain.
Whopossessesmuchsilvermaybehappy,
Whopossessesmuchbarleymaybehappy,
Butwhohasnothingatallcansleep.
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Friendshiplastsaday,
Kinshipenduresforever.
TherearealsoinDr.Kramer'stranslationsvignettesofeverydaylifethatsuggesthow
theaverageSumerianthoughtorreasoned,howheworkedhiswaythroughthebig
questionsaskedbyhumanbeingsofalltimes,orfacedatypicalday'sdilemmas.One
schoolboysolutiontoanageoldproblemsoundsrathermodern:
Irecitedmytablet,atemylunch,preparedmy(new)tablet,wroteit,finishedit.
Buttheteachersays:"Yourhand(copy)isnotsatisfactory"andcaneshim.That
nighttheboysuggestsathomethathisparentsinvitetheteachertodine.Theydo,
andpresenthimgiftsaswell.Mollifiedbysuchgenerosity,theteachersays:
Youngman,becauseyoudidnotneglectmyword,didnotforsakeit,mayyou
reachthepinnacleofthescribalart,mayyouachieveitcompletely...Youhave
carriedoutwelltheschool'sactivities,youhavebecomeamanoflearning.
Thisvignette,itseems,wasapopularstory21copiesinvariousstatesof
preservationhadbeenfoundinvariouscollectionswhenDr.Kramerfoundmissing
piecesofthefirstfragmentedtranslationandcompletedit.Anothertranslationthat
willstrikeachordinanAmericarebellingagainsthightaxesandcostlygovernment
wasmadeofatabletfromLagash,acityof4,500yearsago.Itlistedtheabusesofthe
corruptadministration:
...theinspectoroftheboatmenseizedtheboats.Thecattleinspectorseizedthe
largecattle,seizedthesmallcattle.Thefisheriesinspectorseizedthefisheries.
Thewriter,inKramer'stranslation,thengoesontosaythatwhenasheepwas
broughttothepalaceforshearingtheownerhadtopayfiveshekelsifthewoolwas
white.Whenamandivorcedhiswife,theishakku,orlocalgovernor,receivedfive
shekelsandhisviziertookanother.Furthermore,"theoxenofthegodsplowedthe
ishakku'sonionpatches,"meaningthatthetempleequipmentwasusedforthe
governor'sownbenefit,andtheishakkuhadplantedhispersonalonionand
cucumberpatch"inthegod'sbestfields."
Andthen"therewerethetaxcollectors,"asthehistorianobserved.Evenafterdeath,
officialscouldclaimquantitiesofaman'sbarley,bread,beer,evenfurnishings.
MatterswereatlowebbinLagashuntil,atlast,agoodmanUrukaginabyname
cametopower,anhonest,godfearingrulerwhothrewoutthecorruptadministrators,
rightedwrongs,endedunjusttreatmentofthepoor,andridthecityofthieves,usurers
andmurderers.
Eventheselivelyaccountsbarelyscratchthesurfaceonlyarelativelysmallnumber
oftheSumeriantabletshavebeenstudiedindetail.Butmuchofwhathasbeen
learnedaboutSumeriaistheworkofSamuelKramer.Asputbytwoprofessorsatthe
UniversityMuseuminPhiladelphia,whoarecompilingadictionaryoftheSumerian
language,"HereconstructedthewholeofSumerianliterature.Webuildonhim."
MaryLucyWoodwaseducatedinFlorida,didgraduateworkatColumbia
UniversityandspentayeardoinghistoricalresearchinUruguayandArgentina
whereherinterestinarcheologywassparkedbythediscoveryofIncabonesinPeru.
Thisarticleappearedonpages1821oftheSeptember/October1979printeditionofSaudi
AramcoWorld.

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