CHAPTER Country Study (Conversational Topics)

Din cartea: English for high school: D.Melenciuc, E.Onofreiciuc, E.Fabian

Chisinau, 2000
1. MOLDOVA
The sovereign independent state, of Moldova occupies a. territory of 33,700 sq. km.
In the North, East and South it is bordered on the Ukraine and in the West on
Romania.
Moldova has a population of more than 4 million people. It is a densely populated
state. Chishinau, the capital, has a population of 720000. The major cities of Moldova
include Tiraspol with 184,000 people; Balti with 162,000; and Bender with 132,000.
The landscape in Moldova is extremely varied ranging from the hills of central and
north Moldova to the Nistru steppe lands and the South Moldova plain , which is
called Budzhak Steppe.
Moldova's chief asset is its black earth soils which cover 80% of the territory. No
other country has such a large percentage of black earth in its soil structure. In this
regard Moldova is unique.
The warm temperate climate and abundant sunshine, coupled with the fertile soil,
provide ideal conditions for the development of a highly-productive agriculture. In
autumn you can see a lot of trucks loaded with corn, sugar-beet, tobacco, peppers,
apples and grapes.
Moldova is a multi-national republic. Besides Moldovans, who make up nearly 65
percent of the population, there are Russians, Ukrainians, Bulgarians and other
nationalities.
Of the people participating in religious activities in Moldova, the majority are
Christian in the Eastern Orthodox rite. Religious communities of other persuasions,
including Roman Catholic, Baptist, Seventh Day Adventist and Jewish are also active.
Neither official nor social restrictions exist with regards to religious belief.
Romanian was declared the official language of Moldova in 1989, replacing Russian.
The Romanian language is of Latin origin. Moldova has rich folk art traditions,
Moldovan songs and dances arc known far and wide. Carpets are the pride of the
republic. The national cuisine is noted for its abundance of fruit and vegetables. The
Moldovans are very hospitable. They would be hurt if a guest refused an offered glass
of wine. As Moldova is an agricultural country it has a well developed food and light
industry. Wine-making in Moldova has a long-standing tradition. Moldovan wines and
cognacs are of superior quality. Instrument making, electrical engineering are well
developed too. On the whole there had been more than 600 big industrial enterprises
in Moldova. Moldova's tractors, agricultural machinery, electric motors, microware,
TV-sets, household refrigerators, transformers, defectoscopes and washing machines
are in great demand on the market in the CIS and in other countries. We export
ultrafine microware, electric pumps, electric measuring devices, tractors. Some
European countries and Japan buy our natural silk fabrics and Moldovan carpets.

Moldova has a well-developed science and a rich culture. Our biggest research centre
is the Moldovan Academy of Sciences. People all over the world applaud Moldovan
artists: Maria Bieshu, Mihail Munteanu, Veronica Garshtea, Vasile Yovu and others.
If you come to Moldova you should visit a peasant home. Moldovans are generous
and lively people; guests are always welcome. Today peasants live in spacious,
modern cottages decorated with national ornaments.
Moldova is full-fledged member of the World Community.
2. CHISHINAU
Chishinau, the capital of Moldova, lies on the hills and slopes of the Byk river valley.
It is often called a white-stone city and a city of the sun. Chishinau is over 560 years
old. It has a population of more than 720000. For many years Chishinau was divided
into "uptown" and "downtown". "Uptown" consisted of the handsome mansions of the
rich, parks and gardens. "Downtown" had small one-storey houses I crowded
together on dusty wretched looking streets.
Now that is all part of the past. Present-day Chisinau, where a third of the urban
population of the state live, is a large political, I administrative, economic, historic,
cultural and transportation centre of the sovereign independent state of Moldova.
Intellectual and cultural life is blooming in Chisinau. The city has a whole network of
scientific and research institutions working under the auspices of the Academy of
Sciences of Moldova, and several higher education establishments, including
Moldova State University, the oldest among them. Chisinau has 7 theatres, including
the national opera and ballet theatre.
We are proud of such excellent artistic companies as the Doina Capella Choir, The
Fluerash Folk Music Orchestra and the Zhok Dance Ensemble. Art has a great power
over human feelings and moods. Eugeniu Doga, a famous Moldovan composer, Maria
Bieshu, the best madam Butterfly of the world, an opera singer Mihail Munteanu is
known in many countries of the world. The song "My White City is a Flower of
Stone" by E.Doga has become the anthem of Chisinau.
Chisinau is a city of old and modern architecture, historical monuments and beautiful
new residential areas. The main street in the 1 city is Stephan eel Mare Avenue named
after the great Moldovan prince Stephan the Great. Most of Chisinau's buildings have
been constructed with a local stone white kotelets. The land around the city is very
fertile that's why Chisinau's architects have no other alternative as to build multistoried buildings. But the architects want to preserve the single-storied mansions in
the old part of the city. Most of these buildings are architectural monuments and will
be turned into hotels and trading centres. The older streets will be closed to traffic and
open only to pedestrians.
To improve the citys environment the larger industries have been moved out to
special industrial areas outside the city limits. Three industrial zones have been
projected in Chisinau.

Chisinau is beautiful in its own particular way all year round. But in spring the
verdure of the trees and vines is most luxurious. The monument to Stephan cel Mare
(Stephen the Great), monuments to Moldovan and Romanian classics in the Public
Garden, the monument to the great Russian poet Alexander Pushkin and a host of
others decorate our city.
Chisinau has the most skilled labour force. The citys major industries today are
instrument-making, electrical engineering and electronic engineering works. The
electrical instruments, oscillographs, micro conductors in glass insulation, household
refrigerators, washing machines and TV-sets are sold all over the Commonwealth of
Independent States and dozens of other countries as well.
As the important political, scientific and cultural centre Chisinau has a great impact
on the cultural development of Moldova as a whole. New embassies are being open in
Moldova.
3. MOLDOVA AND MARKET ECONOMY
Moldova has faced significant and escalating economic difficulties since its
acquisition of independence in 1991. this situation is reflected in the main
macroeconomic Indicator for the republic CROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GPR)
which has dropped by the nearly 60 %.
The agricultural sector has been strongly impacted by the nations economic
difficulties, as well as by adverse environmental conditions. In 1993 Moldovas
agricultural harvest was adequate, a considerable portion remained uncollected and
unprocessed due to lack of fuel, transportation, and financial resources. In addition,
due to early November frosts, hundreds of thousands of tons of fruits, vegetables, and
tobacco were damaged beyond use. In the summer of 1994, a similar stream of natural
disasters , including a drought, followed by a hurricane, followed by a flood, caused
even greater losses than those experienced in the previous year. The deviating
flooding in August 1994 alone brought about losses totaling US $ 220 million, which
exceeded the amount of Moldovas annual state budget.
Moldovas industrial activities include: refrigerator, television, furniture, clothing,
and agricultural machinery production. The Republics continued deficit of raw
materials and energy resources, however, greatly threatens the productivity of this
sector. Of the republics 262 production enterprises, 60% experienced production
declines. Overall in 1993, many industrial enterprises operated at levels 50 % lower
than their full potential.
The decline in production has negatively influenced the budgetary capacity of the
Moldovan Government to address the social and other issues. In November 1994, for
example, budget areas reached a level of US $ 70 million. As a result sizable delays
exist in payments of wages, pensions, stipends and other allocations.
Natural resources within the country are few. The situation in Moldovas energy
sector is strained, therefore, more so as the nations capacity to import energy
continues to deteriorate. All types of fuel, including coal, oil and natural gas are

imported from Russia and Moldovas debt for natural gas, different from the Russian
Federation, equaled US $ 250 million as of late 1994.
Nevertheless, despite the above mentioned difficulties, economic reform
including privatization and the transition to market economy is being actively
pursued in Moldova and is expected to slowly move the republic out of its current
economic crisis and into a more healthy economic state.
Building of the state and its sovereignty, has allowed Moldova to accomplish some
important achievements in economic reform, i.e., the economic crisis and its social
impact.
The success of macroeconomic stabilization has also helped to increase the level of
confidence and trust in Moldova amongst the international community. The reforms
are being supports by foreign creditors and by technical assistance from donors,
including the United Nations (UN), the European Union (EU), the USA, Germany and
Netherlands.
In order to further develop the private sector, it is necessary to continue the
reforms and to improve the mechanisms supporting and stimulating them.
Furthermore, macroeconomic stabilization with not last unless the reforms reach all
parts of the national economy.
Although the Land Code contains some contradictions, new important measures
on agriculture have been taken, such as the liberalization of economic activity and
privatization of the industrial sector of the agro-industrial complex, contributing to a
relative stabilization of the market for food products and to an increase in exports.
Success in promoting economic reforms in Moldova privatization of state
property, liberalization of prices in the real estate market, liberalization of
international trade, establishment and development of the banking system and of the
financial market allowed Moldova to be placed in the 11th position amongst the 25
countries of Central and Eastern Europe, the Baltic states and the Commonwealth of
Independent States (C I S) in a classification made by the European Bank for
Reconstruction and Development.
We can, therefore, conclude that 1995 was the first year of transition, following
the first destructive stage of the reforms, to a better stage.
However, although macro-economic stabilization is encouraging the continuous
evolution towards a market economy, it does not guarantee an increase in the level of
development, restructuring of efficiency of the national economy. These problems will
require a longer period to solve than that required for achieving macro-economic
stabilization.
Economy of Moldova (Sho
(CIA World Fact
Moldova remains one of the poorest countries in Europe despite recent progress from
has no major mineral deposits. As a result, the economy depends heavily on agriculture, fea
its energy supplies. Moldova's dependence on Russian energy was underscored at the end
Transnistria region cut off power to Moldova and Russia's Gazprom cut off natural gas in dis
between Russia and Ukraine. Russia's decision to ban Moldovan wine and agricultural prod

natural gas, have hurt growth. The onset of the global financial crisis and poor economic
conditions
in (2005)
Moldova's main foreign markets caused GDP to fall 6.5% in 2009.
services:
43.3%
Unemployment almost doubled and inflation disappeared - at -0.1%, a record low. Moldova's
IMF
agreement
expired in May 2009.In fall 2009, the
Budget:
Monetary Fund) allocated $186 million to Moldova to cover its immediate budgetary needs, and the government signed an new agreement with the IMF in January 2010
revenues:
billion
for a program worth $574 million. In 2010, an upturn in the world economy boosted GDP
growth $2.164
to 3.1%
and inflation to 7.3%. Economic reforms have been slow because
expenditures:
$2.462
billion
(2009
est.)integration has resulted in some market-oriented
of corruption and strong political forces backing government controls. Nevertheless, the government's primary
goal
of EU
Inflation
rate
(consumer
prices):
progress. The granting of EU trade preferences and increased exports to Russia will encourage higher growth rates, but the agreements are unlikely to serve as a
panacea, given the extent to which export success depends on higher quality standards7.3%
and(2010
otherest.)
factors. The economy has made a modest recovery, but remains
vulnerable to political uncertainty, weak administrative capacity, vested bureaucratic interests,
fuel prices,
poor 185
agricultural weather, and the skepticism of foreign
country higher
comparison
to the world:
investors as well as the presence of an illegal separatist regime in Moldova's Transnistria
region.
-0.1%
(2009 est.)
Crisis and poor economic conditions in Moldova's main foreign markets caused GDP
to fall 6.5%
in 2009. Unemployment almost doubled and inflation disappeared Agriculture
- products:
at -0.1%, a record low. Moldova's IMF agreement expired in May 2009. In fall 2009, the IMF allocated $186 million to Moldova to cover its immediate budgetary needs, and
vegetables, fruits, grapes, grain, sugar beets,sunflower seed, tobacco; beef, milk; wine
the government signed an new agreement with the IMF in January 2010 for a program worth $574 million. In 2010, an upturn in the world economy boosted GDP growth to
3.1% and inflation to 7.3%. Economic reforms have been slow because of corruption and strong political forces backing government controls. Nevertheless, the
Industries:
government's primary goal of EU integration has resulted in some market-oriented progress.
The granting of EU trade preferences and increased exports to Russia will
encourage higher growth rates, but the agreements are unlikely to serve as a panacea,sugar,
givenvegetable
the extent
which
export success
depends
on higher
quality
standards
and and fr
oil,tofood
processing,
agricultural
machinery;
foundry
equipment,
refrigerators
other factors. The economy has made a modest recovery, but remains vulnerable to political uncertainty, weak administrative capacity, vested bureaucratic interests, higher
production
rate:
fuel prices, poor agricultural weather, and the skepticism of foreign investors as well asIndustrial
the presence
of an growth
illegal separatist
regime in Moldova's Transnistria region.
4.5% (2009 est.)
country comparison to the world: 75
GDP - real growth rate:
3.1% (2010 est.)
country comparison to the world: 115
-6.5% (2009 est.)
7.8% (2008 est.)
GDP - per capita (PPP):
$2,500 (2010 est.)
country comparison to the world: 179
$2,400 (2009 est.)
$2,500 (2008 est.)
note: data are in 2010 US dollars
GDP - composition by sector:
agriculture: 16.3%
industry: 20.1%
services: 63.6% (2009 est.)

Electricity - production:
3.617 billion kWh (2007 est.)
country comparison to the world: 120
Electricity - consumption:
4.37 billion kWh (2007 est.)
country comparison to the world: 114
Electricity - exports:
240 million kWh (2007 est.)
Electricity - imports:
Natural gas - production:
50 million cu m (2007 est.)
country comparison to the world: 82

Labor force - by occupation:

agriculture: 40.6%
industry: 16%

Natural gas - consumption:

2.52 billion cu m (2008 est.)
country comparison to the world: 77

Exports:
$1.45 billion (2010 est.)
country comparison to the world: 139
- international:
$1.332 Disputes
billion (2009
est.)
Moldova and Ukraine operate joint customs posts to monitor the transit of people
commodities through Moldova's break-away Transnistria region,
Exports and
- commodities:
which remains under OSCE supervision
foodstuffs, textiles, machinery

Transnational Issues of

Trafficking in persons:
situation: Moldova is a major source and, to a lesser extent, a transit country for women and girls trafficked for the purpose of commercial sexual exploitation;
Exportscurrent
- partners:
Moldovan women are trafficked to the Middle East, Eastern Europe, and Western Europe; girls and
Russia 23.77%,
Italy 14.11%,
Romaniawithin
12.74%,
6.92%,
Turkey
6.08%,
Belarus 5.38%
(2009)
young women
are trafficked
theGermany
country from
rural
areas
to Chisinau;
children
are also trafficked to neighboring countries for
forced labor and begging; labor trafficking of men to work in the construction, agriculture, and service sectors of Russia is increasingly a problem; according to an ILO
Imports:report, Moldova's national Bureau of Statistics estimated that there were likely over 25,000 Moldovan
victims of trafficking for forced labor in 2008
$3.66 billion (2010 est.)
tier rating: Tier 2 Watch List - The Government of Moldova does not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of
country comparison to the world: 133
trafficking; however, it is making significant efforts to do so; despite initial efforts to combat trafficking-related complicity since the government's reassessment on the Tier 2
$3.276 billion (2009 est.)
Watch List in September 2008, and increased victim assistance, the government did not demonstrate sufficiently meaningful efforts to curb trafficking-related corruption,
Labor force
- by
occupation:
which
is a
government-acknowledged problem in
agriculture:
40.6%
Moldova; the government improved victim protection efforts, deployed more law-enforcement officers in the effort and contributed direct financial assistance toward victim
industry:
16%
protection
and assistance for the first time (2010)
services: 43.3% (2005)
Illicit drugs:
Unemployment
rate:
limited cultivation
of opium poppy and cannabis, mostly for CIS consumption; transshipment point for illicit drugs from Southwest Asia
3.4% (2010
est.)
via Central Asia to Russia, Western Europe, and possibly the US; widespread crime and underground economic activity
country comparison to the world: 26
3.1% (2009 est.)
Population below poverty line:
29.5% (2005)

4. OUR ENVIRONMENT
The earth's biosphere is extremely small. It is also in a state of delicate balance, which
can be disturbed by natural or other forces. Recent advances in science and
technology are making it increasingly possible for man to influence his environment.
He can change it, he can improve it but he can also disturb it and warning voices tell
us, he may even go so far as to destroy it altogether.
Oil is the single greatest pollutant on earth. When one tanker the Torrey Canyon, hit a
reef off the southwest corner of England on a grey March morning in 1967 it spilled
119,00 tons of oil enough to run an automobile 9,400 times around the world,
devastating almost 200 miles of Cornish and Breton beaches. The Torrey Canyon
disaster aroused a general awareness that oil pollution alone could destroy man's 20-th
century culture.
The effects of man's increasing power over his environment are the concern of
ecology, the relatively new science of the relation between organisms and their
environment. It will be the ecologist's task to help us to remedy the environmental ills
that are among the most vital problems of our age.
Petroleum threatens the earth's environment from the moment crude oil leaves the
well until it enters the atmosphere as gas and is unavoidably drawn into human lungs.
Each automobile or truck, each oil-fired furnace fouls the atmosphere. The automobile
alone is estimated to cause 60% of America's total air pollution. And when oil
products enter the air in tiny drops, they can combine with other pollutions to produce
the smog now infamous from Los Angeles to Milan.
The long-term effects of oil pollution are only now beginning to be studied in depth.
How much emphysema, the crippling and often fatal lung disease of city dwellers and
heavy smokers, is caused by oil pollution remains unknown but suspect.
For, increasingly, all over the world scientists, statesmen and specialists in every field
are coming to agree on the paradoxes of our modern age:
that, as societies grow richer, their environments grow
poorer;
-that, as the number of objects expands, the energy of life declines;
that, as we gain more leisure to enjoy our surroundings, we
find less around us to enjoy.
Industrialization has added its own burden to the population pressure .The more we
produce and consume, the more waste products we send into the air and water and
land around us, where they do not "disappear", but last forever in one form or another.
Less that one-tenth of one per cent of polluting materials can kill fish life by
consuming oxygen in the waters.
We now spew 150 million tons of pollutants into the atmosphere annually, and 90 per
cent of this consists of largely invisible but potentially deadly gases. This may reduce
solar radiation, and raise the temperature at the earth's surface. Some predict that this
could conceivably melt the polar ice cap, thus flooding the coastal cities of the world.

Industrialization plagues the land as well as die air and waters Our rise in synthetic
technology has given us innumerable conveniences - but the roadsides are strewn with
cans, bottles, and cartons, me dumps overflow, and in some cities it costs three times
more to get rid of a ton of junk than to ship in a ton of coal.
Urbanization is perhaps the most menacing trend that threat tit our planet today.
Each time we build a new highway, bulldoze a wood into n shopping center, or turn
farmland into housing developments, we decrease the area that will grow food. Great
progress is being made In the productivity of our soil, yet agriculture is now taking
three to lout million tons more nutrients from it than are being replaced each year.
Now is the time for all good men to come to the aid of their planet.
Perhaps this mighty global struggle to restore the quality of our human environment
may provide an effective and inspired substitute for national conflict and bloodshed.
Perhaps only a planetary view of man can guarantee our survival.
We have the weapons that enable us all to die together; we not make the tools that
enable us all to live together?
In late 80-ies Moldova was considered one of the most polluted areas of the former
Soviet Union. The soils and waters were particularly polluted.
The soil situation aggravated due to erosion. Every year the investments for the soil
protection measures are being reduced, and forest maintenance and improvement
programmes are not being fulfilled. The situation is characteristic for the whole
forestry sector. The illegal cutting down of the trees has increased because of lack of
fuel and construction materials, many forests have been destroyed, poaching grew to
the extent it effects the biologic variety of Moldova.
The Department for Environment Protection plays the main role in the .environmental
administration of the country. It carries out geological tests and control, develops and
promotes the ecological policy of the state, co-ordinates the environmental protection
activity, performs the ecological monitoring.
To assure the observation of the ecological laws, special units Of the department for
Environmental Protection have been set up: the State Ecological Inspection as well as 11
other ecological agencies Hid fishing inspection. Environment inspectors control the
utilization of the natural resources, the effectiveness of environment protection
measures, proper functioning of water and air treatment systems, etc. Should ecological
laws and regulations be violated, this subdivision has the power to impose
administrative sanctions. Environment inspectors have power to control any enterprise
or company located in the country, to demand any information related to the
environmental situation, to enforce sanctions(within its competence), and to terminate or
stall the operations of companies and enterprises in cases specified by the law.
Currently the environmental situation has improved, especially after the decline in
production and owing to the deficit of chemicals Hit) Hid. As a result the quality of air
has improved ; the soil pollution reduced to he admissible concentrations; the
ndition of water and rivers has stabilized, primarily in the rivers NISTRU and
PRUT.

5. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

The United States of America is bigger in area (9, 4 mln. square km) than the
whole of Europe. From Boston to Los Angeles is as far as from France to Central
Asia, and from East to West there are five time zones. The population of the USA is
250 mln people (by March, 1990). Women comprise 51, 4% of the population; men
-48%.
In the vast area of the US exist most of the physical conditions known to
man: heat and cold, forest and desert, tropical swamp and Arctic waste, mountains
(McKinley, Alaska, being the highest mountain in the US - 6193 m) and endless
plains, empty spaces and mega polis, and the world's largest river system, with
Mississippi being the longest river, 3950 km long.
The diversity of the people themselves is immense. People have many
different ethnic backgrounds. After its first discovery by Columbus in 1492, the first
Europeans to settle were Spaniards in the 16th century followed by the English,
French, Italian, German, Irish, Dutch, Polish, etc.
Although the US covers so much land, its people are by now almost entirely
an urban society. Less than one tenth of the people are engaged in agriculture and
forestry and most of the rest live in or around towns, small and large. Half the
population now lives in some thirty metropolitan areas (large cities with their
suburbs) of more than a million people each.
The USA is rich in natural resources: oil, coal, iron and a variety of
minerals, great forests. Today, with less than 10% of the world's population the USA
accounts for nearly half the world's output of goods.
According to the administrative structure the USA is a federal republic
divided into 50 states and the Federal District of Columbia. The capital of the USA is
Washington, DC.
There are two main political parties in the USA: the Democrats and the Republicans.
Generally, the Republican Party has favored business, low taxes, less economic
intervention and government spending. The Democratic Party, on the other hand, has
tended to favor government financed programs for the poor and people with low
income levels. At present the Democrats Party is in power, with the president Barack
Obama. There is also a significant portion of the electorate that does not affiliate with
any party -independent voters who will change the party they vote for from election to
election.

6. GEOGRAPHY OF THE USA

The USA is situated in the central part of the North American continent. Its
western coast is washed by the Pacific Ocean and its eastern coast by the Atlantic
Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico.
The county occupies nearly half of the North American continent with
Canada to the North. Mexico to the south, the Atlantic ocean to the East and the
Pacific Ocean to the West. The two newest states, Alaska and Hawaii, are separated
from the coterminous United States: Alaska borders on North-West Canada, and
Hawaii lies in the central Pacific. The geographical position of the United States
makes it a country of great differences in landscape and weather.
The USA is separated from Canada in the North by the forty-ninth parallel
and the Great Lakes and from Mexico in the south by a line following the Rio
Grenade River continuing across the highlands to the Pacific Ocean.
The total area of the_USA is over 9 million square kilometers.
The continental part of the USA consists of two highland regions and two
lowland regions. The highland regions are the Appalachian Mountains in the East and
the Cordillera in the West. The Appalachian Mountains run parallel to the Atlantic
coast almost from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada. Their highest peak is 2, 000 meters
high. The Cordillera stretches along the Pacific coast with the Sierra Nevada in the
South and the Rocky Mountains continuing to Canada and Alaska in the North. Their
highest point in the USA is 4,540 meters in the Sierra Nevada. To the West from the
Rockies there are high plateaus, including the Colorado, Columbia and Great Basin.
These plateaus are crossed by streams which flow through deep canyons. The most
famous of these is the Grand Canyon in the northwestern Arizona.
Between the Cordillera and the Appalachian Mountains there are the central
lowlands, which are called the prairie, and the eastern lowlands called the Mississippi
valley.
The five Great Lakes, between the USA and Canada, are joined together by
short rivers or canals, to the Atlantic Ocean by the Saint Lawrence River, and to the
Hudson River by a canal. In the West of the USA there is another lake called the
Great Salt Lake. The Great Lakes make up the largest group of lakes in the Country,
as well as the greatest collection of fresh-water lakes in the world.
The principal rivers of the USA are the Mississippi, the longest river in the
world (7, 330 kilometers), which flows into the Gulf of Mexico, the Colorado and the
Columbia, which flow into the Pacific Ocean and the Hudson River, which flows into
the Atlantic Ocean.

The climate in the USA differs greatly from one part of the country to
another. The coldest climate is in the North, where there is heavy snow in winter and
the temperature may go down to 40 degrees below zero. The South has a subtropical
climate, with temperatures as high as 49 degrees in summer. Hot winds blowing from
the Gulf of Mexico often bring typhoons. The climate along the Pacific coast is much
warmer than that of the Atlantic coast. The heaviest rains in the country are in the
Washington region, and the climate in the Gulf of Mexico area is also very damp.
The region around the Great Lakes is known for its changeable climate.
7. WEATHER AND CLIMATE IN THE USA
The climates which are found within the boundaries of the continental
United States are extremely diverse, yet it is possible to deduce certain facts of broad
application concerning them. The country lies wholly in the temperate zone. Hence
its mean annual
Temperatures are intermediate between those of the arctic regions on the one hand
and those of the torrid zone on the other.
TEMPERATURE
In the US, January is normally the coldest month of the year, the mean
monthly temperature ranges from about zero in the extreme central-north to above 50
F in more southern sections. Thus the winter north-south temperature range is large.
The lowest temperature of record is 66 F in Yellowstone National Park, Feb. 1933.
July, with a mean temperature ranging from 65 F locally in the extreme
north to slightly above 80 F in Gulf sections is usually the warmest month of the year.
Every state in the Union has experienced maximum temperatures of 100 F or higher.
The highest of record is 134 F at Death Valley, Caliph, observed on July 10, 1913;
this is the second highest shade temperature of record for the world.
PRECIPITATION
On bases of average annual precipitation of the US may be divided into an
eastern and western part. About 40% of the land area receives, on the average, less
than 20 inches of precipitation annually: about 35% 20 to 40 inches; and 25% 40 to
60 inches. The heaviest precipitation, more than 100 inches a year, occur near the
coast of the Pacific north-west, and the lightest, less than 5 inches a year, in southeastern California and some adjoining localities.
FROST AND THE GROWING SEASON
The crop growing season, or period between the average date of last killing
frost in the spring and the first in the fall, ranges from 100 to 120 days locally in the
extreme north to about 260 days in Gulf sections. In some elevated western sections

the growing season is less than three months in length. On the other hand, in southern
Florida killing frost usually occurs in less than half the years.
SUNSHINE
The amount of sunshine in different parts of the US is decidedly variable. In the far
North-west and from the Lake region eastward the sun shines, on the average, less
than half the total possible hours, but in some far South-western districts more than
85% of the possible amount occurs. The fall and winter months are especially cloudy
in the North-western and North-eastern portions of the country.
STORMS
A characteristic of the US climate is the frequency of tornadoes. These
destructive storms find their real home in the great central lowlands east of the Rocky
Mountains. Nowhere else in the world are tornadoes as frequent, as violent, as
destructive as here. The average annual number of tornadoes in the US is 140, with an
average loss of life of 260, and property damage averaging about 13,000,000 dol.
8. FOUR SEASONS IN THE USA
Most of the United States is marked by sharp differences between winter and
summer. In winter, when temperature contrasts between land and water are greatest,
huge masses of frigid, dry Canadian air periodically spread far south over the midcontinent, bringing cold, sparkling weather to the interior and generating cyclonic
storms . Although such cyclonic activity occurs throughout the year, it is most
frequent and intense during the winter, parading eastward out of the Great Plants to
bring the Eastern states practically all their winter precipitation. Winter temperatures
differ widely, depending largely on latitude. Thus, New Orleans. La., at 30 N latitude
and International Falls. Minn., at 49 N have respective January temperature averages
of 55F(13C) and 3 F (-16 C) in the north therefore precipitation often comes as snow,
often driven by furious winds; farther south, cold rain alternates with sleet and
occasional snow. Southern Florida is the only dependably warm part of the East. The
main uniformity of Eastern weather in wintertime is the expectation of frequent
change.
Winter climate on the West coast is very different. A great spiraling mass of
relatively warm, moist air spreads south from the Aleutian Islands of Alaska, its semi
permanent front producing gloomy overcast and drizzles that hang over the Pacific
Northwest all winter long, occasionally reaching southern California, which receives
nearly all of its rain at this time of year. This Pacific air brings mild

temperatures along the length of the coast; the average January day in Seattle, Wash.,
ranges between 33 and 44F(and 7 C) and in Los Angeles between 45 and 64 F (7 and
18 C).
During the summer there is a reversal of the air masses and east of the
Rockies the change resembles the summer monsoon of Southeast Asia. As the midcontinent heats up., the cold Canadian air mass weakens and retreats, pushed north by
an aggressive mass of warm, moist air from the Gulf. The great winter temperature
differential between North and South disappears as the hot, soggy blanket spreads
from the Gulf coast to the Canadian border. Heat and humidity are naturally most
oppressive in the South, but there is little comfort in the more northern latitudes.
Relief from the humid heat comes in the northern Midwest from occasional
outbursts of cool Canadian air, small but more consistent relief is found downwind
from the Great Lakes and at high elevations in the Appalachians. East of the Rockies,
however, US summers are distinctly uncomfortable and air conditioning is viewed as
a desirable amenity in most areas.
Over most of the United States as in most continental climates, spring and
autumn are agreeable but disappointingly brief. Autumn is particularly idyllic in the
East, with a romantic Indian summer of ripening corn and brilliantly coloured foliage
and of mild days and frosty nights. The shift in dominance between marine and
continental air masses however spawns furious weather in some regions. Along the
Atlantic and Gulf coasts, for example, autumn is the season for hurricanes - the
American equivalent of typhoons of the Asian Pacific - which rage northward from
the warm tropics to create havoc along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts as far north as
New England. The Mississippi valley holds the dubious distinction of recording more
tornadoes than any area on Earth. These violent and often deadly storms occur over
relatively small areas and are confined largely to spring and early summer.
9. WASHINGTON
Washington is the capital of the United States of America. The city was
called after the first President of the United
States, General George Washington. Washington is situated on the Potomac
River in the District of Columbia (DC). The District of Columbia is outside the
jurisdiction of any state and subject only to the control of the Federal Congress.
Now it is a city of two million inhabitants. The federal district is a place of
land ten miles square and it does not belong to any other state, but to all the states.
The district is named in honor of Columbus, the discoverer of America.

While the capital is named after George Washington, it was not named by
him. The first president called it simply "The Federal City", and the name
Washington did not come into general use until after his death.
If you are interested in the law-making centre of the US, go to the Capitol,
with its great Hall of Representatives and Senate Chamber. There are many places of
interest near the Capitol. You can walk around the back of the Capitol and look
across Union Square all the way down to the Washington Monument and beyond to
the Lincoln Memorial. From the Capitol Pennsylvania Avenue leads off right to the
White House. The tourists usually make a tour of the White House to see its rooms
and grounds.
The White House, the President's residence, is located in Pennsylvania
Avenue. The site was selected by President Washington and the architect was James
Hoban.
The cornerstone of the Executive Mansion, as it was originally known, dates
from October 1792. The British troops which arrived in Washington in 1814 were
indirectly responsible for the name "White House." The building burnt down during
the fighting. Later it was painted white to conceal the marks of the fire. But it
remained the "Executive Mansion" until the administration of Theodore Roosevelt
when "White House" appeared and the term became official.
The largest complex of museums in Washington DC is the Smithsonian
Institution, comprising 15 museums with 6,000
employees. It contains more than 134 million items. The most popular museum in
numbers of visitors is the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum, which opened in
July 1976. The total attendance at the Smithsonian is about 24 million per year. The
largest library in the world is the Library of Congress (founded 1800) on Capitol
Hill. By 1988, it contained 86 million items, including 22 million books and
pamphlets.
As America's capital city, Washington represents the governmental and
political centre of the country. But it is also a major cultural, historical and economic
centre, a city of great natural and monumental beauty.
10. CITIES AND STATES OF THE USA
NEW YORK
New York is the most famous city "in the United States, it may be called the
symbol of the nation.
New York is known for being the biggest in many different dimensions-first
in finance, first in communications, first as a shipping port, first in international air

flights, first in advertising , first in the number of different ethnic groups and
communities.
It is a city of contradictions and contrasts. Along with almost unbelievable
affluence there are tens of thousands of people who sleep out-of-doors. It is a city
hated by many and loved by many.
New York has been called a "melting pot" as New York by its very nature has
been an immigrant city with huge numbers of Europeans and Asians pouring into it.
Besides Negroes and Puerto-Ricans there are a few other ethnic groups and
communities, such as Chinatown, Little Italy, Brighton Beach, where Russian
immigrants usually settle, and others. For all its troubles New York remains the most
exciting city in the nation, an endless drama that brings together the cultures and the
peoples of the world.
New York is the cosmopolitan city of endless change and variety. The great
sights of New York attract lots of tourists.
STATUE OF LIBERTY . In 1865 the noted sculptor Frederic-Augusto
Bartholdi discussed with a group of his friends in
Paris the possibility of a gift to America from France to commemorate the friendship
of the two nations .
The official ceremony of presentation to the American people was held on
July 4, Independence Day, 1884.
The statue's framework was engineered by Gustave Eiffel, who later
designed the famous tower in Paris which bears his name.
The proportions of the statue are enormous: the height from the base to torch
is 151 feet/45m/, the height from the foundation of the pedestal to the torch is 305
feet /92m/. Visitors may climb into her head for a spectacular view of New York
Harbor. At night the statue is floodlighted, and the lights that shine from her torch can
be seen for miles.
WORLD TRADE CENTER. It is certainly the most spectacular building
project to have been executed in New York in the 1960. There are two buildings
which are the tallest in Manhattan and second tallest in the world, their height is
1,350 feet /405m/. Different trade offices are maintained there, numbering 50,000
employees. A computer constantly monitors lighting and temperature conditions
within the buildings. The elevators are the fastest of their size ever used; no trip
requires more than 2 minutes of riding time.
WALL STREET in this century has become known as the center of one of
the world's greatest financial districts and as such has become synonymous with the

capitalist system. The Center is named after street where a wall was built by the
Dutch in 1653. The first commercial enterprise was established in 1709. The best
known part of Wall Street is the New York Stock Exchange - the largest stock in the
world. It dates from the end of the 18-th century when 24 brokers drew up a trade
agreement. Visitors can view the frenzied trading activity at Stock Exchange from
the Visitors' Gallery.
BROADWAY is the main commercial thoroughfare of the city. To millions
the word "Broadway" means the New York Theater district, an area associated with
such outstanding American playwrights as Eugene O'Nell, Edward Albee, Lillian
Hellman and others.
LAS VEGAS, NEVADA
Las Vegas is a center of gambling in America. For this reason, some say the
name Las Vegas comes from a mispronunciation of the phrase "lost wages". In reality,
"Las Vegas" is Spanish for "the meadows". Early settlers were impressed by the fact
that Las Vegas was an oasis of green grass in the middle of a desert.
Today Las Vegas is still an oasis - not of grass, but of neon lights. Las Vegas's
hotels and gambling casinos use so much neon that Las Vegas has been nicknamed
the City of Lights.
One of Las Vegas' s older neon landmarks is Cowboy Vic, a giant, smiling
cowboy who waves at people passing by. (Vic also used to say 'Howdy, Partner ",
once every minute day and night. Actor Lee Marvin, in town for the filming of a
Western, couldn't sleep. He grabbed a bow and arrow and, leaning out the window,
took careful aim. Cowboy Vic has been silent ever since.)
Cowboy Vic seems primitive compared to neon displays and special effects
from recent years. For example, the Mirage, a newer hotel, has a huge lagoon that
erupts in steam and flames.
Las Vegass growth began in 1931, when the state of Nevada, in need of
money, decided to allow gambling and to make divorce easy. Getting married is also
easy in Nevada. Las Vegas has wedding chapels that are open 24 hours a day!
In fact, all of Las Vegas is basically open 24 hours a day. In addition to
casinos, Las Vegas is famous for its shows, which often feature well-known
performers.
What is Las Vegas like? Its many admirers and many critics agree that it is an
"adult Disneyland", a fantasy oasis in the Nevada desert.
OHIO

Among the Great Lakes states Ohio /11 mln. Capital - Columbus; admitted 1803 is the smallest in area, but much the largest in population. The river Ohio gave
the name of the state. It became the chief avenue for the settlement of the entire
Midwest. It
carries an enormous stream of traffic. The area of the state was once exclusive
property of Indians. About 1670 and thereafter the territory was claimed by France
and then by England. The English lost their claim following the Revolutionary War
when the whole Ohio area was ceded to the United States and converted, in 1787, into
Northwest Territory. The Indians finally gave up and moved away.
Besides being important in industry, Ohio is the world's largest producer of
hothouse tomatoes, leader of the country in the output of mineral products: lime, coal,
clay, salt, oil.
The diversity of the state extends also to its famous sons and daughters who
were either born there or lived in Ohio for many years. It includes 8 Presidents of the
US, among them: Ulysses S. Grant, 18-th President /1822-1885/, William McKinley,
25-th President/1843-1901/; among other famous people were: inventor Thomas
Edison, writer Harriet Beecher Stowe, who lived in Cincinnati where she conceived
the idea for her novel "Uncle Tom's Cabin", in which the life of slaves was described.
TEXAS
The word that may best explain Texas is "big". Texas is the size of all the
New England states plus New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Illinois.
Texas also has a unique history. After becoming independent from Mexico in
1836, it was a separate country for nearly ten years. Texas was also home to the
cowboy, that hero of the American West.
Texans seem to have a special talent for making money -sometimes without
even trying.
In the 1890 s some boys in Beaumont, Texas liked to play in a certain field
where matches would burst into flames without being struck. In 1900 a man dug for
oil in that field. The oil companies laughed; at the time, all known American oil
deposits were in Pennsylvania. Before long, Spindle top, as the field was called, was
producing over 100,000 barrels of oil a day. Today Texas produces about one-fourth
of America's oil.
Food in Texas, as elsewhere in the Southwest, is strongly influenced by
Mexican cooking. "Tex-Mex" food , as it's called, uses hot peppers and is very spicy.

With so many cattle ranches, it's not surprising that beef is an important
ingredient in Texan cooking. In fact, the town of Athens, Texas was the birthplace of
the hamburger.
Texan festivals can be as unusual as anything else in that state. The town of
Marshall, for example, has a yearly Fire Ant Roundup. At real roundups, cowboy go
after cattle. At Marshall's roundup, participants chase after fierce, stinging fire ants.
Whoever captures the most ants in four hours is the winner.
11. INDUSTRY AND AGRICULTURE OF THE UNITED STATES OF
AMERICA
The United States of America is a highly developed industrial country, it is
one of the most developed countries in the world.
The United States is the world's second largest petroleum-producing nation.
The major producing fields are in Alaska, California, the Gulf of Mexico, Louisiana
and Oklahoma. Important reserves of natural gas are found in most of these same
areas. Recoverable coal deposits are concentrated largely in the Appalachians and in
Wyoming. Nearly half of the bituminous coal is mined in West Virginia and
Kentucky. Pennsylvania produces the country's only anthracite. Illinois, Indiana and
Ohio also produce coal. Iron ore is mined predominantly in Minnesota and Michigan.
The United States of America also has important reserves of copper,
magnesium, lead and zinc. Copper production is concentrated in the mountainous
states of the West - in Arizona, Utah, Montana, Nevada and New Mexico. Zinc is
more scattered being in Tennessee, Missouri, Idaho and New York. Lead mining is
concentrated in Missouri. Other metals mined in the United States are gold, silver,
molybdenum, manganese, tungsten, bauxite, uranium, vanadium and nickel.
Important nonmetallic minerals produced are phosphates, potash, sulfur, stone and
clays.
Less than 2 percent of the GNP (Gross National Product) comes from mining
and quarrying, despite the fact that the United States is a major world producer of a
number of metals and of coal and petroleum.
Manufacturing output has grown at approximately the same rate as the
economy as a whole. One of the most important sectors in terms of value added is the
manufacture of transportation equipment, including motor vehicles, aircrafts and
space equipment. Other important sectors include nonelectrical machinery, electrical
machinery, food products, and chemicals. Steel mill products go largely to the
automotive industry and to the construction industry.

Industrial machinery includes engines, farm equipment, and various kinds of

construction machinery, office machines, and refrigeration equipment. California led
all states in the annual value added by industrial machinery, followed by Illinois,
Ohio, and Michigan. Michigan, with its huge automobile industry, is a leading
producer of transportation equipment. California is a leader in the aerospace industry.
Texas and Louisiana are leaders in chemical manufacturing. California has a large
fruit- and vegetable-processing industry. Meat packing in Illinois and dairy processing
in Wisconsin make both states leaders in food manufacturing.
The electronic equipment industry includes the manufacture of electric
industrial apparatus, household appliances, radio and television equipment, electronic
components, and communications devices. California, Illinois, Indiana, and
Massachusetts are all leaders in the production of electronic equipment, which is one
of the fastest growing sectors of US industry.
Printing and publishing is a widespread industry, with newspapers published
throughout the country. New York, with its book-publishing industry, is the leading
state, but California, Illinois, and Pennsylvania are also important.
As the 20th century nears its end, many Americans have been contemplating
the successes and shortcomings of the country's agriculture. Thanks to nature bounty
and to the effective use of machines, fertilizers and chemicals, American farmers are
virtually unrivaled in producing crops cheaply and in quantity. The United States
produces as much as half of the world's soybeans and corn for grain, and from 10 to
25 percent of its cotton, wheat, tobacco and vegetable oils.
Of the total land area, somewhat less than half is devoted to fanning
(including pasture and range). Tobacco is produced in the Southeast and in Kentucky
and cotton in the South and Southwest; California is noted for its vineyards, citrus
groves, and truck gardens, the Midwest is the centre of corn and wheat farming,
while dairy herds are concentrated in the Northern states. The Southwestern and
Rocky Mountain states support large herds of livestock.
About two-thirds of the vast forested areas in the United States are in
commercial forestland. The area with the most forestland is the West, including
Alaska, but there are large areas also in the South and the North. Of total commercial
forestland, more than 70 percent is in private ownership. About 20 % is owned or
controlled by the federal government, the remainder being under the control of state
and local administrations.
Despite the enormous output of US agriculture, the sector of agriculture,
forestry, and finishing altogether-produces less than 3 percent of the GNP. Farm
productivity has grown at a rapid rate, enabling a smaller labour force to produce

more than ever before. Farm manpower has fallen, while mechanization and
concentration of farm holdings has increased. Among the most important crops are
corn (maize), wheat, barely, grain sorghums, cotton, rice, soybeans and tobacco. The
general improvement in yields over the years has been accompanied by a large
increase in the use of commercial fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides.
Both American and foreign consumers benefit from the American fanner's
low-cost output. American consumers pay far less for their food than the people of
many other industrial countries. Moreover, one third of the cropland in the United
States is planted in crops destined for export to Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin
America.. Agricultural imports lag far behind, leaving a surplus in the 'agricultural
balance of trade.

12. THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE

UNITED STATES
Near the end of the 18lh century the United States was a relatively poor
nation. There were neither public nor private funds available for large-scale scientific
research and leisurely study. Despite all that, America had certain advantages and
attractions for scientists from other lands. One of the first to come was the British
chemist, Joseph Priestley (1733-1804).
Priestley was the first of thousands of world-renowned scientists that have
come to the United States in search of a free, creative environment. Many, like
Priestley, came to escape prejudice and persecution. Their numbers have included the
theoretical physicist Albert Einstein (1879-1955), the mathematician Theodore von
Karman (1881-1963), Enrico Fermi (1901-1954), producer of the world's first selfsustaining nuclear chain reaction and Vladimir K. Zworykin (1889-19820) , the
inventor of the electronic television camera.
Other scientists came to the United States to share in the nation's rapid
growth and the opportunity to apply new scientific ideas to practical uses.
Scientific achievements in the United States during the same period seem
pale in comparison to European developments. However, American scientists and
technologists were far from idle. Thousands of products that make life easier, safer
and more enjoyable for people were developed by Americans during the 19th century.
Many later developments - particularly those involving electricity,
magnetism, chemistry, biology and structural mechanics -required a basic
understanding of scientific discoveries and principles. This linking of scientific

understanding and technological know-how led to a type of applied science for which
Americans became renowned.
The most outstanding American applied scientist of the 19 th century was
Thomas Afva Edison (1897-1931), who is credited with more than a thousand
original inventions.
Edison investigated numerous scientific discoveries to see if those
discoveries could be put to practical use. In the tradition of Franklin and Jefferson,
Edison's primary goal was the adaptation of science to benefit people.
Edison backed up his incandescent lamp development with the creation of
entire electrical generating systems. Within 30 years, his developments put electric
lighting into millions of homes.
Another landmark application of scientific ideas to practical uses was
provided by the Wright brothers of Dayton, Ohio.
Combining scientific knowledge and mechanical skills, the Wright brothers
built and flew several gliders. Then on December 17, 1903 , they flew a powered,
controlled, heavier-than-air flying machine.
An American invention that was barely noticed in 1948 has created the
computer age. And the progress of that age is changing the way millions of people
work, study, conduct business transactions and engage in research.
In terms of basic science achievements, nations are usually judged by the
numbers of Nobel Prizes won by their scientists in physics, chemistry and
physiology/medicine. The will of Alfred Bernard Nobel (1833-1896), a Swedish
scientist, called for the prizes to be awarded each year for outstanding work in
physics, chemistry, physiology/medicine, literature and the promotion of peace. The
first Nobel Prizes were awarded in 1901.
The first American scientist to win a Nobel Prize was Albert Abraham
Michelson (1852-1931). Michelson, who was born and educated in Europe, won the
1909 prize in physics for determining the speed of light.
From 1950 through 1985, more American scientists have won Nobel Prizes than the
scientists of all other nations combined. One of the most spectacular - and
controversial-achievements of United States science and technology has been the
harnessing of nuclear energy. This achievement was based on scientific concepts
developed since the beginning of the 20 th century. The concepts were provided by
scientists of many lands. Nuclear fission is the generation of energy by splitting the
nuclei of certain atoms.
Various successes in developing peaceful uses of the atom-nuclear power,
nuclear medicine and a new understanding of physics - have demonstrated man's

creative use of this scientific breakthrough, which offers a message of hope to

balance against our shared anxiety about the destructive potential of nuclear weapons.
New inventions appear and quickly make hundreds of existing devices and
procedures obsolete. An example is the laser - light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation.
Laser light has been beamed from the earth to the moon and back again.
Laser devices are revolutionizing image making, printing, copying and the recording
and playing of music. Studies are underway to use lasers as the ultimate defense
against a missile attack.
Two of the most exciting current scientific developments are the human
genome project and the superconducting super collider.
Scientists hope that additional knowledge about human genes will lead to
more effective treatments for many diseases.
Science and technology today, in the United States and throughout the world,
are creating new worlds. And it is the responsibility of all people, as well as scientists,
to make sure that these new worlds represent a genuine improvement in the quality of
life for human beings everywhere.
13. POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF THE USA
The United States is a democracy. Abraham Lincoln, one of the best-loved
and most respected America's presidents, said that the United States had a
government 'of people, by people, and for people1.
The plan for the government was written in a document called the Constitution of the
United States. The Constitution set up a federal system with a strong central
government. A federal system is one in which power is shared between a central
authority and its constituent parts, with some rights reserved to each. The
Constitution also called for the election of a national leader, or president. It provided
that federal laws would be made only by a Congress made up of representatives
elected by the people. It also provided for a national court system headed by a
Supreme Court.
There are three main branches of power: legislative, executive and judiciary.
The legislative branch is made up of elected representatives from all of the
states. It consists of a Congress that is divided into two groups, called houses: The
Senate and The House of Representatives. The House of Representatives comprises
lawmakers who serve two-year terms. Each House member represents a district in his
or her home state. The number of districts in a state is determined by a count of the
population taken every 10 years. In the 1980s, there were 435 representatives in the

House of Representatives. The House of Representatives is headed by the Speaker.

The Senate comprises lawmakers who serve six-year terms. Each state, regardless of
population, has two senators. That assures that the small states have an equal voice in
one of the houses of Congress. The terms of the senators are staggered, so that only
one-third of the Senate is elected every two years. That assures that there are some
experienced senators in Congress after each election. The main duty of the Congress
is to make laws, including those which levy taxes that pay for the work of the federal
government.
A law begins as a proposal called a "bill". It is read, studied in committees,
commented on and amended in the Senate or House Chamber in which it was
introduced. It is then voted upon. If it passes, it is sent to the other house where a
similar procedure occurs. Members of both houses work together in "conference
committees" if the Chambers have passed different versions of the same bill. Groups
who try to persuade congressmen to vote for or against a bill are known as "lobbies."
When both houses of Congress pass a bill on which they agree, it is sent to the
President for his signature. Only after it is signed does the bill become a law.
The chief executive of the United States is the President, who, together with the vicepresident, is elected to a four-year term. Under a Constitutional Amendment passed in
1951,a President can be elected to only two terms. Except for the right of succession
to the presidency, the vice-president's only Constitutional duties are to serve as the
presiding officer of the Senate; the vice-president may vote in the Senate only in the
event of a tie. The powers of the presidency are formidable, but not without
limitations. The president, as the chief formulator of public policy, often proposes
legislation to Congress. The President can also veto (forbid) any bill passed by
Congress. The veto can be overridden by a two-thirds vote in both the Senate and the
House of Representatives. As head of his political party, with ready access to the news
media, the President can influence public opinion regarding issues and legislation that
he deems vital. The President has the authority to appoint federal judges as vacancies
occur, including members of the Supreme Court. All such court appointments are
subject to confirmation by the Senate. Within the executive branch, the President has
broad powers to issue regulations and directives regarding the work of the federal
government's many departments and agencies. He also is Commander-in-Chief of the
Armed Forces. The President appoints the heads and senior officials of the executive
branch agencies; the large majority of federal workers, however, are selected through
a non-political civil service system. The major departments of the government are
headed by appointed secretaries who collectively make up the President's cabinet.
Each appointment must be confirmed by a vote of the Senate. Today these 13

departments are: State, Treasury, Defense, Justice, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce,

Labor, Health and Human Services, Housing and Urban Development, Transportation,
Energy and Education. Under the Constitution, the President is primarily responsible
for foreign relations. The president appoints ambassadors and other officials, subject
to Senate approval, and, with the Secretary of State, formulates and manages the
nation's foreign policy. The president often represents the United States abroad in
consultations with other heads of states, and, through his officials, he negotiates
treaties with other countries. Such treaties must be approved by a two-thirds vote of
the Senate. The President also negotiate with other nations less formal "executive
agreements" that are not subject to Senate approval.
The juridical branch is headed by the Supreme Court, which is the only court
specifically created by the Constitution. In addition, the Congress has established 11
federal courts of appeal and, below them, 91 federal district courts. Federal judges are
appointed for life or voluntary retirement, and can only be removed from office
through the process of impeachment and trial in the Congress. Federal courts have
jurisdiction over cases arising out of the Constitution; laws and treaties of the United
States; maritime cases; issues involving foreign citizens or governments; and cases
which the federal government itself is a party. Ordinarily, federal courts do not hear
cases arising out of the laws of individual states. The Supreme Court today consists
of a Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices. With minor exceptions, all its cases
reach the Court on appeal from lower federal or state courts. Most of these cases
involve disputes over the interpretation of laws and legislation. In this capacity, the
Court's most important function consists of determining whether congressional
legislation or executive action violates the Constitution.
14. FAMOUS AMERICAN PRESIDENTS
GEORGE WASHINGTON
George Washington, the first President of the United States, was born of
February 22, 1732 near Fredericksburg, Virginia. His father was a well-to-do farmer.
The boy spent much of his time outdoors. He became an excellent horseman. At 14
he surveyed his father's farms determining the exact boundaries of his land. Later he
worked for a time as a public surveyor of Fairfax County, Virginia. Then, when he
was twenty-one years old, his military life began. At this time the American
Colonies still belonged to England. Canada belonged to France, French soldiers
from Canada had built forts in the Ohio Valley on land claimed by England, and

Washington was aide-de-camp of British General Edward Braddock against the

French and the Indians. Braddock's troops were badly defeated. But in the fighting
Washington showed the qualities of a first-rate officer.
After the battle Washington was made commander of all the Virginia troops.
Then, when he was twenty-six years old, he quit the army. He had met a rich young
widow named Martha Curtis, married her and settled down.
For the next 15 years Washington spent most of his time at his farm called
Mount Vernon, He was a wealthy tobacco planter and, like most other successful
planters, a slave owner. He raised horses and pears. This was one of the happiest times
in his life. He had no children of his own, but he loved the little girl and boy who
were Martha's children by her first husband.
At this time great changes were taking place in the American Colonies. The
Colonies still belonged to England, but many Americans wanted them to have their
own government. On April 19, 1775, British soldiers clashed with Americans at
Lexington and Concord. Because of his military experience, George Washington was
appointed commander in chief on the American army.
Washington was a good general but not a great one. His army lost more
battles than it won. They were often ragged and hungry. Washington lived and
suffered with them. He held the army together and kept it fighting. At last the
Colonies had won and became free and independent states.
In the Summer of 1787 men from different states met in Philadelphia to draw
up plans for a new government. The meeting was called the Constitutional
Convention. Many of the most important men of America were there. George
Washington was elected chairman of the convention. All summer he kept these men
working. The plan they finally drew up was the Constitution of the United States. It
called for a strong central government headed by a President. George Washington was
elected the first President on April 30, 1789. He stood on the balcony of Federal Hall
in New York City, took the oath and kissed the Bible on which he had sworn.
Washington did not believe in government by political parties. He thought
his job was to be President of all the people and he appointed to his Cabinet the best
men he could find.
Washington believed that as the chief officer of a new nation, he should
present a dignified appearance. So Washington dressed very formally. He travelled in
a handsome carriage pulled by beautiful horses. He could laugh at jokes, but he
rarely told any. He inspired awe even in the great men around him.
In 1793 Washington was elected to a second term. When he was sixty-five
years old he refused a third term and went back to Mount Vernon. He did not enjoy it

for long. On December 12, 1799, he was caught in snowstorm while riding around
his farm and became sick. Two days later he died. His death was a great shock to the
whole world. As Thomas Jefferson said, "He was a wise, a good, and a great man."
15. THOMAS JEFFERSON
Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United States, was born on April
12, 1743 in Goochland (now Albemarle) County, Virginia. His father was a
moderately well-to-do farmer. Jefferson had one of the most brilliant minds in
American history. He studied half a dozen languages, law, mathematics, science and
philosophy. He was an inventor, who invented the American system of money. When
Jefferson was 26 years old he was elected to the Virginia legislature. He was not a
good public speaker, so instead of making speeches he wrote many letters and articles
on law and human rights. In 1775 he was elected to the Continental Congress and
was appointed to write the Declaration of "Independence. It was adopted on the 4th
of July, 1776 in Philadelphia and since that time this day is celebrated by Americans
as a national holiday.
When the new American Constitution was adopted and Washington was elected
President, Jefferson was appointed Secretary of State. At first Jefferson did not
intend to form a political party. But soon he became the leader of the men who
agreed with him. They began to be called Republicans. Years later the Republicans
began calling themselves Democrats. Those who believed that English system
headed by king or at least a lifetime President would be best became known as
Federalists. This was the beginning of the party system in the United States. In
1801 Jefferson was elected President and in 1804 he was again elected for the
second term. After his term , Jefferson planned and helped to build the University
of Virginia , which was one of the first school in the USA to teach science.
Jefferson was an ingenious architect as well. He designed himself and built his
house in the hills near the city of Charlottesville, Virginia, which he called
Monticello. Jefferson was away from Monticello to serve as Governor of Virginia.
Thomas Jefferson died on July 4, 1826. It was exactly fifty years after the
Declaration of Independence which he had written, was adopted. He was buried in
Monticello. Over Jefferson's grave is an inscribed as he had instructed: "Here was
buried Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declaration of American Independence, of
the Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom and Father of the University of
Virginia.
16.ABRAHAM LINCOLN

The 16th President of the USA was born in Kentucky. Abraham Lincoln
(1809) preserved the Union during the Civil War and brought about the emancipation
of slaves. Among American heroes, Lincoln continues to have an unique appeal for
his fellow countrymen and also for people of other lands. This charm derives from his
remarkable life story - the rise from humble origins, the dramatic death - and from
distinctively human and humane personality as well as from his historical role as
savior of the Union .and the emancipation of slaves. After Lincoln's election (1861)
and before his inauguration the state of South Carolina proclaimed its withdrawal
from the Union. Six additional states then seceded and, with South Carolina,
combined to form the Confederate States of America.
So before Lincoln took office the Union was on the verge of disintegration. Lincoln
was determined to preserve the Union and his abolitionist policy was one of the
means to achieve this goal. On January 1, 1863, he issued the Emancipation
Proclamation, which granted freedom to all slaves in areas still controlled by the
Confederacy.
Lincoln deserves his reputation as a "Great Emancipator". It is well founded
in his famous Proclamation and in his greatness as the war leader who carried the
nation safely through the four year Civil War struggle that brought freedom in its
train. And, finally, it is strengthened by the practical demonstration he gave of respect
for human worth and dignity, regardless of colour. During the last two years of his life
he welcomed Negroes as visitors and friends in a way no President had done before.
One of his friends was the distinguished former slave Frederick Douglas, a
famous abolitionist and journalist. Afterwards Douglas wrote: "In all my interviews
with Mr. Lincoln I was impressed with his entire freedom from prejudice against the
coloured race."
Lincoln's death was tragic. On the evening of April 14, 1865 John Wilkes
Booth shot Lincoln as he sat in Ford's theatre in Washington, DC and early the next
morning Lincoln died. Lincoln has become a myth. His best ideas and finest phrases
were considered and written and rewritten with meticulous revisions. He is ranked by
historians as a truly "great" President.
17.Barack Obama.
After a historic and bruising 22-monthlong campaign, Sen. Barack Obama was
elected the 44th president of the United States on Nov. 4, 2008. He prevailed over
Sen. John McCain in what was probably the most pivotal U.S. election since World
War II. He took the oath of office on Jan. 20, 2009, and became the first black U.S.
president.

Two days into his presidency, Obama reversed some of the most controversial
policies of the Bush administration. He signed executive orders that ended the Central
Intelligence Agency's secret interrogation program, began the process to close the
Guantnamo Bay detention camp, and established a cabinet-level panel that will
formulate a plan to detain and question terrorism suspects in the future. Obama's
orders said that the C.I.A. can only use the 19 interrogation methods mentioned in the
Army Field Manual. The move ended Bush's policy of allowing the CIA to use
methods that were not permitted by the military.
"We believe we can abide by a rule that says we don't torture, but we can
effectively obtain the intelligence we need," Obama said.
Campaign battle
By taking advantage of the Internet and the power of text messaging on mobile
phones, Obama ran an innovative campaign that appealed to young voters. Shunning
public financing for his election, Obama raised an unprecedented amount of money,
much of it from small donors. Until the financial crisis struck in mid-September, the
wars in Iraq and Afghanistan dominated the campaign. Obama presented himself as
the candidate for change and stressed that a McCain presidency would mirror the
policies of the Bush administration.
As a political newcomer, Obama faced an uphill battle in convincing voters that
he would be ready to lead the nation. Indeed, throughout the long and often bitter
campaign for the Democratic nomination, he and Sen. Hillary Clinton ran neck-andneck in the primaries and caucuses. Obama and Clinton competed fiercely for the
support of working-class voters, and each candidate tried to paint the other as elitist.
Obama met sharp criticism for his association with his former pastor, the combative
and controversial Rev. Jeremiah Wright. Obama denounced Wright after several of his
divisive sermons popped up in the media. Wright's charged statements prompted
Obama to address the race issue, and he earned wide praise for his speech on race
relations, "A More Perfect Union."
Running as the candidate of change, Obama made hope the center of his
campaign. His platform focused on advocating for working families and poor
communities, education, caring for the environment, and ethics reform.
Formative Years
Obama was born in Hawaii to a Kenyan father and American mother. His father
was raised in a small village in Kenya where he herded goats until he earned a
scholarship to study in America. After his parents divorced, Obama's Harvardeducated father then returned to Kenya, where he worked in the economics ministry.

Obama was raised by his mother in both Hawaii and Jakarta, Indonesia. He later
moved to New York City to attend Columbia University, where he earned his
undergraduate degree.
Obama moved to Chicago after college and worked extensively in the inner city to
improve living conditions and reduce the unemployment rate in high-crime
neighborhoods. He then attended Harvard Law School, graduated magna cum laude,
and served as the first African-American president of the Harvard Law Review. After
receiving his degree from Harvard Law School, he returned to Chicago and practiced
as a civil rights lawyer.
Personal Life
Obama is married to Michelle Obama, a Chicago native who also graduated
from Harvard Law School. Barack and Michelle met in Chicago, where they both
worked for the law firm Sidley and Austin. Michelle worked in corporate law for three
years before pursuing a career in public service. She has worked for the city of
Chicago, and she co-founded Public Allies, which helps young adults acquire skills to
work in the public sector. In 2005 she was appointed vice president of community and
external affairs at the University of Chicago Medical Center. Barack and Michelle
have two daughters, Malia Ann and Sasha.
Political Career
His advocacy work on the local level in Chicago led to a run for the Illinois
State Senate. Obama served for four years as a state senator and used his position to
create programs such as the state Earned Income Tax Credit that provided more than
$100 million in tax cuts to families over three years. He also generated an expansion
in early childhood education and worked to pass legislation that requires all
interrogations and confessions in capital cases to be videotaped.
Obama's eloquent keynote speech at the 2004 Democratic National Convention
earned him wide praise him and cemented his reputation as one of the party's freshest
and most inspirational new faces. In 2004, he was elected to the U.S. Senate, winning
with 70% of the vote against the conservative black Republican, Alan Keyes. Obama
became the only African-American serving in the U.S. Senate (and the fifth in U.S.
history). Obama's idealism, commitment to civil rights, and telegenic good looks
generated enormous media attention for his Senate campaign. He worked with
Republicans on issues such as weapons control and ethics reform, yet voted with other
Democrats against President Bush's surge of 20,000 troops to Iraq and in favor of a
resolution that required combat troops to be fully withdrawn by March 2008.

He served on the Senate's Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions Committee;

the Foreign Relations Committee; the Veteran's Affairs Committee; and the
Environment and Public Works Committee.
2008 Presidential Democratic Candidate Acceptance Speech
Obama accepted the Democratic presidential nomination before some 83,000
people at Invesco Field rather than the convention hall in Denver. His acceptance
coincided with the 45th anniversary of the March on Washington, during which Rev.
Martin Luther King Jr. gave his pivotal "I Have a Dream" speech. In his speech,
Obama attacked John McCain on several fronts, including national security and his
support for many of the policies of the Bush administration, and outlined his plans for
the economy, the environment, and health care. Calling McCain out of touch with the
economic woes of working-class America, Obama said, "It's not because John
McCain doesn't care. It's because John McCain doesn't get it."
18. USA-THE CIVIL WAR
In 1861 Lincoln won the presidential election. The majority in every
Southern and border state voted against Lincoln, but the North supported him and he
won the election . A few weeks later, South Carolina voted to leave the Union. It
was soon joined by Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas,
Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee and North Carolina. These 11 states proclaimed
themselves an independent nation - the Confederate States of America.
Lincoln's two priorities were to keep the United States one country and to
rid the nation of slavery.
Lincoln was an unbending foe of slavery; he was even more strongly
against the break-up of the Union. If the Union could not be preserved, the struggle
for the abolition of slavery was lost. If there was no other way, he would preserve
the Union by force. There was no other way. In 1862 the American Civil War
between North and South began: four bitter years were to pass before it ended.
At first the war went badly for the North. They had the bigger population,
the greater wealth, the more arms factories; but their soldiers were untrained,
unready and unwarlike. The Southerners had great skill in riding and shooting; they
were brave, gallant and well-led. Their general, Robert E. Lee, was perhaps the
greatest soldier alive at the time. He was ably seconded by "Stonewall" Jackson and
they won a succession of brilliant victories.
In those early years the North had no solider to compare with Lee or Jackson, but
they had Lincoln. For four years he shouldered an almost unbearable burden of
defeats and disasters and disloyalty in terrible slaughter on both sides, and in his
personal life, by the death of his elder son and mental illness of his wife. But he

was unshaken by defeats, by sadness or disappointments. Generals failed; he

appointed others. Armies fought badly; he sent them reinforcements. The people's
courage was failing; his speeches revived it. He never lost courage or faith in the
righteousness of his cause.
Gradually the tide turned. He appointed General Grant to take command
not without considerable opposition from the rest of the Cabinet. Grant was of
humble origin, shabby in dress, rough in speech and manners, and there were many
stories of his hard drinking. Lincoln knew that these stories were exaggerated and,
when a member of the Government demanded that, because of his drinking, Grant
should be dismissed, Lincoln replied - with a touch of humor that was characteristic
of him - "Grant wins battles. If I knew what kind of liquor he drinks I would send a
barrel or so to some other of my generals."
Grant proved worthy of Lincoln's trusty. Jackson had been killed in
1863, and now the armies of Grant and Sherman, Grant's second in command
were advancing everywhere. In November 1864, Sherman with an army of
60.000 men marched off from Atlanta, southwards into Georgia. For a month
nothing was heard of them. Then on Christmas Day, Lincoln received a telegram
from Sherman: "I beg to offer you as a Christmas present the city of Savannah."
They had marched 300 miles, from Atlanta to the sea, all the way
through enemy country. The enemy forces had been cut in half.
In January Sherman marched northwards again to where Grant was
attacking Lee. Final victory could not be far away now; and now that the triumph
of his policy was assured, Lincoln issued a proclamation setting free every man,
woman and child in "the USA. Slavery was ended.
On April 9th, Lincoln received a message from Grant: "General Lee
surrendered this morning on terms proposed by myself."
And though fighting did not cease until May 26th, the Civil War was
over. Lincoln's unconquerable spirit, his steadfast faith in his country's true
destiny, his resolute leadership had won the day.
He now turned from leadership in war to reconciliation in peace, and he
showed as great a nobility of spirit in reconciling former enemies for peace as he had
shown in heartening his country for war. "We must not be enemies," he said. "With
malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to
see the right, let us strive him who has borne the battle and for his widow and his
orphan, to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among
ourselves and with all nations."
19. USA - THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

By the 1700s, England had established 13 colonies in the eastern part of

what is now the United States. Life in the colonies also helped strengthen democratic
ideas. They had to work together to build shelter, provide food, clear the land for
farms and in general to make their new homeland livable for them. This need for
cooperation and sharing, combined with a belief in individualism, strengthened the
idea that in the New World people were equal; that no one should have special rights
and privileges.
Each colony had its own government. In the northern colonies (New
England) , for example, the colonists met in town meetings to enact the laws by
which they would be governed. Other colonies were ruled by representatives of the
British king, but always with some consultation with the colonists.
As time passed, the colonists began to resent the governing power that
Britain exercised over them. The British government required them to pay taxes to
help pay for colonial expenses, but gave them no voice in passing the tax laws,
British troops were stationed in the colonies and some people were forced to house
the troops in their homes. The British motherland determined what the colonists
could produce and with whom they could trade.

In 1774, a group of leaders from the colonies met and formed the "Continental
Congress," which informed the king of the colonists' belief that, as free
Englishmen, they should have a voice in determining laws that affected them. The
king and the conservative government in London paid no heed to the concerns of
the colonists, and many colonists felt that this was an injustice which gave them
reason to demand independence from Britain. In 1775, fighting broke out between
New England militia and British soldiers.
On July 4, 1776, the Continental Congress issued a Declaration of
Independence, primarily written by Thomas Jefferson, a farmer and lawyer from the
colony of Virginia. This document listed many grievances against the king and
declared that from that time the "United Colonies" were no longer colonies of
England. The Declaration described them as "free and independent states" and
officially named them the United States of America.
Besides declaring the colonies to be a new nation, the Declaration of
Independence set forth some of the principles of American democracy. The
document says that all people are created equal, that all have the right to "Life,
Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness," and that governments obtain their powers
from the consent of the governed.

With help from France, England's old enemy, and from other Europeans,
the American armies, led by George Washington, a surveyor and gentlemen farmer
from Virginia won the War of Independence.
A Franco-American alliance was signed in February 1778. With few
provisions and little training, American troops generally fought well, but they
might have lost the war if they had not received aid from the French treasury and
the powerful French Navy.
The Treaty of Paris, signed in September 1783, recognized the
independence of the United States and granted the new nation all the territory north
of Florida, south of Canada and east of the Mississippi River.
20. SCHOOL EDUCATION IN THE USA.
School education is compulsory in the USA from 6 to 16. There are different
kinds of pre-school education, nursery schools and kindergartens. Still not too
many children attend them. The system of baby-sitting is widely spread in
middle class families. Children in poor families are left to themselves.
Here is a general picture of school education in the US -primary and
secondary. Children begin to go to grammar school at the age of 6. They may
study there 8 years and then pass to high school. The time of study in high
school is 4 years. After it pupils, who are called students in America, may go
to college. Now another plan is more widely spread 6-3; 6 years of grammar
school, 3 years of junior high school and 3 years of senior high school.
There is no national government control over schools. Each state has
its own system. The education is free in high school. Some states provide
free books and free transportation.
The grammar school gives the students basic knowledge -Reading,
Writing, Spelling, Arithmetic. Besides they are taught geography, history,
elements of science. Religious teaching is not permitted. All students get the
same training. Classes may also be divided into , and groups as to the
speed of learning. In the high school students may choose some of their
subjects. Only English, science and American history are compulsory.
The majority of high school students do not go to college. That is why
the high schools give a strong vocational training in this or that specific
profession.
Education is the same for boys and girls. Classes are usually from 9 till 3,
five days a week. School lasts from September to June. In summer the

students have 3 months vacation. The USA have the shortest academic year
in the world (180 days).
21. HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE USA
In the USA students finish high school at the age of 18 on the
average. At that point they decide whether they want to continue with their
education or whether they want to seek employment. Over half of the
students enter institutions of higher education. Unless they enroll in
technical or trade schools this means four years of college that culminates
in the Bachelor of Arts /BA/ or Bachelor of Science /BS/ degree.
Most college programs are in the form of what is called liberal arts.
This means that over four years students take courses in science,
mathematics, history, the humanities, psychology, political science,
economics, sociology, the fine arts /painting, music, sculpture/, languages
etc. The emphasis in liberal arts education is to give the student a broadbased education. Virtually all students who go on further past the BA and BS
level to became physicians, lawyers, professors and Philosophy Doctors
/Ph D's/ in various fields first must complete four years of college.
Each college and graduate school has its own curriculum. At the
undergraduate level, there may be some courses that every student has to
take (for example, classes in world history, math, writing or research). But
students do select their "major" (the field in which they want their degree),
plus a specific number of "electives"(courses that are not required but that
students may choose).
In college students usually major in some specific subject-chemistry, biology,
psychology, English, Russian etc. There are also some schools which offer
the bachelor's degrees that are not "liberal arts" oriented, Examples are
schools for agriculture, for primary and secondary school teachers, schools
for forestry, schools of engineering /some require five years/ and some
schools of art and nursing. After completing college, students may enter law
school /3 years/, medical school /4 years/ or graduate school which grants a
Master's of arts or Science degree /2 years/ or the Ph.D. /3 to 8 years/ in
any subject area. Institutions of higher education in the USA for the most
part are referred to as either colleges or Universities. Colleges are
institutions that offer only programs that lead to the bachelor's degree.
Universities are institutions that have departments that offer the Bachelor's

degree but also have graduate schools, perhaps medical and law schools
that offer programs that lead to degrees beyond the Bachelor's degree.
Cutting across the college - university dimension is the division
between public and private institutions. Public institutions are usually funded
by state governments. Private institutions are funded primarily by the efforts
and funds of private individuals or institutions /most often by alumni or
religious groups/.
Public and private colleges depend on three sources of income:
student tuition, endowments (gifts made by wealthy benefactors) and
government funding.
Education costs less in public institutions than in private institutions,
especially for liberal arts education. There are , however, relatively few,
private graduate schools and law schools.
Private colleges currently provide superior liberal arts education to
that of public colleges. Thirty years ago the reverse was true. Harvard and
Stanford are private institutions. The University of California, Berkeley and
University of Minnesota are public institutions.
The average cost of college at a private /tuition, room and board/ is
now about $ 14,000 per year. This sounds very expensive but colleges are
very eager to help needy students who are able and highly motivated with
scholarships, loans, work-study programs, etc. Just about any student who
really wants to can finance his education. Liberal arts education at public
institutions can cost less than half that of private institutions but the size of
classes is much greater and there is far less contact between students and
teachers.
Higher education is undoubtedly the most successful aspect of
education in the USA. In contrast primary and secondary education is in
serious difficulty.
22. AN AMERICAN WRITER. ERNEST
HEMINGWAY
Hemingway (1898-1961) was born in Illinois, His family took him, as
a boy, on frequent hunting and fishing trips and so acquainted him* early
with the kinds of virtues, such as courage and endurance, which were later
reflected in his fiction. After high school, he worked as a newspaper reporter
and then went overseas to take part in the World War I. After the war he
lived for several years in Paris, where he became part of a group of

Americans who felt alienated from their country. They considered

themselves a lost generation. It was not long before he began publishing
remarkable and completely individual short stories. The year he left Paris he
published the powerful novel "The Sun Also Rises". Hemingway's first two
published works were "Three Stories", and "Ten Poems" And "In Our Time"
but it was the satirical novel, "The Torrents of Spring" which established his
name more widely. His international reputation was firmly secured by his
next three books'Tiesta", "Men without Women" and "A Farewell to Arms".
Hemingway's style of writing is striking. His sentences are short, his
words simple, yet they are often filled with emotion. A careful reading can
show us, furthermore, that he is a master of the pause. That is, if we look
closely, we see how the action of his stories continues during the silences,
during the times his characters say nothing. This action is often full of
meaning. There are times when the most powerful effect comes from
restraint. Such times occur often in Hemingway's fiction. He perfected the art
of conveying emotion with few words.
In contrast to the Romantic writer, who often emphasizes abundance
and even excess, Hemingway is a Classicist in his restraint and
understatement. He believes, with many other Classicists, that the strongest
effect comes with an economy of means. Recognition of his position in
contemporary literature came in 1954 when he was awarded the Nobel Prize,
following the publication of "The Old Man and the Sea". Ernest Hemingway
died in 1961.
23. FAMOUS PEOPLE OF THE USA HENRY FORD
H. Ford (1863-1947) is an American automobile manufacturer, who
revolutionized the early industry with his low-priced Model T, produced by
assembly-line method. He popularized the automobile as a means of
transportation for the average American and created a major company.
Henry Ford was not the first person to built an automobile. But he saw its
potential importance: As he said "Everybody wants to be somewhere he
isn't".
Ford dream was to build an affordable car. Henry attended rural schools and
early displayed inventive skills. In 1879 in Detroit he obtained a job as a
machinist's apprentice. During the next years he worked for several
companies, repaired watches and clocks and improved his knowledge and
engineering skills by reading and practice.

Fascinated by the promise of the internal combustion engine and its

application to a self-propelled vehicle, Ford constructed a one-cylinder motor
in 1893. He went on to build his first car, completed in 1896. He resigned
from the Edison company to organize the Detroit Automobile Company of
which he became the chief engineer. The new company was forced into
bankruptcy in less than two years and Ford decided to make a reputation for
his cars as racers.
Meanwhile, Ford with the financial backing of a Detroit coal dealer
Alexander Malcomsom and a small group of investors had organized the
Ford Motor Company in 1903.
The first car produced by the new company was sold within a month.
Ford became the majority stockholder and president in 1906.
Free to follow his own ideas, Ford found overwhelming success.
Ford's concentration on the Model T permitted him to utilize standardized
parts and assembly-line production. The volume of production made it
possible to reduce the price of the car steadily without detriment to profits.
The model T Ford, of which 15 mln. were sold at a price that many
Americans could afford, was the automobile that changed the pattern of life
in the US. The name of its builder Henry Ford became a household word
around the world.
When United States automaker Henry Ford published his
autobiography "My life and work", in 1922, he used his chapter headings to
frame a series of questions: How Cheaply Can Things be Made! Money Master or Servant? Why are Poor?
These are precisely the questions that have fascinated generations
of American business and industrial leaders. In their drive to find answers,
business people in the United States have probed relentlessly for ways to
make and distribute efficiently more products for less money and to make a
greater profit. To a remarkable extent, they have succeeded.
24. MASS MEDIA IN THE UNITED STATES

The public's right to possess information is one of the central

principles of American society. The first 10 amendments to the Constitution
of the United States of America which became law in 1971 were called the
new nation's Bill of Rights. They contained press freedom as one of the
basic human rights.

The first regular newspaper, the Boston News-Letter, a weekly,

was published by the city postmaster, John Campbell.
Time flies, however, and the means of communication - what we
now call the 'media' - have grown immensely more complex; today they
also include television, radio, films and cable TV. The term 'press' has
expanded to refer now to any news operation in any media, not just print.
The total number of daily newspapers in the United States is
shrinking - from 1.748 in 1970 to 1.642 in 1989. Among the reasons of that
are: the fact that in many families now both the husband and the wife work,
they have less time to read; growing popularity of TV -98 per cent of all
American houses are equipped with at least one TV set, 65 per cent of
Americans use TV as their primary source of news.

For people too busy to keep up with a daily newspaper there are
magazines organizing news into separate departments such as national
affairs, business and science.
The 1920s also saw the birth of a new mass medium, radio. By 1928
the United States had three national radio networks - two owned by the
National Broadcasting Company (NBC), one by the Columbia Broadcasting
System (CBS).
After World War II, American homes were invaded by a powerful new
force: television. In fact, in the average American household the television is
watched 7 hours a day.
TV production rapidly became concentrated in three major networks CBS, NBC and ABC. Television has emerged as the major source from which
most Americans get news. By its nature, TV has proved most effective in
covering dramatic, action-filled events - such as man's walk on the Moon and
the Vietnam War. The focus of TV news is the network news shows watched
by an estimated 60 millions Americans every night.
Technology continues to change the media. Computers are already
revolutionizing the printing process. Computer users also have access to online newspapers for up-to-the-minute information on general or specialized
subjects. Cables and satellites are expanding TV. Already half of American
homes subscribe on cable TV, which broadcasts dozen of channels providing
information and entertainment of every kind.

In addition to the 1.140 television stations offering programming in

1990, there were 9,900 cable operating systems serving 44 million
subscribers in 27.000 communities. One cable network offers news 24 hours
a day. Some communities have publicly controlled cable television stations,
allowing citizens groups to put on programs.
25. THE WORLD OF CINEMA
PART I: The USA
If we date the Art of the motion pictures from 1907, the date of
David Wark Griffithg's entry into the then infant industry, then we are in a
year celebrating the 90th anniversary of that art.
Griffith was the first to take stock of all the movies already existing
devices-the close-up, the use of the moving camera and to create new
ones. In 1915 and 1916, with the movies still in their infancy, he created
the screen's first two masterpieces - "The Birth of a Nation" and
"Intolerance" - and turned a novelty and a minor business into an
international art and a major industry. A little more than half a century has
gone by since then, and art industry has made fantastic strides.
These 90 years of the movies have been so rich in artistry,
beauty, dramatic expression, experiment and above all in solid
entertainment that one wonders how on earth movies more than a
hundred years hence can retain their magic or still find something fresh
to say.
These 90 years of the movies have had their ups and downs to
be sure. There have been times when the cinema seems to have had
nothing to say.
But there have been periods of beauty and poetry too, and most
of the film-making nations of the world have had their own particular
Golden Ages. For example, for Scandinavia it was the late teens and
early 20's; the German cinema was at its peak in the mid and late 20's;
the French cinema in the early 30's; the British film probably saw its
finest hour during and right after World War II.
In England the cinema is usually called "the pictures". The American
name, "the movies", is sometimes used too. The first performance or
"showing" as it is called, begins about at two o'clock in the afternoon, and the
show goes on from then until about half past ten. The cinema is not emptied
between the "showings", so that once you have paid for your seat you can
stay in the cinema as long as you like. There is usually one main film, a
shorter one, a news film, some advertisements and a "thriller" telling about the
films for the next week. Cinemas used to be more crowded than they are now.

Many people used to go to the cinema two or three times a week, but today
people like to stay home to watch television, particularly when it is cold and
wet outside. The prices of cinema seats outside London are between three
shillings and five shillings. The prices in London are higher.
A cinema programme of today is both instructive and entertaining.
The first of them is generally the newsreel, which is followed by a comedy or
a travel picture. Finally comes the main picture on the programme.
PART II: The UK
Hollywood was once all farmland. By 1910, however, filmmakers
began moving there. Southern California's climate was perfect for shooting
movies year round. And the area had settings for just about any movie - it
had mountains, desert, and ocean. Soon Hollywood came to mean "the
American film industry".
Today, of the major studios, only Paramount is still in Hollywood.
In Hollywood you can see two great theaters, where many movies
premiered: Pantages Theater and Mann's Chinese.
Mann's Chinese is famous for its cement courtyard with footprints
and handprints of stars who were in - and at ! (People say the tradition
started when the theatre first opened and an actress in the movie being
premiered accidentally stepped in the still-wet cement.)
Even if you can't see the stars, you can see many things associated
with them Hollywood souvenir shops are filled with autographs, old movie
posters, costumes, and stills. Stills are photos of scenes from movies.
You can go on a tour, for example, the unusual Grave Line Tour. On
this tour, you will travel in a hearse, the vehicle that usually takes the dead to
the grave. The hearse will take you to places where celebrities died.
Hollywood even gives visitors a chance to become stars - on TV
game shows. Several shows are based in Hollywood, and visitors can
audition, or try out, to be game show participants!
Let us visit the kitchen of the film industry that is a film-studio, to
see how a film is actually made. The scenario department turns novels and
dramatic works into scenarios. Here all the problems of production are
solved, and instructions are issued to the cameramen as to the position of
the camera for long shots, close-ups, shots from above, fadeouts, etc. then
the director or producer informs the art department that he wants such
things as a desert, an Atlantic liner, a railway station, and many other sets,

and the department then gets busy preparing the "fakes". The property
department supplies the furnishings of these sets, which range from
thrones to inkpots, and the dress-department with its staff of expert
designers makes the necessary dresses.
By this time the director has chosen his cast and is ready to
rehearse the scenes. During rehearsals the appearance of the studio to
the naked eye is chaotic. On looking through the viewfinder, however, the
director sees everything in its place in a scene designed to deceive the
camera completely.
If the rehearsal has gone off without a hitch the director prepares
to "shoot" the scene. Buzzers tell him that microphones, light projectors,
cameras, and all the other necessary paraphernalia, not to mention the
actors and actresses themselves, are ready. A bell clangs, and there is a
dead silence.
Very often a scene must be shot three or four times. A film
director must have infinite patience and spare no pains. When all the
jumble of scenes, which of course are not shot in their right order, are
finished, the celluloid strips are pieced together and sent to the editing
department. In this department scenes are cut and new ones
interpolated. Here the film becomes a work of art.
26. MEDICAL CARE IN THE USA
Americans receive medical care by visiting a physician's office, a
health maintenance organization, an outpatient clinic, emergency room,
a community health center or while they are inpatients in hospitals or
nursing homes.
Traditional private-practice doctors who see patients in their
offices are either family doctors (general practitioners) or specialists.
They usually are affiliated with a hospital. A health-maintenance
organization provides its members with checkups and medical cafe and
can arrange for hospital care. These organizations, which afe private,
usually are staffed by several doctors and nurses. Hospital outpatient
clinics provide medical, dental, and surgical services. In hospital
emergency rooms, people who have problems that require immediate
attention are treated.
In the United States the financing and delivery of medical cafe
traditionally has been the responsibility of the private sector. Abowt 60% of the
cost of health-care services is paid for either directly by consumers or through
private health insurance. Under a health-insurance plan, an individual pays a

fixed amount called a "premium" in return for coverage of all or some of the
costs of hospital, surgical or medical expenses. 80% of the population has
some forms of privaite health insurance. The most common forms are hospital
insurance arfld insurance for inhospital physicians' services. Because private
health insurance usually does not pay the entire medical bill for services that
are covered, individuals must pay the difference.
At present about 60 million of Americans have no inadequate
medical insurance.
Funds for health research are supplied by the US and starte
governments, and nonprofit organizations. The largest portion of healthresearch funding comes from the federal government and is primarily invested
in the areas of cancer, heart disease and AIDS.
One of the chief factors responsible for escalating medical costs in the
US is the rising cost of malpractice insurance. This is a form of insurance that
doctors pay in order to defend themselves froitn legal suits brought by
patients who claim that they have been injured by the treatment performed by
the doctor. Some doctors have even quit their medical practice because of the
high cost of malpractice insurance.
The US is the only major industrialized country without a government
funded health care program. The main government
funded programs in the US are Medicare which provides payment for
medical services for the elderly and Medicaid which similarly helps the
indigent.
27. SPORTS AND GAMES IN THE USA

What are the favorite sports of American young people? According

to the survey "The Mood of American Youth," they prefer football,
basketball, baseball, wrestling, tennis, soccer, boxing, hockey, track and
golf.
Americans also like to hunt and fish; nearly 66 million fishing and
hunting permits are issued each year. Other popular sports include
swimming, golf, bicycling, skating, bowling and all kinds of ball games.
Communities throughout the nation provide playgrounds, swimming pools
and recreation centers. Many cities have ice-skating areas, baseball fields,
swimming pools and playgrounds lighted at night.

Ski slopes and cross country skiing now attract over eight million
persons each season. Snow-making equipment has helped to spread the
sport to milder climates.
In the autumn, high school and college football games attract millions,
many of whom are graduates of the schools and come to cheer for their
school teams. College football alone draws over 36 million spectators. What is
called football in the USA and Canada is entirely different from what is called
football in Europe. American football is different from every other sport but it is
probably closer to rugby. What is called football in Europe is called soccer in
the USA. Soccer is destined for growth in America, evidenced as millions of
children across the country participate in youth leagues. The whole
generation growing now is looking at soccer as an alternative to football,
which now has the greatest random of any professional sport in America.
Sports organizations send their best players and teams to compete in regional
competitions and worldwide events such as the Pan American Games and the
Olympic Games.
About 42 million people attend basketball games each year.
Professional baseball games attract over 45 million yearly, with
enthusiasm reaching a high pitch during the national championship
competitions, the World Series, each year in October. At home, millions watch
sport events on television, or listen to broadcasts on the radio. Countless
numbers of persons also attend baseball, football and other team contests
played in small towns on neighborhood playgrounds and school sport areas.
Millions of dollars are tied to the business of sports..
As for salaries, it is interesting to note that in 1984 there were 22
millionaires in baseball, ten millionaires in basketball, and four millionaires in
football.
Sports teach discipline, offer ideals and present entertainment.
28. CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS OF THE USA
What is the difference, between an American and European really?
In Europe there are people who have lived in the same house and
been in the same job for twenty, thirty, forty years, and who would hate to pull
up their roots and change to something new. That's not the American way of
life. They love change, they call it "the spirit of adventure", a spirit that they
think is more characteristic of America than of Europe.

And so they still like to "move away", to change homes and jobs. They
seem to be constantly pulling down old and often quite beautiful houses or
throwing away things merely because they are old. They have none of the
Englishman's sentimental love for things because they are old.
The American doesn't feel that at all. The Americans houses have no
hedges or fences separating them from the pavement or from each other.
Americans like new things - and they get rid of their friends as they do
of their cars. No one strikes up acquaintance sooner than Americans do, and
nobody finds it harder to make a real friendship.
Americans also love to travel. Weekend automobile trips are a
tradition for many families, as are longer summer vacation trips. Car travel is
the most common leisure activity in America.
When Americans take car trips, they don't usually just drive and
sightsee. They like to have a destination. Amusement parks, beaches, and
other special attractions are always crowded when the weather is good.
Airplane travel is also common in America. At holiday time, many
people fly to other cities to visit friends and relatives. During the winter,
many people take short vacations to places with warm climates, like
Florida and the islands of the Caribbean.
The rapid spread of videotaped movies, watched nightly by
millions of Americans in their homes, has made movies an even more
popular and influential form of entertainment in recent years.
Most Americans enjoy sports - both playing sports themselves and watching
their favorite sports and teams. Many adult Americans regularly engage in
sports like tennis, golf, and bowling. There are many holidays in the United
States. New Years Day January 1st - a legal holiday in all states and the
District Columbia. The largest New Year's Eve party is a tradition in Times
Square (New York), where people gather to watch the clock on the Times
Tower and herald another Year.
Memorial Day, May 30 - also known as Decoration Day. Memorial
Day is a legal holiday in most of the states and in the territories and is also
observed by the Armed Forces. In 1868, Commander-in-Chief of the
Grand Army of the Republic issued an order designating the day as one in
which the graves of soldiers would be decorated. The holiday was
originally devoted to honoring the memory of those who fell in the Civil
War, but is now also dedicated to the memory of the dead of all wars.
Independence Day - July 4 - the day of the adoption of the
Declaration of Independence in 1776, is celebrated in. all states and
territories.

Labor Day - is observed the first Monday in September in all

states and territories. Labor Day was first celebrated in New York in 1882
under the sponsorship of the Central Labor Union.
Thanksgiving - is observed nationally on the fourth Thursday in
November, the first national proclamation having been issued by President
Lincoln in 1863. Most Americans believe that the holiday dates back to the
day of thanks in New England in 1961 but scholars point out that day of
thanks stem from ancient times.
Christmas - December 25 - the most widely celebrated holiday.
Christmas customs are centuries old. The mistletoe, for example, comes from
the Druids, who, in hanging the mistletoe, hoped for peace and good fortune.
Use of such plants as holly comes from the ancient belief that such plants,
blossomed at Christmas.
Comparatively recent is the Christmas tree. Colonial Manhattan
islanders introduced the name Santa Claus.
Thanksgiving Day.
In the year 1620, a ship named the Mayflower brought 102 English
men, women and children to the rocky coast of what is now Massachusetts,
one of the states of the United States of America. The ship's passengers
were Puritans -members of a religious sect which was unpopular in Britain
because its members wanted to reform the Church of England. They came to
America to found a community where they could practice their religion without
interference.
These Pilgrims - as they are usually known - came to an area
uninhabited by other Europeans. The people living there were Native
Americans, the people most Americans refer to as American Indians. It was
late in the year when the Pilgrims landed and founded the colony they called
Plymouth. They had only the belongings that they had brought on the small
ship. The winter was cold, and about half of the Pilgrims died. In the spring,
with advice and help from the Indians, with whom they lived in peace, the
Pilgrims planted corn (known also as maize) and other crops and prepared as
well as they could for the next winter. In October 1621, to celebrate the good
harvest, the Pilgrims held a feast which featured, among many other foods,
wild turkey, which is native to North America. They called this their day of
thanksgiving, held to thank their God for his blessings.
The story of that Pilgrim feast is well-known among Americans. It is told
and retold every year to young children in schools as one of the major

American holidays approaches. The holiday is called Thanksgiving Day

and is now observed on the fourth Thursday of November. Other
nations have days of thanksgiving, too, but Thanksgiving Day has a
special significance for Americans because it is traced back to that
group of people who were among the first to come to the New World in
search of freedom.
Today, families - often including grandparents and aunts, uncles
and cousins and grown children who live away from home -gather
together, usually in a home but sometimes in a restaurant, for a traditional
Thanksgiving dinner. This almost always includes some of the foods
served at the first Thanksgiving, roast turkey and cranberry sauce, plus
sweet potatoes and pumpkin pie. Other dishes vary according to family
and regional traditions. In Minnesota and Wisconsin, for instance, wild rice
is often served. Before the feast, families usually pause to give thanks for
all their blessings - including the joy of being together on this day. And
many families like to share the day with others, inviting to their dinner
foreign students, military people stationed far from home, and people who
have no families.
Many people attend religious services on Thanksgiving Day, and
watching football games - sometimes in person but usually on television - is
also a popular Thanksgiving Day activity. The next day, a Friday, most
people return to work. But some people take the day off and begin shopping
for Christmas gifts. The day is one on which Americans also show
increased concern for the poor. Gifts of food for a dinner are common.
Charitable organization and churches provide food or serve dinners for the
neediness.
29. THE AMERICAN'S INFLUENCE ON WORLD
CIVILIZATION
Only about 300 years ago Europeans saw in most of what is now the
United States a wilderness, a rocky and spacious land. But they also saw an
opportunity to build new and better lives. So they arrived there, thousands
upon thousands, from many countries of the world. They brought with them a
lot of skills and ideas contributing to America's colourful cultural heritage. And
they brought the ideas of freedom and liberty setting up a government
designed to protect the liberty of all. They wrote a Constitution guaranteeing
certain basic

freedoms and individual rights, such as freedom of speech, freedom of

religion, freedom of political belief and freedom of the press - a document
like none other in the world. Out of diversity came unity.
James Madison, the rich plantation owner from Virginia, is
regarded as the "father of the Constitution", as it was he, who formulated
the assumption that private property was the backbone of liberty.
And though some historians regard the USA Constitution as an
essentially conservative document, it still lives on and is a good example of
legislative document for many governments and parliaments. In fact it has
greatly influenced the constitutions of many countries .Nowadays the newly
formed independent states of the former USSR refer to the USA
Constitution in search of the best laws, regulations and customs which are
part of the basic law.
The USAs past is a record of brilliant scientific, technological,
industrial and agricultural growth. The great size and wealth of the land has
challenged every generation of Americans since the first colonists. Armed
with freedom of thought and action, Americans responded to that challenge.
When mountains blocked the way westward, roads and railroads were built
around them, through them or over them. When floods threatened farms and
cities, dams and levees were built to hold back the water. Where rainfall was
scanty, great irrigation systems were built to help grow crops. By the way,
drip irrigation - the most economical way to water plants - was first introduced
in the USA and now is widely spread all over the world.
The example of the American Revolution which did away with the
heritage of feudalism cleared the way for the development of capitalism,
both in breadth and in depth, both in trade and in industry, and also in
agriculture, was of tremendous importance for the world civilization.
Now let's touch upon some other factors that greatly influenced the
world civilization. We can't but mention the Americans enterprising,
scientific and technical progress. All kinds of "know-how" in many realms
are introduced by the Americans. In search of effective management many
countries of the world take lesson from America's best run companies.
Dale Carnegie's books "How to win friends and influence
people" and "How to stop worrying and start living" revolutionized the
lives of many men. These books give people new thoughts, new visions,
new ambitions; they enable everybody to make friends quickly and
easily. Business people all over the world use communicative skills
acquired from Dale Carnegie's book.

Advertising in the USA is a fine art. As an American said, "The

best brains in our country go into salesmanship. Any fool can make a
thing. What takes real brains is to sell it when the customer has got one
already and doesn't want another". Through paid announcements in the
press, over the radio, on TV, on billboards the advertiser (corporations,
government or individuals) makes known what he wants throughout the
world.
In our everyday life we use the example of Americans' public
relations for studying, analyzing and evaluating public opinion. Publicrelations experts are in great demand at present.
Then let's touch upon the humanitarian factor; art and
education, cinema and TV are supporters and producers of mass
culture Hollywood, Video production).
A whole generation of youth has grown up accustomed to the
"new music", to its hard beat and liberated emotionalism. The success
of the Negro rhythm - and - blues music was tremendous in the 50-s. It
was in 1954 when the disk-jockey Alan Freed called it Rock-and-Roll.
The greatest jazzmen Sidney Kismet, Errol Garner, Luis
Armstrong, and Ray Charles were Negroes. Elvis Presley was the king
of Rock-and-Roll. This music has jumped across the Atlantic Ocean
and has taken Europe by storm.
It were the American "Hippies" who chose poverty as one of the
ways of rejecting the values of American way of life. They believed in the
dissemination of love and happiness, total permissiveness and
freedom. Hippies had followers in many countries of the world.
America's influences on the world are numerous. As far as the
language influence goes, there are a lot of neologisms in science and
other spheres of human life such as: :Shuttle", "Know-how", "broker",
"image", "publicity", "management", "marketing".

America is still changing and expanding. The cities continue to grow

upward and outward. Factories produce the greatest abundance of goods in
the world. The farms are one of the most productive on earth. America is a
beautiful, fertile, mighty and happy land.
And all this is due to Americans who made themselves believe that
a man by the strength of his mind and spirit is the conqueror and keeper of
nature. This is of great importance especially nowadays and is worth
following.

30. THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN

IRELAND

Britain, also known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and

Northern Ireland, covers the greater part of the British Isles, a group of
islands lying off the north-west coast of mainland Europe. The largest
islands are Great Britain and Ireland (comprising Northern Ireland and the
Irish Republic).
The area of the United Kingdom is 94,251 square miles. The
population is 57, 2 mln. The capital of Great Britain is London.
The United Kingdom consists of four geographic and historical parts:
England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The West coast is washed
by the Atlantic Ocean and the Irish Sea, its East coast by the North Sea and
the South coast by the English Channel
The British Isles belong to the class of islands that is called
"continental" and the sea contours suggest that they rest on a submarine
shelf which long ago formed part of the mainland of Europe. The nearest
point is across the Straits of Dover where the chalk cliffs of Britain are only
22 miles from France.
Britain has a generally mild and temperate climate. The prevailing winds blow
from the South-West. The outstanding features of the climate of Britain are its
humidity, its mildness, and its variability.
Great Britain, as a whole, is a densely populated country. The density of
population varies, but in general it is rather high. The most thickly peopled part
of Great Britain is England. Great Britain is inhabited by the English, the
Scots, the Irish, and the Welshmen. Among other nationalities there are
Gaels, Jews, Poles, Germans, French people and Italians as well as migrants
from India, Pakistan and African countries.
The church of England is a Protestant Church and the official state religion of
England(membership is not compulsory).
Britain is one of the most highly industrialized countries in the world: for every
person employed in agriculture, 12 are employed in industry. Most of the
Gross National Product comes from manufacturing, mining and quarrying,
constructing and public utilities.
Some 2,5% of Britain's employed labor force is engaged in agriculture- a
lower population than in other major industrial , countries. The chief
agricultural products of Britain are wheat, barley, ' oats, potatoes, sugar-beet,
milk, beef, mutton and lamb. A comparatively high level of agricultural

productivity enables Britain to provide about half of the food it needs from its
own soil, the other half is imported. Britain usually imports meat, tea, butter,
wheat, fruit, tobacco and wool.
Great Britain is a parliamentary monarchy. Officially the head of the state is
the king or the queen. The power of the Queen of Britain is not absolute but
constitutional. A two-party system has existed in the United Kingdom since the
late 17th century. From the mid-1920s the dominant groupings have been the
Conservative Party and the Labor Party, despite the existence of smaller
parties such as the Social and Liberal Democratic Party and the Social
Democratic Party. The Conservative Party is the main party of British
monopoly bourgeoisie. It came into being in the 19th century as a result of the
evolution of the Tory Party.
31. GEOGRAPHY OF GREAT BRITAIN
Britain, also known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland, covers the greater part of the British Isles, a group of islands lying off
the north-west coast of mainland Europe. The largest islands are Great Britain
and Ireland (comprising Northern Ireland and the Irish Republic).
The area of the United Kingdom is 94,251 square miles. The population is 57,
2 mln. Britain has a generally mild and temperate climate. The prevailing
winds are south-westerly and the weather from day to day is controlled mainly
by the succession of depressions from the Atlantic.
Once the British Isles were part of European mainland. The nearest point is
across the Straits of Dover where the chalk cliffs of Britain are only 22 miles
from France.
The chalk ridge which ends in the cliffs at Dover re-appears on the coast of
France opposite and the coal that lies beneath the chalk in Kent is also found
in N.France: this suggests that there was originally no break between these
same geological formations.
The seas round the British Isles are shallow. These are the Irish Sea and the
North Sea. This shallowness is in some ways an advantage. Shallow water is
warmer than deep water and helps to keep the shores from extreme cold.
Britain is a land with few high mountains, but it has a great variety of hills. We
may divide the mountains into the following groups:
l. The Highlands in Scotland occupy most of the country N. W. of a line drown
from Glasgow to Aberdeen; the two chief divisions are the N.W.Highlands and
the Grampians.
2. The Southern Uplands, Pennines and Cumbrians form a practically
continuous group.
3. Separated from the Pennines by the Midland Gap are the Cumbrians,
which occupy nearly the whole of Wales.

The highest peaks are not in England, but in Scotland to the North and in
Wales to the West. Ben Nevis in the Scottish Highlands is the highest
mountain in Great Britain - 4,406 feet high {1347 m), Snowdon in North Wales
is 3,560 feet high (1085 m).
In England itself, the highest hills are in the North and in the South-West.
From the Cheviot Hills down to the centre of the country run the Pennine
Chain bare rounded heights. They are linked in the North-West with the Lake
District, a thirty mile area of mountainous heights and long, narrow lakes. The
lakes of the British Isles are not of much importance. They are mostly too
small and too remote to be useful as portions of a system of navigable
waterways. The largest is Lough Neagh in N.E.Ireland. The lakes of Scotland,
many of which are connected with the sea , together with a few in North
Wales, are attractive to tourists on account of the beauty of the surrounding
scenery.
Britain is rich in rivers. In Scotland, the Clyde flowing west, and the Toy, the
Forth and the Tweed flowing East, in England, the Tyne and the Humber. Few
of these rivers are navigable, and the Thames, one of the longest, is a little
over 200 miles.
32. LONDON
London is the capital of Great Britain and England. It is one of the greatest
cities in the world. The population of London is more than 9 million
inhabitants. The river Thames divides London into two parts known as the
north bank and the south bank. Actually there are several parts of London.
First there is the City of London. It is about 1 square mile in area and only a
few thousand people live there. It is the heart of the business and financial life
of the country. All business firms are concentrated here. The most striking
building in the City today is St Paul's Cathedral designed by Wren, a famous
English architect of the 17th century. People say that the Cathedral is the
finest Renaissance Church in Europe. The Bank of England, the Stock
Exchange are in the City.
About 2 miles westward is another part of London called the West End. Here
you will see Westminster Abbey, at which all British Kings and Queens are
crowned. It dates back to 1049. Many famous people are buried in the Abbey,
among them Newton, Darwin, Dickens and Kipling.
Across the road from Westminster Abbey there are the Houses of Parliament
with its famous Big Ben, a huge clock built just over a century ago. In this part
of London and further west, there are the finest theatres, cinemas and concert
halls, large museums, hotels, restaurants, the most famous shops and
beautiful parks. This is the West End where the rich live. Mayfair, Regent
Street, Oxford Street, Bond Street - are famous for their splendid shops. You

can see here very elegant people, men and women, grand hotels and clubhouses and modern cars. The name "West End" is associated with wealth,
luxury and goods of high quality.
To the East of the City there is the Port of London. Here are miles and miles of
docks and the great industrial areas that depend upon shipping . This is the
East End of London, unattractive in appearance, but very important to the
country's commerce. Workers, dockers and small craftsmen live there. There
are few large parks in the East End of London, very few squares and
practically none of small traditional gardens in front of the houses. The East
End has a lot of old houses built in Dickens's time, houses which the
Londoners themselves have called "slums". In the main streets of the East
End there are shops where you can buy good clothes and tasty food, but the
majority of shops trade in cheap goods which are of course poor in quality.
The majority of those who live in the East End are the hereditary inhabitants of
the area. They love the East End and are proud that they have the right to call
themselves "Cockneys". The word "cockney" means a true Londoner.
London gardens and parks are wonderful. They are called the lungs of the
city. There are Kensington Garden, Hyde Park, Green Park, Saint Jamess
Park, Regent Park and Victoria park in London. ; Walking in London parks you
have the feeling that you are far away in the country, not in the centre of one
of the largest cities of the world. There are lawns and flowerbeds, fountains
and avenues in the parks, but mostly the parks consist of trees and grass and
water. They are planned to look as natural as nature itself.
Hyde Park is situated in the centre of London. It is really national London
Park. Here is the place for all sort of national parades and mass meetings,
and in the alley over there - in Rotten Row - you can see the riders At the
Speakers Comer in Hyde Park you can see all sorts of orators who talk to the
people about all sorts of things. In the park you can listen to the band. Hyde
Park is the greatest people's park in Europe. It is some 300 acres in extent.
The most famous picture galleries in London are the National Gallery and the
Tate Gallery. The National Gallery houses a priceless collection of the various
schools of painting. One can admire a great number of pictures by great
British painters Hogarth, Constable, Turner, the portraits by Gainsborough,
Reynolds, as well as the world's greatest masters - Michelangelo, Raphael,
Rembrandt and many others. At present the collection of the Tate Gallery
contains over four thousand British paintings and drawings by Turner, Moore
and many others; over three hundred and fifty modem foreign paintings.
The British museum is one of the largest in the world. In the first place it is a
great library with 5 or 6 mln. books; secondly, the British museum is a great
scientific institution generally known as national History Museum, lastly, the
British museum is a national museum of antiquities and ethnography. It is built
in a classical style.

33. CITIES OF GREAT BRITAIN

LIVERPOOL .
Liverpool, city in north-western England, administrative centre of the
metropolitan county of Merseyside, on the River Mersey, near its mouth on the
Irish Sea. Liverpool is the commercial focus of a large metropolitan area.
Although its exports (largely manufactured goods) have declined, it remains
one of Great Britain's major ports. Imports include grain and other foodstuffs,
wood, non-ferrous metals, and textile fibers. Manufactured goods include
Pharmaceuticals, electrical equipment, food and flour, and rubber products. To
augment Liverpool's extensive dock areas, important new facilities were
constructed in the 1970s outside the city limits. Motor-vehicle manufacturing
and oil refining are also located on the periphery of the
Metropolitan area. There has been considerable industrial redevelopment: a
number of industrial estates, including Knowles Industrial Park which is one of
Europe's largest, has been established. Liverpool is connected to the Wirral
peninsula across the river by two motor-vehicle runnels (1934, 1971) and a
railway tunnel.
Relatively few of the existing buildings in Liverpool predate 1800. A notable
exception is the town hall (1754, rebuilt 1795). The Albert Docks, containing
the largest group of "Grade I" listed buildings in Britain, was built in the 1840s.
It is now a redeveloped waterfront site and is home to the Liverpool Tate
Gallery, Granada television studios, and several museums. Other outstanding
buildings are the Neo-Classical St George's Hall (1854), housing concert
halls, law courts, and exhibition rooms; the Gothic-style Anglican Cathedral
(begun 1904, consecrated 1924), one of the largest ecclesiastical structures in
the world; and the Roman Catholic cathedral of Christ the King (consecrated
1967), a striking example of modern architecture. Liverpool's cultural
institutions include the Walker Art Gallery (1873), the Liverpool City Libraries
(1852), and the Liverpool Museum (1851). The Royal Liverpool Philharmonic
Orchestra is based in the city, and there are several theatres. Among the city's
educational institutions are the University of Liverpool, John Moores
University, and several research institutes.
Liverpool's links .with arts and entertainment are legendary. George Stubbs,
the 18th-century painter, was born and worked there. The Beatles and other
rock groups began their careers in the late 1950s; other famous Liverpudlians
include the writers Alan Blasdell and Carla Lane, the actress Patricia
Rutledge, and many comedians including Tommy Handley, Arthur Askey, and
Ken Dodd. In 1996 the Liverpool Institute of Performing Arts (LIPA) was
opened: it was specifically designed for students in the arts and entertainment
industry, Liverpool also has strong sporting connections. The Grand National
steeplechase is held at Entree racecourse annually, and Liverpool and

Everton football clubs are two of the country's major football teams.
Population (1991) 452,450.
Manchester (England), city and metropolitan district, northwestern England. It
is also a port, connected by the Manchester Ship Canal (completed 1894) to
Eastham on the River Mersey and accessible to ocean-going vessels.
Manchester is a major commercial centre, with banking, insurance, and the
leisure industry playing an important role. The city is also an important
retailing centre, and the Andale Centre was one of the first major purpose-built
shopping complexes in Britain. The city was long known as the leading cotton
textile manufacturing city in Great Britain. This was largely due to its site at the
confluence of the rivers Irk, Medlock, and Irwell. They provided abundant
water-power in the early days of manufacturing. Nowadays, there has been
industrial diversification, with engineering, chemicals, clothing, food
processing, and textiles contributing to the economy.
Educational institutions in the city include the large Victoria University of
Manchester (1903), the Royal Northern College of Music (1923), and
Manchester Metropolitan University (1992). A noted cultural centre,
Manchester is the home of the extensive John Rylands Library collection; the
renowned Halle Orchestra (1858); the Whirworth Art Gallery; and the
Manchester City Art Galleries (designed by Sir Charles Barry in the 1820s),
which include museums of archaeology and natural history, as well as science
and technology. It is also home to a flourishing musical culture that in the
1980s and 1990s included the Stone Roses, Happy Mondays, Take That, and
Oasis. Manchester United, who play at Old Trafford, are England's most
successful football club in recent years: Manchester City, who play at Maine
Road, Rushdie, are also one of the most enthusiastically supported football
clubs. Manchester is also the seat of a bishopric of the Anglican Church, and
its cathedral dates from the 15th century.
CARDIFF
Cardiff is the capital and largest city of Wales and it is also the country's main
economic, industrial and cultural centre. It is situated on the southeast coast
of Wales, and three rivers, the Tuff, the Ely and the Rhymney flow through it
into the Bristol Channel.
A large area of parkland lies near the centre of Cardiff, and many of the city's
major commercial buildings are found around Cathays Park. The Civic Centre
is also situated here, and this includes the Law Courts, the National Museum
of Wales and the University College. Nearby there are many fashionable
shops and modern hotels, and Cardiff Castle, which was built in 1090.
Factories in Cardiff produce parts for cars, chemicals, electronic equipment,
engineering products, processed food and tobacco.
Modem rail and road communications link Cardiff with the rest of Great Britain
and an airport lies outside the edge of the city.

In about AD 75, Roman soldiers built a fort on the site of what is now Cardiff the name itself means fort on the Tuff. Normans settled the area around 1050,
building the Castle, and a walled town grew up around the Castle. By the early
1800's it was still a small town. Then, when Wales became a major centre of
coal mining and iron and steel production, Cardiff served as the shipping
centre for these products and grew rapidly. By 1890 it had become known as
the Coal Metropolis of the World, but the industry declined after the First
World War. Since the mid-1940's Cardiff has grown steadily as the
administrative and commercial centre of Wales. Its current population is
approximately 300,000.
34. WEATHER AND CLIMATE IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
The climate of Britain is very variable. The marked features that chiefly
determine the climate of England are:
the position of the island in the temperature belt; the fact that prevailing winds
blow from the west and southwest;
the moderate influence of the Atlantic Ocean with its Gulf-stream current;
the indentations of the coast line, making most parts of the country accessible
to the oceanic influence. Winters are not so severe as they can be on the
Continent, but summers are not so warm as they generally are on the other
side of the Channel. The average London temperature is 4C in January and
18C in July. In other words, Great Britain has a mild climate. But because of
the length of the British Isles temperature differs from district to district. In
winter the coldest districts are the eastern counties. The climate in the southeastern counties is more like that in Central Europe with relatively warm
summers and cold winters, whereas in Ireland and the western parts of Britain
there is much less difference between the temperatures in summer and those
in winter. Subtropical plants can be left in the open during the winter months
along the south coasts. At many places in that region cattle and sheep are left
in the meadows even in winter. Fruit is grown only in the eastern counties.
Although the weather is as changeable as it could be in such a relatively small
region, the extremes are hardly ever severe. The temperature rarely exceeds
90F (32C) or falls bellow zero. Still the wind may bring winter cold in spring or
summer days in October.
The British climate is a rather rainy one. The rain is so abundant that if it could
all be caught and saved there would be sufficient to supply every man, woman
and child with 2000 gallons per head per day. Most of the rain falls in late
autumn and winter, less in spring but there are also parts where summer rains
prevail.
On the average, Britain has 204 rainy days a year, with the maximum in
Scotland and minimum in the estuary of the Thames. The driest period is from
March to June and the wettest months are from October to January. During a

normal summer the temperature is usually 80 F (27 C). Thus, fields can be
worked all the year round. But in the whole of Britain rain and sunshine follow
each other in quick succession. That's why the English always take their
mackintoshes with them. In England you never know in the morning whether it
will rain before the afternoon. The variability of weather is due also to wind
blowing from the ocean. There is not much snow in winter. Heavy snowfalls
seldom take place. You would rarely have opportunities for skiing. Even in the
Highlands snow does not fall regularly in winter. If there is a good snowfall,
however, the Scottish Highlands are an ideal place for skiing.
The thick fog in autumn or winter is the most typical feature of the climate in
England. The winter fogs are, indeed, awful. In a fog the air is hardly fit for
breathing. In a dense fog all the traffic is stopped, no vehicle can move from a
fear of dreadful accidents.
A real London fog is a mixture of a dense fog and smoke of the factories and
homes. Englishmen call it smog.
35. FOUR SEASONS IN GREAT BRITAIN
The climate of Britain is very variable. The marked features that chiefly
determine the climate of England are:
1. the position of the island in the temperature bell;
2. the fact that prevailing winds blow from the west and South-West;
3. the moderate influence of the Atlantic Ocean with its Gulf-Stream
current;
4. the indentations of the coast line, making most parts of the country
accessible to the oceanic influence.
The Gulf-Stream a warm current flowing from the Gulf of Mexico round the
North of Europe affects the climate of the West coast of Europe, the British
Isles and Ireland.
In these western countries summers are not so warm and winters are not as
cold as in the rest of Europe.
Spring is the season when nature returns to life. Vegetation grows rapidly, for
there are periods of sunshine broken by occasional showers. Clouds are
constantly flowing across the sky, and after the rain we see a magnificent
rainbow.
It seldom gets very hot in summer, as there is generally a cooling breeze
from* the South-West, but nevertheless the temperature may rise to ninety
degrees in the shade (Fahrenheit, of course). The weather becomes sultry,
the heat grows oppressive and the air gets stifling. The sky is suddenly
overcast with low black clouds and in a few minutes it pours with rain. You see
dazzling flashes of lighting and hear claps of thunder.
Anyone caught in the rain takes shelter, otherwise he may get wet to the skin.

After the thunderstorm the air is remarkably fresh. We are in for a spell of
good weather again.
In autumn the leaves turn yellow and reddish, and fall to the ground. Then
most birds migrate to warm countries. Autumn is the season of mist, of windy
days, of beautiful sunsets, and miserable chilly days when it drizzles.
The British climate is a rather rainy one. Most of the rain falls in late autumn
and in winter, less in spring but there are also parts where summer rains
prevail. On the average Britain has 204 rainy days a year with the maximum in
Scotland and minimum in the estuary of the river Thames.
Rain-producing atmospheric systems arrive from a westerly direction and
some of the bleak summits of the highest peaks of the Highland zone can
receive as much as 200 inches (5100 millimeters) of rainfall a year. Rain is
fairly well distributed throughout the year. June on the whole, is the driest
month throughout Britain; May is the next driest in the eastern and central
parts of England, but April is drier in parts of the west and north. The wettest
months are usually October,. December and August but in any particular year
almost any month can prove to be the wettest.
A spell of sunny weather in October is called an Indian summer.
The climate of the South of England is much milder than the climate of
Scotland. In the North, the winters are harder. When there is eight degrees of
frost in England, they say that it is freezing bard, and everyone complains of
the cold. This is because their damp climate makes them feel the cold more.
The mean annual temperature ranges from 46 F(8C) in the Hebrides to 52F
(11C) in southwestern England. In spring and autumn a variety of airstreams
and temperature conditions may be experienced.
On a frosty morning the country is covered with hoarfrost. Icicles hang from
the roofs of houses. The snow falls, but sometimes it does not last long. There
is not much snow in winter. Heavy snowfalls seldom take place. You would
rarely have opportunities for skiing. Even in the Highlands snow does not fall
regularly in winter. If there is a good snowfall, however, the Scottish Highlands
are an ideal place for skiing, when spring coming. The thaw sets in, the snow
turns to slush and the puddles of water appear in the streets. The English
often grumble about the weather.
36. INDUSTRY AND AGRICULTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN
Great Britain is rich in coal, iron and other metals. It has highly developed
industries.
The biggest coal and iron mines are in the north-east of England, near the
industrial centre of Newcastle and Sunderland; in Lancashire and Yorkshire, in
the west and the center of England, in Scotland, near Glasgow, in Wales, near
Cardiff, the capital of Wales, and near the port of Bristol.

Until recent times, Britain's heavy industry was mainly in the center of England
and in the London region. Such towns as Birmingham, Coventry and Sheffield
produced heavy machines, railway, carriages, motor-cars, machines for the
house and the office -in a word, everything from the heaviest machines to
pins. Modern development has changed Britain's industrial face. New
industries are developing in regions which were agricultural, and the old
industrial centre have developed new branches of industry; electricity,
electronics, wireless, chemical industry and others.
Big cities and towns such as London, Glasgow, Manchester and Liverpool
have enterprises of nearly all branches of industry, old and new. Oxford is also
one of the most important centre of the motor-car industry. Edinburgh, the
capital of Scotland, now has electrical, electronic enterprises.
The ship-building industry is of great importance for Britain. It is centered in
London, Glasgow, Newcastle, near Liverpool, and in Belfast.
Britain produces a lot of wool, and the woolen industry is centered in
Yorkshire, mainly in such towns as Leeds and Bradford, which export products
to many countries. Britain imports cotton from America and other countries
through the port of Liverpool, the cotton industry is concentrated in
Lancashire, mainly Manchester, and also Glasgow and Belfast. Textile
machines are also made in all these and other towns.
Up to recently, the only industry in Wales was coalmines. But in the last twenty
or thirty years the people of Wales had struggled for a better life. Other
branches of industry were developed, especially modern branches such as
wireless, electronics and the chemical industry. They also have enterprises of
light and food industries.
Northern Ireland is one of the poorest regions of the United Kingdom. Belfast
has ship-building and textile industries, and Londonderry has chemical and
textile enterprises, but the other parts of Northern Ireland are agricultural. This
explains the struggle of the people of Northern Ireland for their rights.
Seaports play a great part in the life of the country. London, Liverpool and
Glasgow are the biggest English ports, from which big liners go to all parts of
the world. Britain sells industrial products to other countries and imports food
and other products.
Up to the Industrial Revolution, Britain was mainly a land of agriculture and
sheep-farming. In the 19th century, when the textile industry began to develop,
many of the families who had worked on the land before, went to towns to find
work in the factories and the new industrial enterprises. But one of the results
of the industrial development was the production of better agricultural
machines which raised the production in agriculture.
Some 2, 5% of Britain's employed labor force is engaged in agriculture - a
lower proportion than in any other major industrial ;countries. Britain is able to
produce nearly two-thirds of its own food. Britain usually imports meat, butter,
wheat, tea, fruit, tobacco and wool.

Sheep-farming, cattle-farming and dairy-farming are still important

branches of the British economy; large numbers of sheep can be seen in
many parts of England and Scotland and there are a lot of dairy-farms and
cattle-farms in the centre and the south of England and in Scotland.
Britain still does not produce enough food for its people, much is imported
from other countries.
Wheat is grown in the east of England, but generally barley, oats and rye
are the main grain crops. Vegetables are grown in all parts of England,
especially in the British Isles. Chicken-farms produce a great number of
chickens and eggs for the population.
The South of England is often called the "Garden of England". This is
because there are many gardens and orchards there. Few fruits, mostly
apples and pears, are grown in the northern regions of the country. But in the
South, where the temperature is higher in summer, the winters are less cold,
and there are more hours of sunshine. Cherries, plums, and other fruits grow
in the orchards and there are large plantations of different berries. The
orchards in the south make the country beautiful in spring.
37. POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN
Britain - or, more accurately, the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland - is a
constitutional monarchy.
It has a monarch - either a king or a queen - as its Head of State, but the
monarch has very little power. The Queen reigns but she does not rule.
Parliament and the existing government have the power.
The United Kingdom does not have a written constitution or printed set of
rules for governing the country.
The rules have developed over the centuries. The constitution (or the present
unwritten set of rules) has been formed in three ways: 1. by all the laws and
decrees that have been made for centuries, by the way these laws have been
interpreted in the Law Courts in the past and are now re-interpreted from time
to time, by the way things have been done for centuries, although some of
these practices have never been formally written down.
If there is enough pressure from the public for change, it is comparatively easy
to change such a flexible constitution.
Have produced parties which fight for their own special interests, the Scottish
Nationalist Party (SNP) and Plaid Cymru (Welsh Nationalist Party).
The United Kingdom is divided into 650 areas called constituencies. Some
constituencies have a much larger voting population than others. Each
constituency returns one Member of Parliament. Before an election a
candidate is chosen by the local members of a party; if there is not enough

local support for a party, it may decide not to have a candidate. But the two
main parties almost always fight the election in every constituency.
Candidates who are independent of a political party can also seek election but
they rarely get a seat in Parliament.
Elections in Britain are decided on a simple majority in each constituency - the
candidate with the most votes is elected. And the party with the most elected
members wins the Election. So the number of seats in Parliament held by
each political party is not directly related to the total number of votes it
receives.
After the general election the monarch chooses the Prime Minister who is the
head of the government. As a rule, Prime Minister is the leader of the party
that has won the election and has the majority in the House of Commons. The
Prime Minister appoints the ministers to compose the government. The
ministers who have gained the confidence of the Prime Minister are presented
to the monarch for the formal approval,. The largest minority party becomes
the official Opposition with its own leader and its own council of discussion or
"Shadow Cabinet". All the ministers must be members of either the House of
Commons or the House of Lords and a minister may speak only in the House
of which he is a member.
38. SCHOOL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN
The educational system in Great Britain is very complex. Each school is
responsible for its organization. There are two main- types of schools: state
schools which are free of charge and private or public which are paid for. Very
few children can go to public school Study is compulsory for children from 5 to
16. The school system includes two stages - primary and secondary. The
majority of primary schools are mixed. These schools are mostly subdivided
into infant (ages 5-7), and junior (ages 7-11/12). In infant schools kids learn to
read, write and count, they also play much. In junior schools subject teaching
begins: Arithmetic, Reading, Composition, History, Geography, and Nature
Study.
Till 1945 there existed the 11+examination. It decided what kind of secondary
school the child would go to. Then this exam has been abolished in most
counties. Where this selection is practiced children are sent to grammar
schools, technical schools or secondary modern schools. The first type of
schools provides academic education for selected pupils from 11 to 18.
Grammar schools are the best state schools. Technical schools give a general
education with a technical bias, but the level is lower there. Secondary
modern schools give education secondary only in name; pupils leave school
half-educated. After World Warf comprehensive schools began to appear.
They take all children without selection and segregation. They have a wide
range of subjects. They do not stream pupils into clever and stupid, in many

counties there is a new system of comprehensive schools: children go to first

school (ages 5-8), (hen come to middle school (ages 13-18). The highest
mark in English school is A (100%-90%), the lowest - D (not less than 64%).
The reorganization of schools continues.
39. HIGHER EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN
Higher education is provided at universities and on advanced courses at
polytechnics and other establishments of higher and further education. The
oldest and best-known universities are in Oxford, Cambridge, London,
Manchester, Liverpool, Durham, Edinburgh, Bristol, Cardiff, and Birmingham.
A university consists of a number of faculties: divinity, medicine, arts
(philosophy), law, music, natural sciences, economics, engineering,
agriculture, commerce and education. After 3 years of study, a student may
proceed to a Bachelor's degree and later to the degree of Master and Doctor.
The Bachelor's degree is given to students who pass examinations at the end
of 3 or 4 years of study. Bachelor of Arts for history, philosophy, language and
literature and sometimes some social studies, or Bachelor of Science or
Commerce or Music. Bachelor's degrees are at 2 levels: Honours and Pass.
In some cases the Honours degree is given for intensive study and
examination in I, 2 or perhaps 3 related subjects, while the Pass (or
"General") degree may be somewhat broader. In other cases the Honours
degree is given to the students who are more successful in their examination.
The 1st post-graduate degree is that of Master, conferred for a thesis based
on at least 1 year's full-time work. Everywhere the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy is given for a thesis is an original contribution to knowledge.
The oldest Universities of Oxford and Cambridge were founded in the two
towns towards the end of the XII century. The story of the University in
Cambridge begins in 1209 when several hundred scholars and students
arrived in the little town of Cambridge. These students were all churchmen
and had been studying in Oxford at the city of well-known schools. It was a
hard life in Oxford for there was constant trouble between the townsfolk and
the students. Then one day a student accidentally killed a man of the town.
The Mayor arrested 3 other students who were innocent and by order of King
John (who was quarrelling with the Church and knew that the death of 3
churchmen would annoy it) they were put to death by hanging. In protest, all
students moved elsewhere, some came to Cambridge., and so the new
University was formed.
There were many new quarrels with the townsfolk, for the University wanted to
be independent of the Town. Side by side with the fight for freedom from Town
rule and another for liberty from Church rule the University became its own
master at last in 1500. Now at Oxford and Cambridge the colleges are selfgoverning institutions.

In those early days students' life was different from everywhere. The students
were armed, some robbed the people of the countryside.
Students were forbidden to play games, to sing (except religious hymns), to
hunt or fish, or even to dance. All the lessons were in the Latin language
which students had to speak even among themselves.
In the early 19 century Oxford and Cambridge were the only two universities
in England. The cost of education at these universities was so high that only
the sons of the wealthier classes could afford to attend.
Many great men studied .at Cambridge and Oxford: amongst them Bacon the
philosopher, Milton the poet, Newton the scientist, John Galsworthy the writer.
The universities have their own traditions, which they preserve carefully. A
student must wear a cap and gown - it is a custom from the time when
students were clergymen. If a student disobeys this regulation he must pay a
fine. Students correctly dressed have their meals in the College dining-room
and mustn't be late for dinner. Sporting activities are very numerous and
popular and there is keen rivalry between the Colleges and Universities. The
most popular sport is rowing.
Academic life in both Universities is full and varied. Students attend lectures
given by professors and lecturers, their work is largely based on a "tutorial"
system, each student meets his tutor to have his work scrutinized and
discussed.
Because of their age, traditions, historical associations and reputation the
prestige of Oxford and Cambridge is very high, I consequently, competition for
admission is extremely keen.
40. THE FAMOUS PEOPLE OF THE UK
NEWTON (1642-1727)
Newton, one of the greatest scientists of all time, was born on the 25th of
December, 1642, in the little village of Woolsthore in Lincolnshire. His father
was a farmer and had died before Newton was born. His mother was a clever
woman for whom Newton retained a great love all his life.
Newton's school-days were not remarkable. He studied mathematics at
Cambridge and took his degree there in 1665. Then the University was closed
because of the danger of plague and Newton went home for a period of
eighteen months, which was a most important period, for during that time
Newton, between the ages of 22 and 24, made his three great discoveries the discovery of the differential calculuss, of the nature of white light, and of
the law of gravitation. These three great discoveries, which have changed the
course of thought, have also influenced the course of science from that day
until our days.
Newton had always been interested in the problem of light. Most people have
seen the colours of the rainbow reflected in a drop of dew but it was Newton

who, by his experiments, showed that white light is made up of these different
colours.
It is interesting how the idea which led to the discovery of the laws governing
the forces of gravitation first came to him. Once, as he sat in his garden the
fall of an apple made him think: why must that apple always descend
perpendicularly to the ground? Why must it not go sidewards or upwards, but
usually, to the earth's centre? Certainly, the reason is that the earth draws it.
An apple falling was not an unusual event, but only Newton drew from his
sight the inspiration and particular demonstration which led to a great scientific
discovery.
By degrees he began to apply this property of gravitation to the motion of the
earth and the heavenly bodies round the sun.
Newton died when he was 84, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where
his monument is today.
THE ENGLISH THEATRE
From the fall of the Roman Empire until the 10th century, acting hardly
existed as an art in Western Europe; only the wandering minstrels gave
entertainment in castles and fairs. In England, the first real actors were
amateurs who performed Miracle and Morality plays which were religious in
character.
In the Elizabethan age, the first professional theatres were opened. At the
time of Shakespeare there were at least six companies of actors,
Shakespeare himself joined the Earl of Leicesters company, I which under
James I became known as the "King Men". There were also companies of boy
actors. All the women's parts were played by boys. It was very difficult for
most actors to earn a living on the stage, even in a London company, and
many of them fell into debt. When Shakespeare arrived in London in 1586, the
acting was very crude and conventional. There was almost no scenery, and
the actors were dressed in the costumes of their day. But when "The Globe"
was opened to the public in 1599, it was the golden age of the theatre in ',.
England.
In the first half of the 17th the most popular plays were comedies. The first
part played by an actress was that of Desdemona. Nell Gwynn was the first
English actress.
By the beginning of the 18th century the most popular type of I play was the
sentimental comedy. The acting was artificial probably I- due to the influence
of French actors.
But later, under the influence of David Garrick, and some:' other actors
acting became much more naturalistic.

David Garrick was one of the greatest actors known. But even at his time
acting was not very popular. An actor whose acting had : offended the
audience had to ask pardon on his knees before a full house before he could
continue in his profession.
During the 19th century acting became more and more naturalistic. Like in
Shakespeare's time, the best actors understood the importance of the team
work of the company. One of the most famous actors of that time was Henry
Irving. He was the first actor to be knighted.
By the 1920s naturalistic acting reached a peak in the performance of Sir
Gerald du Maurer. He hardly appeared to be acting at all.
At present most acting still continues to be naturalistic. Designers make the
settings as realistic as possible. Modern producers and directors (Peter Brook
and others) are trying out new styles of acting. Some go back to Greek
methods, with a revival of the chorus; others are making use of the audience
in helping to interpret the play.
Britain is now one of the world's major theatres centre. Many British actors
and actresses are known all over the world. They are Dame Peggy Ashcroft.
Glenda Jackson, Laurence Olivier, John Gielgud and others.
Drama is so popular with people of all ages that there are several thousand
amateur dramatic societies.
Now Britain has about 300 professional theatres. Some of them are privately
owned. The tickets are not hard to get but they are very expensive. Regular
seasons of opera and ballet are given at the Royal Opera House, Covent
Garden in London. The National Theater stages modem and classical plays,
the Royal Shakespeare Company produces plays mainly by Shakespeare and
his contemporaries when it performs in Stratford-on Avon and modern plays in
its two auditory in the City's Barbican Centre.
Shakespeare's Globe Playhouse, about which you have probably read, is
being reconstructed on its original site. Many other cities and large towns
have at least one theatre.
There are many theatres and theatre companies for young people: the
National Youth Theatre and the Young Vice Company in London, the Scottish
Youth Theatre in Edinburgh.
42. A FAMOUS BRITISH WRITER WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
(1564-1616)
William Shakespeare is the world's greatest poet and dramatist. Every
Englishman knows more or less the works of his country's greatest poet.
Words and phrases from Shakespeare's writings have become part of the
English language and are used by all.
Shakespeare made fuller use of the English language than any other
writer. There is no better way for a foreigner or an English man to understand

the richness of the English language than by studying how Shakespeare used
it.
The last half of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century are
sometimes called the age of Shakespeare. By that time England had become
a powerful state, but there was not much change for the better in the life of the
English people and the power of money grew stronger.
Shakespeare saw these contrasts and showed them in his works.
Although the name of William Shakespeare is well-known in the world we
know very little about his life. He was born on April 23, 1564 in Stratford-uponAvon. His mother, Mary Arden, was daughter of Robert Arden, a farmer. His
father, John Shakespeare, was a glover who had an office at Stratford-uponAvon.
Little is known about William's childhood. He got his education at the
Grammar School. He got married in 1582 to Anne Hathaway and had three
children, a boy and two girls.
William lived in Stratford until he was about twenty-one, when he went to
London. There is a story that Shakespeare's first work in London was holding
rich men's horses at the theatre door. But nobody can say whether this story is
true.
Later, Shakespeare became an actor and a member of one of the big acting
companies. Soon he began to write plays and became a well-known author.
Shakespeare's work as an actor (although he usually acted only small
parts) helped him greatly in the writing of his plays. He knew the stage and
that helped him to write the most wonderful plays ever written.
Shakespeare wrote 37 plays. Among them are tragedies such as Hamlet, King
Lear, Othello, Macbeth; comedies such as The Merry Wives of Windsor, All's
Well That Ends Well, Twelfth Night, Much Ado about Nothing; historical
dramas such as Henry IY, Richard III.
Shakespeare spent the last years of his life at Stratford, where he died in
1616. He was buried in the church of Stratford. A monument was built to him
in the Poet's Corner in Westminster Abbey.
Shakespeare was a great humanist. He believed in man and wished to
make life better for the people of his country.
43. MASS MEDIA IN GREAT BRITAIN
The mass media (television, radio, newspapers) provide information and
entertainment. Television seems to be the first choice among the various
media in Britain.
99% of the populations have television in the home. 10% have two or more
sets. There is a choice between four programmes. The British Broadcasting

Corporation's two channels, BBC 1 and BBC2, ITV {Independent Television)

and Channel 4 programmes.
ITV has a regional network - each region is run by a different company, so
some television programmes may differ from region to region. So, for
example, Yorkshire Television may be different at times from Harlech (Wales).
People with a television set have to buy an annual government license. In
Newton died when he was 84, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where
his monument is today.
and 1988 a colours television license costs 62,50 pounds and a license for
black-and-white only costs 21,00 p Newton died when he was 84, was buried
in Westminster Abbey, where his monument is today. The price of the TV
license is now increased each year in step with general inflation as calculated
by government statistics. The BC has to manage with the license money plus
profits from the sale of tapes, records and publications and programmes it
sells abroad. There is no advertising on the BBC.
ITV gets its money from advertisers who pay to show films advertising their
goods between programmes and during breaks in programmes - 'commercial
breaks', as they are called. No programmes are sponsored by firms
institutions on British television.
The time allowed for commercial breaks must not average more than six
minutes in an hour.
Almost all households in Britain have at least one radio set; most have more
than one. The TV license includes radio. The BBC has four national radio
stations. They all broadcast news bulletins.
Every weekday, during school terms, there are varied programmes for schools
on TV and the radio.
Timetables of the next term's programmes are sent out in advance to schools
throughout Britain. Teachers can then choose what is suitable for their pupils.
Many schools record programmes and use them later.
People all over the world listen to the BBC World Service radio programmes of
news, comment and talks. Apart from the information it provides, the World
Service helps many people to improve their English if they listen regularly. The
BBC also has a special department 'English by Television and Radio', which
produces programmes for English language learning at various levels.
There are national daily papers (published in the morning) national evening
papers, local morning evening papers. National papers are mostly printed in
London and distributed from there. National papers are either 'quality' or
'popular'. 'Quality' papers are read by the higher income classes.
In Britain you are encouraged to read a newspaper regularly because, for a
small extra charge, it is delivered daily to your door. The popular papers: "The
Sun", "Daily Mirror, Daily Express", "Daily Mail", "Daily Star", "Morning
Star". The quality papers: "The Daily Telegraph", "The Times", "The
Guardian", "Financial Times", "The Independent".

National papers are more popular with British readers than provincial papers
are, yet many people still prefer a paper published in their own region. Every
town and country district has at least one newspaper of its own, devoted to
local news.
Many places have free local newspapers as well; these mainly contain
advertisements. Papers like the Farmers Weekly and the Church Times cater
for special interests.
If the British still feel short of reading material, they can choose from 4,000
journals and magazines. These are called periodicals and are published
weekly or monthly.
There is a periodical for all tastes and interests.
44. MEDICAL CARE IN GREAT BRITAIN
Britain today is a Welfare State which looks after its citizens in need: the old,
the sick, the unemployed. The Department of Health and Social Security
(DHSS) deals with the basic welfare of all citizens. Medical care and pensions
are provided, and financial help is given to those who might otherwise starve
or be homeless. Welfare is paid for by all workers and their employers. They
pay National Insurance contributions. In addition, the States provides money
out of general taxes. Welfare services are free apart from some charges for
drugs (medicines), spectacles and dentistry. People with very low incomes do
not even have to pay these charges.
The National Health Service - generally known by its initials, the NHS provides medical care for the citizen.
What the NHS offers? Any person who is permanently resident in the United
Kingdom can have the services of a doctor, treatment in a hospital, the
services of a specialist if the doctor thinks it necessary. All this is free. In case
of emergency or accident, a visitor to the UK may have the same free medical
services.
The NHS is large and its organization is complicated. But does it work well,
nevertheless? In general, yes. At least, in an emergency, after an accident or
in acute illness, it does not fail. But patients sometimes have to wait many
months, even years, for less urgent treatment. Why do some patients have to
wait a long time for hospital treatment?
Some areas of Britain have fewer hospitals than others; some have fewer
consultants. A consultant must see each patient to decide on the necessary
treatment.
There is not enough money to improve the poorer areas and modernize old
hospitals.
In some hospitals the patients stay longer after an operation than in others:
this reduces the total number of beds available and consequently the number
of patients who can be treated.

Owing to lack of funds, there are staff shortages so that wards have to be
closed, beds left unoccupied and operating theatres underused.
People expect more of the NHS than they used to. If a patient has a complaint
about treatment under the NHS, what can he do?
He can write to the hospital administrator.
He can write to the various NHS committees set up to investigate complaints.
He can ask his local Community Health Council to help him.
He can try to put his complaint to the Parliamentary Commissioner for the
Health Service - the Health Service Ombudsman.
Finally, he can sue the doctor, surgeon or nursing staff in the law courts and
claim damages. But this does not happen often in Britain; it is difficult for a
layman to prove his case against the professionals.
Some people prefer to pay for treatment when they are ill. They get more
choice; they can choose when, where and by whom they are treated.
Some NHS hospitals have 'pay beds' in private rooms, for which private
patients pay. Pay beds have been reduced in number, however.
Private patients must pay for all their treatment (including drugs) although they
have paid compulsory National Insurance.
45. SPORTS AND GAMES IN GREAT BRITAIN
Many sports and games which are nowadays played all over the world were
invented in Britain. These are football, rugby, cricket, golf, hockey, athletics,
tennis, boxing, badminton and a host of others.
Sport in Britain became an essential part of the national way of life. Even in
some schools sport had been since the days of the middle ages an important
part of the curriculum.
In England the most popular games with men and boys are cricket in summer
and football in winter.
Cricket is played with a small leather ball, heavy and hard. The ball is hit with
a wooden bat.
As far as football is concerned, there are 2 kinds of football: association
played by teams of eleven men with a round ball, and Rugby played by teams
of fifteen men with an oval ball.
The most popular games for girls are tennis, and basket-ball. Tennis and golf
are very popular in England and so are the various forms of athletics such as
running, jumping and rowing. Boxing is very popular too. Sometimes when
they get a really hard winter, they ski, skate and toboggan. In England many
traditional sporting contests take place at approximately the same time every
year. The most important among them are:
1 .The Oxford-Cambridge Boat Race {end of March or beginning of April)
2. Bumping Races (usually the forth week of May)
3. The Cup Final (usually the first Saturday in May, football championship)

4. The Grand National (April, horse-racing)

5. The Derby (late May or June, horse-racing)
6. The Henley Regatta (July, boat race)
7. The London to Brighton Car Rally (November) even
The Oxford-Cambridge Boat-Race is the most popular rowing it between the
"eights" (or teams of eight) from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge.
This annual contest is one of the greatest sporting events in the world. It is
held on the River of Thames at the end of March or in early April, the course
being the 4 1/4 mile stretch of river. The race was first rowed at Henley in
1829, but was transferred to the present course in 1845. It is watched by
crowds on the riverbank, in boats, and at home on television. Water sports,
swimming and diving are less popular in Britain.
46. TRADITIONS AND CUSTOMS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM
Every nation and every country has its own traditions and customs. In Britain
traditions play a more important part in the life of the people than in other
countries. Englishmen are proud of their traditions and carefully keep them up.
For example, to this day an English family prefers a house with a garden and
a fireplace to a flat in a modern house with the central heating. English people
like gardens very much. Gardening is one of the most popular hobbies in this
country. The art of gardening has a very old tradition in England. If you want to
please an English person, be very polite about his garden.
Another English tradition is that no letters are delivered on Sundays and only
a few Sunday papers are published
English people are fond of animals. Many families have pets and they treat
them with the greatest care and love. Animals in England are protected by
law. If, for instance any one leaves a cat to starve in an empty house while he
goes for his holidays, he can be sent to prison. It is a common practice among
pet owners to give their favourites a Diatec treat on Sunday - including
omelets, pancakes, ice-cream, boiled eggs, cereals. There are good hospitals
for animals in Great Britain.
Holidays are especially rich in old traditions and are different in Scotland,
Ireland, England and Wales. There are only eight official public holidays when
people do not go to work and celebrate them. They are Christmas Day, Boxing
Day, Good Friday, Easter Monday, Spring Bank Holiday, Late Summer Bank
Holiday, New Year's Day, May Day.
Most of these holidays are of religious origin, though it would be true to say
that for the greater part of the population they are simply days on which
people relax, eat, drink and make merry.
Christmas is marked all over Great Britain except Scotland. It's observed on
the 25th of December. The words "A Merry Christmas to you" or "Wishing You
a Merry Christmas are written and heard everywhere.

On the Christmas Eve the great event of the evening is for the children as
they go to bed to pin a stocking on the counterpane. The idea is that in the
middle of the night Father Christmas comes down the chimney and fills them
with toys. So children's morning is festally heralded with shrieks of delight.
There follows the big moment of English Christmas the mid-' meal. Half an
hour before dinner you'll be offered sherry, or gin I Italian vermouth. The
dinning room is decorated with holly, strips red paper, miniature snow men
and gnomes. In the middle of the cricket there's a slip of paper bearing a joke,
a proverb, a riddle or a quotation from literature.
Sausages and hot, boiled ham and vegetables go with turkey; at last it comes
the celebrated Christmas pudding, covered with white sauce and burning in
brandy. Receiving each a slice, you are warned to eat carefully because
shillings, a tiny silver bell and silver horse shoe have been put into it. Those
who find the "treasure" are supposed to have money coming to them in this
year; whoever gets the bell is to be married, and the horse shoe is the
traditional sign of good luck.
New Year is widely celebrated in Scotland but not so widely in other parts of
the UK. At midnight everyone manages to hear the chimes of Big Ben and on
the hour a toast is drunk to the New Year, and "Auld Lang Sine" is sung. On
this day people go to the statue of Eros in Piccadilly Circus to make merry,
others go to Trafalgar Square and someone usually falls into the fountain.
Such holidays as an Eisteddfod, a Robin Hood Dance, Pancake j Day are
only marked in certain parts of the UK, There are some common British and
American holidays, such as St. Valentine's Day, April Fool's Day and others.
47. MAIN YOUTH ORGANIZATIONS IN GREAT BRITAIN
Most of the youth organizations in Britain work under the British Youth Council
(BYC), which represents the youth of the country both nationally and
internationally. The BYC is a consultative body for about sixty youth
organizations: the National Union of Students, the Scout and Girl Guide
Associations and many other non political youth organizations. Non-political
youth organizations:
The National Union of Students was founded in 1922 when various university
and college student organizations were united to defend the interests of the
students and to coordinate international contacts and cooperation.
The supreme governing body is the National Executive Council elected at
national Congresses held twice a year. The NUS maintains contacts with the
International Union of Students.
The Scout Association was formed in 1908 after me appearance of book
"Scouting for Boys" written by Lieutenant-General Baden Powel. Though the

movement had been started in Great Britain for boys, it very quickly spread to
other countries.
Scouts are organized into small groups of six or seven under a boy leader.
Their training is complementary to their ordinary education: such as mapping,
signaling, knotting, first aid and all the skills that arise from camping and
outdoor activities.
To become a scout a boy must make a promise that he would do his best to
do his duty to God and the King/Queen, to help other people and to obey the
Scout Law.
From the beginning the left handshake, together with a special , badge and
the motto" Be prepared" was adopted as the sign of being a scout.
The Scout movement was intended for boys from 11 to 15, but it was soon
realized that programmes for younger and older boys were needed. By 1916
Baden Powel had solved the problem of the younger boys by the introduction
of Wolf Cubs with their own motto
Loaf "Do your best", their uniform, their own badges and training system. The
older boys became Rover Scouts and later Senior Scouts. They carry on their
scouting with expeditions on sea and land, at home and abroad. Scouting for
older boys emphasized personal fitness, social, vocational and cultural
activities, and "Citizenship and community service". Now scout training starts
frorn the age of 8. Scout groups include Wolf Cubs (8-11), Boy Scouts (11-15),
Senior Scouts (15-18) and Rover Scouts (18-23). Several small units (Patrols)
form a Troop, which is headed by the scout leader, or scoutmaster.
Scoutmasters are trained in camps with the headquarters in Epping Forest in
England.
British scouts take part in international scout meetings ("world jamborees"),
which are held approximately every four years.
These are gatherings of thousands of scouts representing their countries and
camping together. The girl guides Association was formed in 1910 by Baden
Powel soon after he started the boy scouts movement The Combined Cadet
Force trains boys at schools for service in the armed forces. All schools have
an Army Section and must have either a Royal Navy (RN) or Royal Air Force
(R.A.F.) section or both. The Sea Cadet Corps is a voluntary youth
organization for boys between the ages of 12 and 18. The Corps helps those
boys who wish to make their career at sea either in the Royal Navy or
merchant Navy. The Air Training Corps and the Army Cadet Force are preservice organizations.
All schools have an Army Section and must have either a Royal Navy (RN) or
Royal Air Force (R.A.F.) section or both. The Sea Cadet Corps is a voluntary
youth organization for boys between the ages of 12 and 18. The Corps helps
those boys who wish to make their career at sea either in the Royal Navy or
merchant Navy. The Air Training Corps and the Army Cadet Force are preservice organizations.

The National Federation of Young Farmers' Clubs was formed in 1928.

Membership is open to all young people between the ages of 10-and 25,
interested in farming and the countryside.
The Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) is an organization for young
men and boys. The aim of YMCA is "to develop high standards of Christian
character through group activity and citizenship training". Its programmes
include sports and physical education, camping, spiritual education, public
affairs and citizenship activities.
Among other activities the YMCA operates hotels and residence halls,
cafeterias, and so on.
The Young Women's Christian Association originated in 1855. Its aim is "to
advance the physical, social, intellectual, moral and spiritual aspects of young
women". The YWCA operates hotels and residences, summer camps,
programmes of education and recreation.
The junior Red Cross section organizes holidays for physically handicapped
children.
The main aim of the Woodcraft Folk organization is to bring up children in the
spirit of peace and internationalism, on the principles of progress and
humanity. Their members organize summer tent camps. There they study
nature, history, archeology, ecology, acquire skills needed for tourism, arrange
dance and song festivals.
Youth Organizations associated with political parties. The Young Conservative
and Unionist organization was founded in 1906. It is an integral part of the
Conservative and Unionist parties. Young conservatives meet on a given night
each week. At the annual meeting the four main officers are elected:
Chairman, Vice-Chairman, Honorable Treasurer and Honorable Secretary,
with a Committee ranging from 6 to 20 members.
The political events arranged by the Committee comprise debates,
discussions, talks by speakers, visits to factories, institutions and the various
places of government. The social life does not exclude dances, outings,
theatre visits, games and they are intermingled with the political activities.
The National League of Young Liberals was set up in 1903 to coordinate the
youth activities within the Liberal party.
The Young Socialists appeared in 1960. They help to recruit young members
to the Labor Party.
The Young Communist League of Great Britain (YCL) was founded in 1922. It
brings together workers, students and unemployed young people between the
ages of 13 and 26. Members of the YCL arrange lectures, talks, meetings,
issue leaflets and organize the distribution of Marxist literature. The YCL also
campaigns for the I. improvement of young people's economic conditions and
against I: growing unemployment, which hits the young people hardest of all.

48. CANADA
Canada, the world's second-largest country (after Russia), is the largest
country in the Western Hemisphere and comprises all the 'North American
continent north of the United States, with the exclusion of Alaska, Greenland,
and the tiny French islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon.
Canada is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the west by the
Pacific Ocean, and on the east by the Atlantic Ocean and its associated
bodies of water, including Baffin Bay and the Labrador Sea. Its only
international land boundary is with the United States-on the northwest,
between Canada and the state of Alaska, and on the south, where the U.S.Canada border is 6,416 km (3,987 mi) long.
Canada has a total population (1991) of 27,296,859. About 80% of this
number lives within 160 km (100 mi) of the U.S. border on the south;
approximately 89% of the country is virtually unsettled. Because of these vast
tracts of virtually uninhabited northern forests and tundra, Canada has one of
the lowest population densities in the world,
Canada is rich in natural resources. It is a world leader in value of mineral
exports and produces and exports many of the minerals needed for modern
industrial economies, although a few minerals, such as manganese,
chromium, bauxite, and tin, must be imported. Its soils, which are especially
rich in the three prairie provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba,
are intensively utilized and make Canada one of the world's largest exporters
of agricultural products. Forests cover much of the land, and Canada is the
world's largest exporter of newsprint and a leading supplier of lumber, pulp,
paper, and wood products.
Canada has a dual cultural heritage that stems from the British conquest
(1763) of the French colony of New France. Today both French and English
are official languages. The threat of separatism by the largely Frenchspeaking province of Quebec was an issue through the 1980s and early
1990s, although a 1980 referendum mandating the sovereignty of Quebec
was defeated by Quebec's electorate. The 1987 Mesh Lake accord, an
addition to the 1982 constitution that acknowledged Quebec's distinctness,
failed in 1990 when two provinces refused to finalize it.
The name Canada is thought to be derived from Kanata, the Huron-Iroquois
word meaning "village" or "community."

THE LAND AND RESOURCES

precipitation, snow covers the ground permanently for more than 6 months of
every year.

Physical Regions
Vegetation and Animal Life
Canada has six major physical, or physiographic, regions: the CANADIAN
SHIELD, the Arctic Islands, the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands, the
Appalachian Region, the Interior Plains, and the Cordilleran Region.
Climate of Canada
The populated southern areas of Canada have a wide variety of temperate
climates. The Pacific coastal areas have a temperate marine west coast type
of climate, with cool summers in the 16 deg-18 deg (60 deg-65 deg F)
range and mild winters in the 0 deg-4 deg (32 1 deg-39 deg F) range. The
interior plains have a middle-latitude steppe-type climate in the drier southern
sections and a more humid and extreme continental type of climate
elsewhere. Temperatures average about -20 deg to -15 deg (-5 deg to +5
deg F) in long winters and 18 deg-20 deg (65 deg-68 deg F) in short
summers.
The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands and the Appalachian Region have a
more humid version of a continental type of climate. Both areas have a long,
cold winter, with January averages about -10 deg (14 deg F) in the eastern
sections and -4 deg (25 deg F) in the Ontario Peninsula, and short, warm
summers with average temperatures of near 20 deg (68 deg F).
Precipitation is heaviest in the west, where moisture-laden winds from the
Pacific Ocean are forced to rise over the mountainous coastal regions and
bring more than 5,000 mm (195 in) of rain a year to some areas, although
average annual precipitation is 1,525 to 2,540 mm (60 to 100 in). Precipitation
is least in the Interior Plains, where many areas receive less than 500 mm (20
in) a year. Except for the. Low-lying Pacific coast areas, winter precipitation
throughout Canada is usually in the form of snow, and thick blankets of
accumulated snow cover most of Canada east of the Rockies for 3 to 6
months of the year. The sparsely settled northern areas have an arctic, or
tundra, type of climate on the islands and northern coastal areas and a
subarctic type of climate in the vast transitional area between the frozen north
and the settled south. The arctic type of climate is characterized by long, very
cold winters, with average temperatures far below freezing and no summer
month with an average temperature higher than 10 deg (50 deg F). In die
subarctic areas, winters are similarly long and bitterly cold, but summers are
warm enough (more than 10 deg C/50 deg F) to support vegetation growth.
Precipitation is generally light in the western areas of the arctic and subarctic
regions and heavier in northern Quebec and Labrador. Despite the low

Canada has three major natural vegetation zones: forests, grasslands, and
tundras. The natural forests occupy the largest area and are classified into
three main types. The eastern forests native to the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence
Lowlands and the Appalachian Region comprisewhere not cleared for
agriculture and settlementboth deciduous trees such as sugar maple and
beech and coniferous trees such as yellow pine, white and red pine, and
hemlock. The fauna include white-tailed deer, squirrels, mink, and skunks.
The boreal, or northern, coniferous forest, sometimes also referred to as the
taiga, stretches across the continent from Newfoundland to the Alaska border
and accounts for 82% of all Canadian forestland. It includes white and black
spruces and white birches, which are common throughout its vast extent,
extensive areas of balsam poplar and tamarack, and balsam fir, jack pine, and
trembling aspen in local concentrations. This northern forest supports nearly
all the fauna recognized as distinctly Canadian, including the moose, beaver,
Canada lynx, black bear, and Canada jay.
The third great forest zone is found along the humid Pacific coast; it is a
dense, tall-timber forest where Douglas fir, western hemlock, and western red
cedar are the dominant trees.
Natural Resources
Canada has an abundance of mineral, forest, and water-power resources. The
mining industry has been a major force in Canada's economic development in
the past and is still the main force in the advance and economic activity and
permanent settlement into the northlands. The principal minerals are
petroleum, nickel, copper, zinc, iron ore, natural gas, asbestos, molybdenum,
sulfur, gold, and platinum; in addition extensive beds of coal, potash, uranium,
gypsum, silver, and magnesium are found.
Forests cover about 49% of Canada and are the basis for the important
lumbering, pulp and paper, and wood-products industries. More than half of
the forestland is capable of producing a regular harvest of commercial timber,
and one-third is currently accessible.
Water is a major natural resource and hydroelectric power a leading source of
energy. Major hydroelectric installations are located on the Niagara, St.
Lawrence, Ottawa, St. Maurice, Saguenay, Bersimis, Manicouagan, Churchill,
Peace, and Columbia rivers. Quebec's controversial James Bay development
project, begun in 1971 and about one-third completed, when finished will be

one of the largest hydroelectric complexes in the world. Rivers affected are
the La Grande, Rupert, Nottaway, Broad back, and Great Whale.
THE PEOPLE
The great majority of Canadians were born in Canada, and most are of
European descent. The ethnic composition of the population today is the
result of successive waves of immigration by various European national
groups in the past.
Composition of the Population
French Canadians account for about 27% of the total population and are
heavily concentrated in the province of Quebec, where they are about 80% of
the population, and in New Brunswick, where they constitute about a third of
the population.
The British settled primarily in the Atlantic provinces and in Ontario and later in
British Columbia. They remain a major element in the population of these
regions today, although the proportion of the British ethnic group in Canada as
a whole has declined steadily from 57% in 1901 to about 40% in 1986.
The principal continental European groups are Germans, Italians, Ukrainians,
Scandinavians, Dutch, and Poles. Indigenous Indians and Eskimos (Inuit)
account for a small percentage of the total population but are a major element
in the north, where they account for a majority of the population in the
Northwest Territories and a significant population in the Yukon.
Language
Canada has two official languages, English and French, which have equal
status in affairs of the federal and provincial government and federal courts.
Of the total population, more than 60% speak only English and significant
minorities speak only French or are bilingual. A few speak neither language.
The majority of new immigrants prefer to learn English rather than French and
to enroll their children in schools in which the language of instruction is
English.
Education and Health
Each of the provinces and territories administers its own educational system.
Schools are operated by local education authorities and generally offer 6 to 8
years of elementary and 3 to 5 years of secondary schooling. Schools for
Roman Catholic students, known as separate schools, are publicly maintained
by the provinces of Ontario, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. Dual public-school
systems for both Protestants and Roman Catholics are maintained by the
provinces of Quebec and Newfoundland.

Canada has community colleges and related institutions that offer technical
and vocational training, and a number of universities and four-year colleges.
Among the largest universities are the University of Toronto (Toronto),
University of British Columbia (Vancouver), University of Alberta (Edmonton),
McGill University (Montreal), and the University of Manitoba (Winnipeg), in all
of which the language of instruction is English. The largest French-language
universities are the University de Montreal, Laval University, and the
University du Quebec.
Health services are the concern of the provincial governments, conforming to
certain national standards. All participate in the national insurance program,
which supplies comprehensive coverage of all required services rendered by
a physician or surgeon. Hospital insurance programs operated by the
provinces cover about 96% of the population. The Canadian Health Act of
1984 consolidated original federal health insurance laws and clarified the
national standards that the provinces must uphold in order to be eligible for
federal health contributions. In 1986 the leading cause of death in Canada
was heart disease, followed by cancer, respiratory disease, cerebrovascular
disease, and accidents.
Canada's most important cultural institution is the Canada Council, which,
through Canada Council grants established in 1957, supports study and
innovations in the arts, humanities, and social sciences. Other coveted
awards are the Governor-General's Literary Award for excellence in Canadian
writing and the Molson Prizes awarded by the Canada Council for special
contributions to the arts, social sciences, humanities, or national unity. The
National Museums (Ottawa), Royal Ontario Museum (Toronto), National
Gallery of Canada (Ottawa), and the National Library (Ottawa) are other major
cultural institutions.
Economic Activity
During the last 75 years, the Canadian economy has been transformed from
one based primarily on agricultural production and the export of agricultural
products and raw materials to one based primarily on its manufacturing and
service sectors, as well as a mining sector of continuing importance.
Manufacturing and Mining
Manufacturing employs about 15% of Canada's total labor force and accounts
for slightly more of the gross domestic product. The ten leading industries, by
value of shipments of goods, are transport equipment; food and beverages;
paper and allied industries; primary metals; chemicals; electrical and
electronic products; metal fabricating; refined petroleum and coal products;
wood industries; and printing, publishing, and allied industries. About 70% of
all manufacturing plants are located in the provinces of Ontario and Quebec.

Manufacturing in Ontario is diversified, with an emphasis on the manufacture

of automobiles and automobile parts and accessories at Brampton, Hamilton,
Oakville, Oshawa, Talbot Ville, and Windsor and in lesser concentrations
elsewhere. Other major manufacturing activities include nickel smelting in the
SUDBURY area, pulp and paper production along the St. Lawrence and
Ottawa rivers, machinery production concentrated in the Toronto area, and oil
refining and the manufacture of chemicals at Samoa. The manufacturing
activities of Quebec include the resource-oriented industries of pulp and paper
and newsprint manufacture; power-oriented industries, such as the aluminum
refineries at Arvada and Baie-Comeau; market-oriented industries, such as
the huge oil refining and petrochemical complex at Montreal East; and such
labor-intensive industries as the clothing and textile industries concentrated in
Montreal and the Eastern Townships, an area east of Montreal and south of
the St. Lawrence River.
Of the minerals produced in Canada, the mineral fuels, which include mostly
oil, some natural gas, and lesser amounts of coal, account for 57% by value.
Oil and natural gas are produced mainly in Alberta and, to a lesser extent,
Saskatchewan. Efforts are under way to bring offshore natural gas deposits
into Nova Scotia and development of the massive Hibernia oil field,
discovered in 1979 off the coast of Newfoundland, is also occurring. Metals
account for 31% of production by value. The leading metals are nickel (of
which Canada is the world's major producer), copper, zinc, and iron ore
(produced mainly in Labrador and Quebec). The principal nonmetals, which
account for 12% of production by value, include sand and gravel, stone, salt,
potash, and asbestos, mined mainly in the Eastern Townships. Canada is a
leading nation of the world in terms of total mineral output and leads the world
in mineral exports.
Agriculture
Although restricted by climate and topography to the southern third of the
country, agriculture remains an important segment of Canada's economy.
Because the large production exceeds the needs of the small population,
much agricultural produce is exported. Roughly half of all farm income is
derived from field crops and half from livestock. The principal field crops are
wheat (of which Canada is the world's second-largest exporter, after the
United States), barley, and oats. Most of the grain crops are grown in the three
prairie provinces. Other important western crops are rye, flaxseed, and
rapeseed. In other parts of Canada mixed farming predominates, with the
output of field crops tied to the dairy and livestock economy and more land
devoted to hay, pasture, and feed grains. Prince Edward Island and New
Brunswick grow large quantities of potatoes, and soybeans are produced
mainly in southwestern Ontario. Most of the farms in Canada raise livestock.
Generally, beef cattle are raised in Alberta and the Cordilleran Region, and

dairy cattle in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands. Hogs, the fourth
largest agricultural product by value (after wheat, cattle, and dairy products),
are raised in southern Ontario, Quebec, and Alberta.
Trade
In 1990 the leading exports by value were transportation equipment and other
machinery and equipment, wood and wood products (including paper), ferrous
and nonferrous ores, crude petroleum, and grain. Over three-quarters of all
exports (1990) went to the United States, 6% to Japan, and under 3% to the
United Kingdom.
The leading imports by value in 1990 were transportation equipment,
machinery, crude petroleum, food and beverages, chemicals, durable
consumer goods, and electronic computers. About 65% of all imports (1990)
came from the United States, nearly 7% from Japan, and over 3% from the
United Kingdom. Canada's principal ports are Montreal, Vancouver, and SeptHes-Pointe Noire, and large tonnages are also handled by the ports of
Thunder Bay, Port Cartier, Hamilton, Quebec, Halifax, Saint John, and Prince
Rupert.
Government
Canada is a self-governing federal union of ten provinces (Alberta, British
Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Ontario,
Prince Edward Island, Quebec, I and Saskatchewan) and two territories
(Northwest Territories and Yukon Territory) within the British Commonwealth of
Nations. The core of the constitution is derived, with modifications, from the
BRITISH NORTH AMERICA ACT of 1867, which was patriated (brought under
direct Canadian control) and renamed the Constitution Act in 1982. Queen
Elizabeth II is head of state and is represented in the federal government by
the governor-general and in the provinces by lieutenant governors.
Legislative power is vested in Parliament, which comprises the queen; the
Senate, with 104 members appointed to age 75 (or for life before 1965); and
the House of Commons, with 295 elected members (as of the 1988 elections).
National elections are held at least once every five years or whenever the
majority party is voted down or calls an election. The leader of the political
party with the largest number of seats in the House of Commons usually
serves as prime minister.
Provincial legislative power, which extends to education, municipal affairs,
direct taxation, and civil law, is vested in unicameral, elected legislatures
known as legislative assemblies except in Newfoundland, where it is the
House of Assembly, and Quebec, where it is the National Assembly. The
legislatures of the provinces are headed by premiers, who are usually the

leaders of the majority party. The provincial legislatures are elected every five
years or less.
Health Insurance In Canada
In the American debate about health-care reform, Canada's national-healthinsurance program, called Medicare, is often cited by supporters and
opponents alike. Administered by the provincial and territorial governments
and regulated and partly financed by the national government, Medicare pays
basic medical and hospital bills for all Canadians. The national health-care
system comprises various provincial and territorial plans, all conforming to
national standards. It is by far the most popular of Canada's social programs.
Under the system, Canadians receive a provincial insurance card with an
individual number on it. They are entitled to chose their own physician. When
receiving health-care services, the patient presents the card to the health-care
provider, who bills the provincial insurance plan directly. While most healthcare expenses are covered under the plan, there may be some small
additional charges. The Canada Health Act, effective in 1984, has clarified the
national standards and may penalize provinces that allow doctors to bill
patients for more than the Medicare rate.
Costs
Moving health costs from private to public purses involves $40 billion U.S.
dollars. Canadian provinces spend a third of their budgets on health and
hospitals. Medicare is financed by premiums and, increasingly, by extra taxes.
In 1977, the federal contribution went from 50-50 cost-sharing to the payment
of a lump sum, and since 1982 the federal government has limited its
contribution. High-tech medicine and an aging population have caused
Canada's medical costs to rise. Increasingly governments control costs
through community-based health care, caps on doctors' earnings, fewer
hospital beds, and an emphasis on personal fitness and prevention. Some
provinces are rethinking coverage of prescription drugs for seniors, optometry,
physiotherapy, and chiropractic treatment. While there are differing views
regarding spending for health care, few want free-enterprise medicine again.
In fact, most Canadians think that Medicare gives them a big advantage over
Americans, who spend more for medical care. For about 9% of their gross
national product (GNP) and a possible wait for certain noncritical procedures,
Canadians have no worry about medical or hospital bills.

49. AUSTRALIA
Australia is an island continent located in the southeast of Asia and forming,
with the nearby island of Tasmania, the Commonwealth of Australia, a selfgoverning member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The continent is
bounded on the north by the Timor Sea, the Arafura Sea, and the Torres Strait;
on the east by the Coral Sea and the Tasman Sea; on the south by the Bass
Strait and the Indian Ocean; and on the west by the Indian Ocean. The
commonwealth extends for about 4025 km (about 2500 MI) from east to west
and for about 3700 km (about 2300 MI) from north to south. Its coastline
measures some 36,735 km (about 22,826 MI). The area of the commonwealth
is 7,682,292 sq. km (2,966,150 sq. MI), and the area of the continent alone is
7,614,500 sq. km (2,939,974 sq. MI), making Australia the smallest continent
in the world, but the sixth largest country.
The Commonwealth of Australia is made up of six states-New South Wales,
Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia and
two territories the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory. The
external dependencies of Australia are the Territory of Ashmore and Carrier
Islands, the Australian Antarctic Territory, Christmas Island, the Territory of
Cocas Islands (also called the Keeling Islands), the Coral Sea Islands
Territory, the Territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands, and Norfolk
Island.
The first people to live in Australia, called Aborigines, migrated there about
40,000 years ago. The continent remained relatively unknown by outsiders
until the 17th century. The first European settlement by British convicts
occurred in 1788 at Botany Bay in southeastern Australia. Australia grew as a
group of British colonies during the 19th century, and in 1901 the colonies
federated to form a unified independent nation.
Land and Resources
Australia lacks mountains of great height; it is one of the world's flattest
landmasses. The average elevation is about 300 m (about 1000 ft). The
interior, referred to as the outback, is predominantly a series of Great Plains,
or low plateaus, which are generally higher in the northeast. Low-lying coastal
plains, averaging about 65 km (about 40 MI) in width, fringe the continent. In
the east, southeast, and southwest, these plains are the most densely
populated areas of Australia.
In the east the coastal plains are separated from the vast interior plains by the
Great Dividing Range, or Eastern Highlands. This mountainous region
averages approximately 1200 m (approximately 4000 ft) in height and
stretches along the eastern coast from Cape York in the north to Victoria in the
southeast. Much of the region consists of high plateaus broken by gorges and

canyons. Subdivisions of the range bear many local names, including, from
north to south, the New England Plateau, Blue Mountains, and Australian
Alps; in Victoria, where the range extends westward, it is known as the
Grampians, or by its Aboriginal name, Gariwerd. The highest peak in the
Australian Alps, and the highest in Australia, is Mount Kosciusko (2228
m/7310 ft), in New South Wales.
The coastline of Australia is generally regular, with few bays or capes. The
largest inlets are the Gulf of Carpentaria in the north and the Great Australian
Bight in the south. The several fine harbors include those of Sydney, Hobart,
Port Lincoln, and Albany.
The Great Barrier Reef is the largest known coral formation in the world. It
extends some 2010 km (some 1250 MI) along the eastern coast of
Queensland from Cape York in the north to Bundaberg in the south. The chain
of reefs forms a natural breakwater for the passage of ships along the coast.
Rivers
The Great Dividing Range separates rivers that flow east to the coast from
those that flow across the great plains through the interior. The most important
of the rivers that flow toward the eastern coast are the Burdening, Fitzroy, and
Hunter. The Murray-Darling- Murrumbidgee network, which flows inland from
the Great Dividing Range, drains an area of more than I million sq. km (more
than 400,000 sq. MI) in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, and South
Australia. The Murray River and its main tributary, the Darling, total about
5300 km (about 3300 MI) in length. The Murray River itself forms most of the
border between New South Wales and Victoria. Considerable lengths of the
Murray, Darling, and Mumimbidgee rivers are navigable during the wet
seasons.
Climate
The climate of Australia varies greatly from region to region, but the continent
is not generally subject to marked extremes of weather. The climate ranges
from tropical (monsoonal) in the north to temperate in the south. The tropical
region, which includes about 40 percent of the total area of Australia,
essentially has only two seasons: a hot, wet period with rains falling mainly in
February and March, during which the northwestern monsoons prevail; and a
warm, dry interval characterized by the prevalence of southeastern winds.
Many points on the northern and northeastern coast have an average annual
rainfall of 1500 mm (60 in); in parts of Queensland average annual rainfall
exceeds 2500 mm (100 in). On the fringe of the monsoonal region are the
drier savanna grasslands, where the low, unreliable rainfall is supplemented
by artesian water. In central and northern Australia average summer
temperatures range between 27 and 29 (80 and 85 F). The deserts of

central and western Australia, making up more than two-thirds of the area,
have an annual rainfall of less than 250 mm (10 in).
Natural Resources
Australia is rich in mineral resources, notably bauxite, coal, diamonds, gold,
iron ore, mineral sands, natural gas, nickel, petroleum, and uranium. Readily
cultivable farmland is at a premium because much of the land is desert.
Australia, however, has become one of the leading agricultural producers in
the world by applying modern irrigation techniques to vast tracts of arid soil.
Plants
The continent of Australia has a distinctive flora that includes many species
not found elsewhere. Of the 22,000 species of plants in Australia, more than
90 percent occur naturally there. Some 840 species are threatened with
extinction, and 83 have become extinct since the beginning of European
settlement. Approximately 2000 plant species are introduced, or normative,
species. Most have been associated with the development of agriculture and
grazing, or with the establishment of large plantations of pines for commercial
softwood. The spread of weeds and other aggressive introduced plants into
areas of original vegetation is a serious environmental challenge.
Animals
Unique and primitive forms of animal life exist in Australia. Seven families of
mammals and four families of birds are classified as native to the country.
About 70 percent of the birds, 88 percent of the reptiles, and 94 percent of the
frogs are unique to Australia. Seven of the more than 700 known species of
birds have become extinct since the beginning of European settlement, and
another 36 are endangered or vulnerable. Of mammals, 19 are extinct and 49
are threatened. Environmentalists have argued for more rigorous conservation
policies to protect Australia's unique animal life.
Population
About 94 percent of Australia's people are of European descent. The majority
has a British or Irish heritage, but about 18 percent of the total population
have other European origins. Asians, including Middle Easterners, account for
about 5 percent of the population. Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders make
up about 1.5 percent of the population. In 1991 the largest overseas-born
groups were from Great Britain and Ireland (22.5 percent), other European
countries (30 percent), and Asia and the Middle East (21 percent). Before
World War II (1939-1945) more than 90 percent of the people were of British
or Irish origin. Since then, more than 2 million Europeans from other countries
have migrated to Australia. Since 1975, about 125,000 Southeast Asians have
been admitted to the country, most as refugees. English is the official

language of Australia. Aboriginal and other minority languages are spoken in

ethnic communities.
Political Divisions
The Commonwealth of Australia comprises six states and two 'territories. The
states and their capitals are New South Wales (Sydney), Victoria (Melbourne),
Queensland (Brisbane), South Australia (Adelaide), Western Australia (Perth),
and Tasmania (Hobart).
The territories and their chief cities are the Australian. Capital Territory
(Canberra) and the Northern Territory (Darwin).
Principal Cities
The major cities of Australia are, in order of population (1991, greater city),
Sydney, a seaport and the commercial center (3,538,749); Melbourne, the
cultural center (3,022,439); Brisbane, a seaport (1,334,017); Perth, a seaport
on the western coast (1,143,265); and Adelaide, an agricultural center
(1,023,617). Canberra, the national capital, has a population of 278,894.
Religion
Australia has no single established church, and its constitution guarantees
freedom of worship. The population is predominantly Christian. The largest
single denominations are the Roman Catholic church (26 percent of the
population) and Anglican Church Australia (24 percent). About 20 percent
more belong to Protestant ballet, and dance companies, symphony
orchestras, artists, playwrights, and writers are supported by the Australia
Council. The federally-funded Australian Broadcasting Corporation controls
independent television and radio stations. Australia also has many other
media companies, newspapers, and magazines that contribute to local
culture, although some are now owned by foreigners.
Education
Education in Australia is primarily the responsibility of the individual states.
In each state administration, the training and recruiting of teachers are
centralized under an education department. Education is compulsory between
the ages of 6 and 15 in all the states except Tasmania, where the upper age
limit is 16. Most children start their schooling at the age of 5. State schools
provide free secular education; students may attend religious classes offered
by the clergy of various denominations. About 72 percent of students attend
state schools. In addition of the state school system there are private schools,
which are usually denominational and charge tuition fees. The majority of the
private schools are Catholic. Some private schools, which in some states are
called public schools as in Britain, accept day students and boarders.
Schooling is provided at kindergartens and play centers for children from 2 to

6 years of age. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation conducts broadcasts

for kindergarten children unable to attend such centers. Special provisions are
made for children in isolated areas. These include Schools of the Air where
children use two-way radios, television sets, video and cassette recorders,
and computers to participate in classroom instructions, and correspondence
schools.
Most children transfer from the primary school to secondary school level at
the age of 12. Secondary schools, known as high schools and junior technical
schools, provide five- or six-year courses that enable students to prepare for
state examinations for university entrance. The Commonwealth Government
conducts the educational program for all children in the territories. In the early
1990 Australia had nearly 10 000 primary and secondary schools, with an
annual enrollment of 1, 6 million primary students and 1, 3 million secondary
students.
Specialized schools
The Commonwealth Government maintains training colleges for the defense
services, the Australian Forestry School in Canberra and the School of the
Pacific Administration in Sydney, which conduct training programs that are
attended primary by civil service administrators from Papua New Guinea. The
Government also maintains the Australian Film, Television and Radio School,
the Australian Maritime College, and the National Institute of Dramatic Art.
Universities and Colleges
In the early 1990s Australia had 37 universities, including two significant
private institutions, and a large number of colleges offering advanced
education in specific subject areas. Their combined annual environment was
approximately 535,000. Among the leading universities are the Australian
National University (founded in 1946), in the Australian Capital Territory;
Macquarie University (1964), the University of New South Wales; the
University of Queensland (1910); the University of Adelaide (1874), in South
Australia; the University of Tasmania (1890); La Trobe University (1964), the
University of Melbourne (1853), and Monish University (1958), in Victoria; and
the University of Western Australia (1911).
Culture
Initially, the way of life in Australia substantially reflected the heritage of
the British settlers. Customs were modified as the settlers
adapted to the new country and its exceptionally fine climate. A culture
evolved that, although based on the British tradition, is unique to Australia.
The increasing sophistication of Australian culture has been promoted by
government subsidies for the arts and the provision of improved facilities.
Many cities and towns have built or expanded art galleries and performing art

centers. The architecturally stunning Sydney Opera House is the best known
of the modern venues. Opera, ballet and dance companies, symphony
orchestras, artists, playwrights, and writers are supported by the Australia
Council. The federally-funded Australian Broadcasting Corporation controls
independent television and radio stations. Australia also has many other
media companies, newspapers, and magazines that contribute to local
culture, although some are now owned by foreigners.
Economy
Australia is an outstanding producer of primary products. The country is selfsufficient in almost all foodstuffs and is a major exporter of wheat, meat, dairy
products, and wool. Australia usually produces more than 25 percent of the
world's yearly output of wool. The volume of manufacturing grew rapidly
between the 1940s and 1970s, and mining became a leading sector in the
economy during the 1960s. The value of exports from the mining and
manufacturing sectors now exceeds that of the agricultural sector. In the early
1990s the estimated annual federal budget included about $72 billion in
revenues and about $83 billion in expenditures.
Agriculture
Despite the great expansion in mining and manufacturing after 1940, the
prosperity of much of the country continues to be dependent on livestock
raising and crop farming. The pastoral industry was established in the early
days of settlement, when the first Spanish merino sheep were introduced from
South Africa. The industry was a significant factor in Australian economic and
historical development. Australia currently is the major world producer and
exporter of wool, particularly fine merino, although income from wool exports
is now less than one-tenth of the total export income of the country. In the
early 1990s the annual production of wool was 731,300 metric tons;
representing about 15 percent of the value of farm output, down from 28
percent in the late 1980s, about half the country's wool is produced in New
South Wales and Western Australia.
Queensland is the leading cattle-producing state, containing more than twofifths of the estimated 23.9 million head of cattle in Australia in the early
1990s. The country produces both beef and dairy cattle. Dairying is
concentrated in Victoria and Tasmania. Irrigation is heavily relied on in much
of the fruit-growing and dairying regions. In some areas the rising incidence of
soil salinization threatens production. Experiments with biotechnologies may
reduce the impact of salinization and the use of expensive water resources.
Although only about 6 percent of the total area of Australia is under crop or
fodder production, this acreage is of great economic importance. Wheat crops
occupy about 45 percent of cultivated acreage, and other grains occupy about

25 percent. The bulk of the wheat crop is grown in the southeastern and
southwestern regions of the country. Annual production in the early 1990s was
about 15 million metric tons. Oats, barley, rye, hay, and fodder crops also are
important. Rice and cotton are grown in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area (in
New South Wales) and in the Northern Territory. Sugarcane production is
confined to the fertile coastal fringe of Queensland and the Richmond River
district of northern New South Wales.
About 29.3 million metric tons of sugarcane were produced yearly in the early
1990s. Many types of fruit are grown, including grapes, oranges, apples,
bananas, pears, pineapples, peaches, and nectarines. The major wineproducing areas are in the Barossa Valley of South Australia, the Hunter
Valley, New South Wales, and parts of northeastern, southern, and Western
Victoria. Special varieties of grapes are grown, especially i in the Murray
Valley, for the production of raisin.
Manufacturing
After World War II ended in 1945, the introduction of new industries and the
development of existing ones caused substantial i expansion of manufacturing
activity in Australia. In the early 1990s [' manufacturing contributed about 15
percent of the country's yearly gross domestic product, and manufacturing
firms together employed 1 about 14 percent of the labor force. Principal
branches of the f manufacturing sector by value of production are metals and
metal products, food products, transportation equipment, machinery,
chemicals and chemical products, textiles and clothing, wood and paper
products, and printed materials.
Currency and Banking
The unit of currency in Australia is the Australian dollar, divided into 100 cents
and coined in 1 ji, 20, 50, 100, 2, 500, and $1 pieces. The value of the
Australian dollar is now allowed to float against other currencies. (AS 1.36
equals U.S.S1; 1995).
The first Australian bank was established in Sydney in 1817. The banking
system now includes the Reserve Bank of Australia, established in 1911,
which handles the functions of central banking, including note issuance; the
components of the Commonwealth Banking Group, including the
Commonwealth Development Bank and the Commonwealth Savings Bank;
and three other major banks: the Australia and New Zealand Banking Group,
Westpac Banking Corporation, and the National Australia Bank. A number of
privately owned or state-owned banks operate, as well as 17 foreign banks.
The Australian Stock Exchange conducts trading in six cities; Adelaide,
Brisbane, Hobart, Melbourne, Perth, and Sydney,
Government

Australia, a federal parliamentary democracy, is an independent selfgoverning state and a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The
constitution of Australia, which became effective in 1901, is based on British
parliamentary traditions, and includes elements of the US system. The head
of state is the British sovereign, and the head of government is the Australian
prime minister, who is responsible to the Australian Parliament. All powers not
delegated to the federal government are reserved to the states. Australia is a
founding member of the United Nations.
Executive
Formally, executive authority in Australia is vested in the governor-general,
who is appointed by the British monarch in consultation with the Australian
prime minister. The British monarch is also the royal head of Australia, but has
no real power in the government and serves as a symbolic head of state. The
governor-general acts only on the advice of the Executive Council, or Cabinet,
comprising all ministers of state. Federal policy in practice is determined by
the cabinet, which is chaired by the prime minister, 342' who is the head of the
majority party in parliament. The ministers are responsible for the individual
departments of the federal government, and these departments are
administered by permanent civil servants.
Legislature
National legislative power in Australia is vested in a bicameral parliament,
made up of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Senate consists of
76 members (12 from each state and 2 from each territory). Senators from
states are popularly elected to six-year terms under a form of proportional
representation; senators from territories are elected to three-year terms.
According to the Australian constitution, the House should have about twice
as many members as the Senate. The number of members from each state is
proportional to its population, but must be at least five. In the early 1990s the
House had 147 members, popularly elected to a term of up to three years.
The prime minister can ask the governor-general to dissolve the House and
call new elections at any time. Australia has universal and compulsory
suffrage for all citizens over the age of 18.
Political Parties
There are four major political parties in Australia: the Australian Labor Party,
the Liberal Party of Australia, the National Party of Australia, and the
Australian Democratic party. All are moderate social-democratic parties.
Traditionally, the Labor party is associated with trade unions, the Liberal party
is aligned with business interests and supports free enterprise, the National
Party is more conservative, and the Democratic party is more progressive.

50. NEW ZEALAND

New Zealand is a self-governing country in the South Pacific Ocean, a
member of the Commonwealth of Nations, situated in the southeast of
Australia. It comprises two large islands North Island and South Islandand
numerous smaller islands, including Steward Island to the south of South
Island. The area of New Zealand is , 270,534 sq. km (104,453 sq. MI).
Associated with New Zealand are Ross Dependency (in Antarctica), Niue,
Tokelau, and the Cook Islands (in the Pacific Ocean). The capital of the
country is )
Wellington. Auckland is the largest city. Land and Resources
New Zealand is a generally mountainous country with several large regions of
plains. Two-thirds of the area is between about 200 and 1070 m (about 650
and 3500 ft) above sea level; the country has more than 220 named
mountains exceeding 2280 m (about 7500 ft) in height.
Climate
New Zealand lies within the Temperate Zone; the climate is generally mild,
and seasonal differences are not great. The north end of the Auckland
Peninsula has the warmest climate; the coldest climate occurs on the
southwestern slopes of the Southern Alps. Rainfall is generally moderate to
abundant and, except in a small area in the south central part of South Island,
exceeds 500 mm (20 in) annually. The heaviest rainfall (about 5600 mm/about
220 in) occurs around Milford Sound on the southwestern coast of South
Island. The average temperature at Wellington varies between 20 (68 F)
in January and 6 (42 F) in July; the average rainfall is 1230 mm (48 in). In
Auckland, the average January and July temperatures are 23 (74 F) and
8 (46 F), respectively; the annual rainfall is 1850 mm(73 in).
Natural Resources
The land is the most important resource of New Zealand. It is ideal for crop
farming, dairy farming, and the raising of sheep and cattle, all of which
predominate in the economy. Forest products are also important. Numerous
mineral deposits are found throughout the main islands, including coal, gold,
pearlier, sand and gravel, limestone, bentonite, clay, dolomite, and magnesite.
Large natural-gas fields are on North Island and off its southwestern coast.
Deposits of uranium and thorium are believed to be present on the islands,
because these minerals have been found in isolated boulders.
Plants
New Zealand plant life is remarkable in that of the 2000 indigenous species,
about 1500 are found nowhere else in the world;

examples of such unique plants are the golden kowhai and the scarlet
pohutukawa. North Island has predominantly subtropical vegetation, including
mangrove swamps in the north. The forest, or so-called bush, of North Island
is principally evergreen with dense undergrowth of mosses and fern.
Evergreen trees include the kauri, rimu, kahikatea, and totara, all of which are
excellent timber trees. The only extensive area of native grassland on North
Island is the central volcanic plain. The eastern part of South Island, for the
most part, is grassland up to an elevation of about 1525 m (about 5000 ft).
Most of the forest is in the west. It is made up principally of native beech and
is succeeded by alpine vegetation at high altitudes.
Animals
With the exception of two species of bat, no indigenous mammals are native
to New Zealand. The first white settlers, who arrived early in the 19th century,
found a type of dog and a black rat, both of which had been brought by the
Maori (see the Population section below) about 500 years earlier. The only
wild mammals at present are descended from deer, rabbits, goats, pigs,
weasels, ferrets, and opossumsall of which were imported. No snakes and
few species of insects inhabit New Zealand. The tuatara, a lizard like reptile
with a vestigial third eye, is believed to be. a prehistoric survival.
New Zealand has a large population of wild birds, including 23 native species.
Among the native species are songbirds, including the bellbird and tui, and
flightless species, including the kiwi, kakapo, taka he, and weka. The survival
of the flightless birds is attributed to the absence of predatory animals. The
sparrow, blackbird, thrush, skylark, magpie, and myna are well-acclimated
imported species. New Zealand abounds in a great variety of seabirds and
numerous migratory birds.
The rivers and lakes have a variety of native edible fish, including whitebait,
eel, lamprey, and freshwater crustaceans, particularly crayfish. Trout and
salmon have been imported. The surrounding ocean waters are the habitat of
the snapper, flounder, and blue cod, hapuku, tarakihi, swordfish, flying fish,
shark, and whale, as well as edible shellfish, such as the oyster, mussel, and
toheroa.

New Zealand is divided into 12 local government regions and three unitary
authorities. On North Island are Northland, Auckland, Waikato, Bay of Plenty,
Hawke's Bay, Taranaki, Manuwatu-Wanganui, and Wellington regions, and the
authority of Gisborne. On South Island are West Coast, Canterbury, Otago,
and Southland regions, and the authorities of Nelson and Marlborough.
Principal Cities
The capital of New Zealand and the center of interisland and coastal shipping
is Wellington (population, 1993 estimate, greater city, 326,900). Other urban
centers, with their estimated 1993 (greater city) populations, are Auckland
(910,200), a seaport and major industrial center; Christchurch (312,600), the
country's wheat and grain center; Hamilton (151,800), a center for dairy
farming; and Dunedin (110,800), a wool and tourism center.
Religion and Language
A majority of the New Zealand population is Christian. The primary
denominations are Anglican (22 percent), Presbyterian (16 percent), and
Roman Catholic (15 percent). Methodist, Baptist, and other Protestant
denominations are also represented. Most of the Maori are members of the
Ratana and Ringatu Christian sects. Jews, Hindus, and Buddhists constitute
small minorities. About 21 percent profess no religious faith.
English and Maori are the official languages, although the country is
predominantly English-speaking. Almost all of the Maori speak English, and
only about 50,000 (about 15 percent) are considered fluent Maori speakers.
Other Polynesian and European languages are spoken by a small percentage
of the population.

Population
According to the 1991 census, approximately 73 percent of the population of
New Zealand is of European (mainly British) descent. About 12 percent (some
430,000) are Maori, a Polynesian group, whose ancestors migrated to New
Zealand about the 14th century. About 4 percent of the population is of
Polynesian descent, and various other Asian ethnicities make up the rest of
the population.

Education
Education is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 15
years, but children may enter school at 5 and continue until they are 19. In
some areas subsidized kindergartens are maintained for children between
three and five years of age. Primary education consists of infant classes
during the first two years and six annual grades designated standards 1, 2, 3,
and 4 and forms I and II. Free secondary education is available to all children
who have completed form II or who have attained the age of 14. On the
completion of the third year of secondary education, pupils take a national
examination for a school certificate, which attests to completion of basic
secondary education. The prerequisite for admission to university study is
either attaining a sixth-form certificate or passing the university entrance
examination.

Political Divisions

Elementary and Secondary Schools

In the early 1990s there were about 2330 public and private primary schools
in New Zealand. These schools had about 19,730 teachers and an annual
enrollment of about 401,680 students. About another 32,640 students
attended composite schools, which combine primary and secondary education
and include a correspondence school. About 390 secondary and special
schools, with 15,520 teachers, were attended by some 232,250 students
annually.
Universities and Colleges
The university system in New Zealand comprises seven separate
government-funded universities. These universities are the University of
Auckland (1882), Waikato University (1964, at Hamilton), the Victoria
University of Wellington (1899), Massey University (1926, at Palmerstone
North), the University of Canterbury (1873, at Christchurch), the University of
Otago (1869, at Dunedin), and Lincoln University (1990, near Christchurch),
until recently a constituent agricultural college of the University of Canterbury.
The seven universities had a combined annual enrollment in the early 1990s
of about 97,840 students. Several teachers colleges were also in operation,
and an extensive adult-education program throughout the country was
conducted by the National Council of Adult Education. In addition, about
88,430 students attended polytechnic institutions
Economy
Since 1984 successive New Zealand governments have pursued economic
policies that have transformed a strongly regulated welfare state into an openmarket economy. The economy has been deregulated by the removal of
subsidies, tariffs, import duties, and fiscal controls. In addition, the state has
withdrawn progressively from direct involvement in production, service
provision and delivery, welfare support, and manipulation of currency and
financial markets. Primary production is becoming less significant as a direct
contributor to export receipts and gross domestic product (GDP). Service
industries, especially those associated with a booming tourist industry, are
becoming much more prominent.
New Zealand is a prosperous country with a high standard of social services.
The country's GDP was $42.1 billion in the early 1990s. Approximately 70
percent of GDP derives from services, 23 percent from manufacturing, and 7
percent from agriculture, forestry, and fishing. The national economy is largely
dependent on the export of raw and processed foods, timber, and wool. Any
fluctuation in world prices and demand affects the economy. In the early
1990s the annual budget included revenues of about $14 billion and
expenditures of about $15.2 billion.
Agriculture

Modern methods and machinery are used extensively on New Zealand farms,
and the productivity of the country is consequently among the highest in the
world. The land is suited for dairy farming and for raising sheep and beef
cattle because winter housing for livestock is unnecessary and grass grows
nearly year round. Annual output of the main crops in the early 1990s included
barley, 319,000 metric tons; wheat, 191,000 tons; maize, 164,000 tons; and
oats, 58,000 tons. Other important crops were kiwi fruir^ apples, pears,
tobacco, potatoes, and peas. The livestock population of New Zealand
included about 52.6 million sheep, some 8.1 million cattle, and 533,000 goats,
and approximately 411,000 pigs. New Zealand ranks second only to Australia
in wool production; the annual total in the early 1990s was 255,500 metric
tons. As part of economic restructuring in the 1980s the New Zealand
government withdrew subsidies from farmers and manufacturers processing
agricultural products, contributing to a decline in the number of sheep raised
on the country's farms.
Manufacturing
In the early 1990s about 255,000 people were employed in manufacturing.
The principal manufactures were meat and dairy products, paper and paper
products, chemicals, metal products, machinery, clothing, lumber, motor
vehicles, electrical machinery, refined petroleum, and printed materials.
Manufacturing employment declined significantly in the late 1980s and early
1990s following extensive restructuring of the economy, although it began to
show gains in the mid-1990s. New Zealand has insufficient workers and raw
materials to support much heavy industry. Auckland is the principal
manufacturing center.
Energy
About three-quarters of New Zealand's annual electricity is produced by
hydroelectric facilities, and most of the rest is generated in plants burning
natural gas, coal, or refined petroleum. In addition, underground steam on
North Island is used to produce substantial amounts of electricity. Major
hydroelectric facilities are on the Waikato River, on North Island, and on the
Clutha and Waitaki rivers, on South Island. In the early 1990s New Zealand
had an electricity-generating capacity of about 8 million kilowatts, and its
annual output totaled approximately 31 billion kilowatt-hours.
Currency and Banking
Under the Decimal Currency Act of 1964 a system of decimal currency was
introduced in New Zealand in 1967, with the New Zealand dollar as the
monetary unit. The previous basic unit was the New Zealand pound. The New
Zealand dollar is divided into 100 cents (NZ$1.75 equal U.SJ1; 1994).

In addition to the Reserve Bank of New Zealand (1934), this has the sole
power of issue, several commercial banks and trustee savings banks operate,
as does the Post Office Savings Bank. The Post Office Savings Bank and the
Bank of New Zealand, which is the largest of the commercial banks, were
recently sold by the government.
Government
Executive action nominally is taken on behalf of the governor-general, who is
appointed by the British sovereign. The governor-general usually works in
concert with the Executive Council, which is composed of the governorgeneral, the prime minister, the ministers heading the various governmental
departments, and ministers without portfolio (that is, without departmental
responsibility). The principal administrative body in New Zealand is the
cabinet, which consists of the prime minister and the ministers in charge of
departments. Legislature New Zealand has a unicameral parliament, which is
known as the House of Representatives. The House of Representatives is
currently composed of 95 European (non-Maori) members elected by
universal adult suffrage for three-year terms and 4 Maori members selected at
large by voters with half or more Maori descent. The prime minister, who is
officially appointed by the governor-general, and other ministers usually are
selected from among the parliamentary members of the majority party. The

government continues in office only so long as it retains the confidence of the

House of Representatives.
Political Parties
The principal political organizations are the Labour party and the National
party. The Labour party favors a limited degree of nationalization and strong
credit controls. The National party strongly supports free enterprise and
opposes state socialism. The Alliance, a third party representing a coalition of
centrist, environmentalist, and Maori groups, was formed in 1991,
Judiciary
The highest court in New Zealand is the Court of Appeal, which, exercises
appellate jurisdiction only. Decisions of the court are final unless leave is
granted to appeal to the Privy Council in Great Britain. The principal trial
courts are the High Court and the district courts. Justices of the peace in
some cases may try minor criminal charges. Specialized courts determine
questions relating to labor disputes, workers' compensation, and land
valuation in cases of condemnation. The Waitangi Tribunal examines and
makes recommendations on Maori claims for return of land lost since
European settlement and for compensation for lost natural resources.