Welding Process & Defects

LARSEN & TOUBRO LTD.
WELDING PROCESS & DEFECTS
WELDING PROCESSES
Welding plays an important role in fabrication of heat exchangers and pressure
vessels, as it is the major process in manufacturing of heat exchangers. Here in L &
T only arc welding processes are used for welding. The processes that are used for
fabrication are listed below:
1) Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
2) Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
3) Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
4) Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
5) Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
6) Strip Cladding (ESSC)
1) GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)

TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING (TIG):
GTAW is an arc welding process where in which coalescence is
produced by heating the job with an electric arc struck between a tungsten
electrode & the job. A shielding gas (argon, helium, nitrogen etc.) is used to avoid
atmospheric contamination of the molten weld pool. A filler metal may be added if
required.
ADVANTAGES:
No flux is used; hence there is no danger of flux entrapment.
Because of visibility of the arc & job, the operator can exercise better control.
This process can weld in all positions & produce smooth and sound welds.
It is a very good process for welding non-ferrous metals.
LIMITATIONS:
Tungsten if it is transferred to molten weld pool can contaminate the same.
By chance if the filler rod comes out of the inert gas shield it can cause weld
metal contamination.
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Equipment cost is high.
2) SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING:

SMAW is an arc welding process where in coalescence heating produces
with an electric arc between a covered metal electrode & the work piece.
Shielding is obtained from decomposition of the electrode covering. Pressure is not
used and the filler metal is obtained from the electrode.
ADVANTAGES:
This is the simplest of the entire arc welding processes.
The equipment can be portable & the cost is fairly low.
Welding can be carried out in any position with highest weld capacity.
A big range of metals & their alloy can be welded.
LIMITATIONS:
Because of the limited length of each electrode & brittle flux coating on it,
Mechanization is difficult.
In welding long seams as one electrode finishes, the welding has to be
progressed with the next electrode, unless properly cared, a defect like (slag
inclusion or insufficient penetration) may occur at the place where welding is
re started with the new electrode.
Because of flux-coated electrode, the chances of slag entrapment & other
related defects are more.
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3) SUBMERGED ARC WELDING:

SAW is an arc welding process wherein heating with an electric set
produces coalescence up between a bare metal electrode and the job. The arc end
of the electrode and the molten pool remain completely hidden & is invisible being
submerged under a blanket of granular flux. The continuously fed bare metal
electrode melts & acts as filler rod. No pressure is applied for welding purposes.
In submerged arc welding instead of a flux covered electrode granular flux & a bare
metal electrode is used.
ADVANTAGES:
Molten flux provides very suitable conditions for current to flow.
Because of high heat concentration considerably higher welding speeds can
be achieved.
Weld distortion is very less.
LIMITATIONS:
Since the operator cannot see the welding being carried out, he cannot judge
accurately the process of welding.
The process is limited to welding in flat position.
Flux is subjected to contamination that may cause welding porosity.
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The process requires edge preparation & accurate fit up on the joint
otherwise flux may spill through he gap and arc may burn the work piece
edge.
4) FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW):

CO2 WELDING:
FCAW is a process in which coalescence is produced by heating with an
arc between a continuous filler metal (consumable) electrode and the work.
Shielding is obtained from flux contained within the electrode. Additional shielding
may be or may not be obtained from an externally supplied gas or gas mixture. This
welding process produces high quality of welds & mostly used for over lay purpose.
ADVANTAGES:
High qualities weld metal deposit.
Excellent weld metal appearance smooth, uniform welds.
Relatively high travel speed.
Visible arc- easy to use.
High deposition rate- high current density.
LIMITATIONS:
FCAW is used only to weld ferrous metals primarily steels.
The process produces a slag covering, which must be removed.
Flux cored wire is more expensive.
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5) GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW):

GMAW which is often called MIG (Metal Inert Gas) welding, is an arc
welding in which coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc established
between a continuous filler metal (consumable) electrode & the work. Shielding of
the electrode, the molten weld pool, arc, & the adjacent area is obtained from an
externally supplied gas or a mixture of gases through the welding gun. This process
requires the use of direct current reverse polarity (electrode positive). This type of
connection yields a stable arc, smooth metal transfer, relatively low spatter cost, &
good weld bead characteristics for the entire range of welding current.
ADVANTAGES:
GMAW overcomes the restriction of using an electrode of limited length, as in
SMAW, & overcomes the inability to weld in various positions, which is a
limitation of SAW.
High productivity, wide area of application, ease of use, & low cost, these all
qualities are inherent in GMAW.
All ferrous and non-ferrous materials can be joined using GMAW.
A visible arc and virtually no slag formation makes it easy for an operator to
place the weld metal where it is needed.
LIMITATIONS:
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Equipment for GMAW is more complex & consequently is more costly & less
transportable.
In GMAW the welding gun must be close to the work it makes the process
less adaptable than SMAW since it is difficult to reach areas.
6) ELECTRO-SLAG STRIP CLADDING:

Economic factors as rule will not permit fabricating components from
solid high-alloyed material. As a consequence, it is necessary to surface nonalloyed or low alloy base material with high alloy cladding. The submerged arc
(SAW) and electro slag welding (ESSC) process is suitable for applying weld
deposits over large surface areas using strip electrodes
.
Both the processes use a granular flux material. A strip electrode, fed
continuously, is melted and fused to the substrate. In width, which are melted by
applying current of appropriate strength, while using an auxiliary magnetic field,
which improves the geometry of the bead.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS:
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Electro-slag strip cladding is the modified version of submerged arc strip cladding
process. The heat generation in the case of ESSC is due to the current flowing
through the electro conductive slag. Molten weld pool will be visible during
welding. No ultraviolet radiation because of the absence of the arc. Flux is fed
from front side only. Slag crust is automatically removed. Very regular, finely
ripped bead, without any slag adherence.
STRIP CLADDING PROCESS

PROCESS PRINCIPLE:
In electro slag strip cladding the heat required to melt the base metal and the
strip electrode is not generated by an electric arc; the Joule effect is utilized instead.
The current flows through the strip and into a layer of electrically conductive slag;
the resistance of this material generates the heat and keeps the welding process
going (slag temperature approximately 2300 C).
DEFECTS IN WELDS
The significance of defects is of paramount importance, as it causes damage to
property and loss of human lives. This makes it necessary to study the various
defects in weld joints and analyze their causes. Defects can occur either in the weld
metal or in the heat affected zones.
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF WELDING DEFECTS DEPENDS ON THE FOLLOWING:
The microstructure in which the defects occurs.
The type of general loading (static, cyclic or shock).
The environment (corrosive or non-corrosive).
Section thickness.
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Type and size of defects.
The stress pattern local to the defect.
Following are the defects in welds:

1. Cracks.
6. Lack and fusion.
2. Distortion.
7. Undercutting.
3. Incomplete penetration.
8. Poor weld bead appearance.
4. Inclusions.
9. Spatter.
5. Porosity and blowholes.
10.Overlapping.
1.Cracks:
Cracks may appear in the base metal, base metal-weld metal boundary and
in the weld metal. They may occur either on weld surface or under the weld bead.
Reasons:
1. Rigidity of joint, i.e. joint members not free to expand or contract when
subjected to welding heat and subsequent cooling.
2. Poor ductility of base metal.
3. Harden ability, high S and C percentage of base metal.
4. Fast arc travel speed.
5. Concave weld bead.
2. Distortion:
While welding a job, base metal under the arc melts, base metal ahead gets
preheated and the base metal portion already welded starts cooling. There is a
good amount of temperature difference at various points along the joint at any
instant certain areas of the base metal expand and others including weld bead
contract. This phenomena leads to distortion. Distortion is the change in shape and
difference in the positions of the two plates before welding and after welding.
Reasons:
1. More number of passes.

2. Slow arc travel speed, fast arc travel speed.
3. Large root face, small root gap.
4. Less arc current.
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5. Large electrode diameter.
3. Incomplete penetration:
Penetration is the distance from base plate top surface to the maximum
extent of the weld nugget.
Reasons:
1. Faster arc travel speed.

2. Wrongly held electrode.
3. Long arc length and large electrode diameter.
5. Small bevel angle.
4. Inclusions:
Inclusions may be in the form of slag or any other foreign material, which
does not get a chance to float on the surface of the solidifying weld metal and thus
gets entrapped inside the same. Inclusions lower the same. Inclusions lower the
strength of the joint and make it weaker.
Reasons:
1. Insufficient chipping and cleaning of previous passes in multi pass welding.

2. Under-cutting (it can entrap slag).
5. Porosity and blowholes:

Porosity is a group of small voids, whereas blow or gas pocket is a
comparatively bigger isolated hole or cavity. They occur mainly due to the
entrapped gasses. The parent metal melted under the arc tends to absorb gases
like hydrogen, carbon monoxide, nitrogen and oxygen if they are present around the
molten weld metal pool. These gases spread throughout the molten pool by
diffusion and convention phenomena.
Reasons:
1. Improper electrode.
2. Electrode with damp and damage coating.
3. Scale, rust, oil grease, moisture, etc if present on the job surface,
6. Poor fusion:
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Sometimes the molten metal deposited by the electrodes does not fuse
properly with cold metal and the two do not unite properly and completely. The
fusion may be lacking at the root, sides, or between the runs in the multi-run weld.
Reasons:
1. Faster arc travel speed.

2. Lower arc current.
3. Presence of oxides, rust, scale, and other impurities, which do not permit the
deposited metal to fuse properly with the base metal.
4. Incorrect electrode manipulation.
5. Incorrect joint preparation and presence of oxides, rust, and other impurities.
7. Under-Cutting:
In undercutting, a groove is formed in the parent metal along the sides of the
weld bead. Groove reduces the thickness of the plate and thus the area along the
bead, which in turn weakens the weld.
Reasons:
1. Wrong manipulation and inclination of electrode

2. Rusty and scaly job surfaces.
8. Poor weld bead appearance:
A weld bead appearance to be poor if it is not deposited straight, the bead
width varies from place to place, if the spatter is present, etc.
Reasons:
1. Limited practice on the part of the welder.

2. Arc length being not constant.
3. Poor earth and electrode holder (electric) connection.
4. Non-concentric and damaged electrode coating.
9. Spatter:
Spatter are the small metal particles which are thrown out of the arc during
welding and get deposited on the base metal around the weld bead along its length.
Reasons:
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1. Excessive arc current.

2. Longer arcs.
3. Damp electrodes.
4. Electrodes being coated with improper flux ingredients.
5. Arc blow making the arc uncontrolled.
10.Overlapping:
Overlapping is just reverse to undercutting. An overlap occurs when the
molten metal from the electrode flows over the parent metal surface, and remains
there without getting fused and united with the same.
Reasons:
1. Lower arc current.

2. Slower arc travel speed.
3. Longer arcs.
4. Improper joint geometry (I.e. root gap)
5. Incorrect electrode diameter.
The defects mentioned above can be located by different Non Destructive
tests of welding.
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