Lecture 1b

Review of Discrete
Structures +
The Pigeonhole Principle
1

Recall some Discrete Structures

Relation
Homogeneous relation (relation on)
Function, partial function
Injection, surjection, bijection

Injection = one-to-one function

Surjection = onto function
Bijection = one-to-one correspondence

Recall some Discrete Structures

a b f(a) f(b)

contrapositive

A surjective function is a function whose

image is equal to its codomain. Equivalently, a
function f with domain X and codomain Y is
surjective if for every y in Y there exists at least
one x in X with .

The term surjective and the related

terms injective and bijective were
introduced by Nicolas Bourbaki, the
pseudonym for a group of mainly
French 20th-century mathematicians
who wrote a series of books
presenting an exposition of modern
advanced mathematics, beginning in
1935.
6

Partial Functions
f: X Y is a partial function iff
xX: |f(x)| 1
Sometimes also denoted f: X Y
using an arrow with vertical stroke.
Another definition

A partial function f: X Y is a
function f: X' Y, where X' X.
7

Partial functions

It generalizes the concept of a function f: X Y by

not forcing f to map every element of X to an
element of Y.
If X' = X, then f is called a total function and is
equivalent to a function.
Partial functions are often used when the exact
domain, X' , is not known (e.g. many functions in
computability theory).
Specifically, we will say that for any x X, either:

f(x) = y Y (it is defined as a single element in Y) or

f(x) is undefined.

Partial functions

For example we can consider the square root function restricted to

the integers
Thus g(n) is only defined for n that are perfect squares (i.e. 0, 1,
4, 9, 16, ...). So, g(25) = 5, but g(26) is undefined.
9

Partial functions

There are two distinct meanings in current

mathematical usage for the notion of the
domain of a partial function.
Most mathematicians, including recursion
theorists, use the term "domain of f" for the set
of all values x such that f(x) is defined (X'
above).
But some, particularly category theorists,
consider the domain of a partial function f:XY
to be X, and refer to X' as the domain of
definition.
10

Partial functions

Similarly, the term range can refer to either the

codomain Y or the image f(X) = {yY: xX:
y=f(x)} of a function. In other words, the range
of f is the set of all values that the function
assigns to its arguments.

11

Partial functions

A partial function is said to be injective or

surjective when the total function given by the
restriction of the partial function to its domain of
definition is.
A partial function may be both injective and
surjective, but the term bijection generally only
applies to total functions.

12

The Pigeonhole Principle

A useful rule often used without

thinking

13

The Pigeonhole Principle

Colloquial version: If n pigeons fly

into m < n pigeonholes, then at
least one pigeonhole will have more
than one pigeons

14

Illustration

15

Illustration

10 pigeons
9 holes

16

Pigeonhole principle

In more formal terms: if A and B

are finite sets and |A| > |B| then no
function A B is an injection.
This is not true for infinite sets!

17

Can be proved formally,

e.g., Epp 4th ed. 561,

Gopalakrishnan 85

18

Examples of usage

19

Examples of usage
Length n means n arrows which is
n+1 nodes

20

Resources

Hein 111
Epp 4t ed. 554
Gopalakrishnan 85
Sipser 3rd 78

21