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NOVA|DescribingNatureWithMath

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DescribingNatureWithMath
Howdoscientistsusemathematicstodefinereality?Andwhy?
ByPeterTyson Posted11.10.11 NOVA

Howisitpossiblethatmathematics,aproductofhumanthoughtthatisindependentofexperience,fitssoexcellentlythe
objectsofreality?
AlbertEinstein
Ifyou'relikeme,youunderstandreadilyhowonecandescribenature'swondersusingpoetryormusic,paintingor
photography.Wordsworth's"IWanderedLonelyasaCloud"andVivaldi's"FourSeasons"richlydepicttheirnaturalsubjects,
asdoMonet'swaterliliesandAnselAdams'photosofYosemite.Butmathematics?Howcanyoudescribeatreeorcloud,a
rippledpondorswirlinggalaxyusingnumbersandequations?
Thisphotographdoesaprettygoodjobofdescribingripples.Butamathematician
coulddoitwithgreaterprecisionandpredictivepower.Enlarge
Photocredit:AlexPotemkin/iStockphoto

Extremelywell,asEinsteinknewbetterthanmost,ofcourse.Infact,mostscientistswouldagreethat,whenitcomestoteasing
outtheinherentsecretsoftheuniverse,nothingvisual,verbal,orauralcomesclosetomatchingtheaccuracyandeconomy,
thepowerandelegance,andtheinescapabletruthofthemathematical.
Howisthisso?Well,forthemathchallenged,forthatpersonwhohasavoidedanythingbutthemostbasicarithmeticsince
highschool,whofeelsapitinhisstomachwhenheseesanequationthatis,formyselfIwillattempttoexplain,withthe
helpofsomewhodomathematicsforaliving.Ifyou'remathphobic,too,Ithinkyou'llgetapainlessfeelforwhyeventhat
masterofdescribingnaturewithwords,Thoreau,wouldholdthat"themostdistinctandbeautifulstatementsofanytruthmust
takeatlastthemathematicalform."
ANCIENTMATH
Whilemanyearlycivilizations,includingIslamic,Indian,andChinese,madeimportantcontributionstomathematics,itwasthe
ancientGreekswhoinventedmuchofthemathwe'refamiliarwith.Euclidfatheredthegeometrywenamedafterhimallthose
radiiandhypotenusesandparallellines.Archimedesapproximatedpi.Ptolemycreatedaprecisemathematicalmodelthathad
alloftheheavenswheelingaroundtheEarth.

"Withafewsymbolsonapage,youcandescribeawealth
ofphysicalphenomena."
TheGreeks'discoveriesaretimeless:Euclid'saxiomsareasunimpeachabletodayaswhenhedevisedthemover2,000years
ago.AndsomeGreekprotophysicistsdidusetheirnewfoundskillstotacklemysteriesofthenaturalworld.Withbasic
trigonometry,forexample,theastronomerEratosthenesestimatedthediameteroftheEarthwithover99percentaccuracyin
228B.C.
ButwhiletheGreeksbelievedthattheuniversewasmathematicallydesigned,theylargelyappliedmathonlytostaticobjects
measuringangles,calculatingvolumesofsolidobjects,andthelikeaswellastophilosophicalpurposes.Platowouldn'tlet
anyonethroughthefrontdoorofhisacclaimedAcademywhodidn'tknowmathematics."Heisunworthyofthenameofman,"
Platosniffed,"whoisignorantofthefactthatthediagonalofasquareisincommensurablewithitsside."Andsoitremainedfor
amillenniumandahalf.
Galileostrivedtoexplainhowobjectsfallratherthanwhy,amodusoperandithatsetthestagefortheadvancementofscienceasweknowittoday.
Enlarge
Photocredit:Pgiam/iStockphoto

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THEMEASUREOFALLTHINGS
Galileochangedallthatintheearly17thcentury.EschewingtheGreeks'attemptstoexplainwhyapebblefallswhenyoudrop
it,Galileosetouttodeterminehow.The"greatbook"oftheuniverseiswritteninthelanguageofmathematics,hefamously
declared,andunlessweunderstandthetriangles,circles,andothergeometricalfiguresthatformitscharacters,hewrote,"itis
humanlyimpossibletocomprehendasinglewordofit[and]onewandersinvainthroughadarklabyrinth."(Wordsworthor
Monetmighttakeissuewiththatstatement,butwait.)
Galileosoughtcharacteristicsofourworldthathecouldmeasurevariableaspectslikeforceandweight,timeandspace,
velocityandacceleration.Withsuchmeasurements,Galileowasabletoconstructthosegemsofscientificshorthand
mathematicalformulaswhichdefinedphenomenamoreconciselyandmorepowerfullythanhadeverbeenpossiblebefore.
(Hiscontemporary,theGermanmathematicianJohannesKepler,didthesamefortheheavens,craftingmathematicallawsthat
accuratelydescribetheorbitsofplanetsaroundthesunandledtothescrappingofPtolemy'sEarthcentricmodel.)
ATIDYSUM
Aclassicexampleistheformulacommonlyshownasd=16t2.(Hanginthere,mathphobes.Yourqueasiness,whichIshare,
shouldgoawaywhenyouseehowstraightforwardthisis.)WhatGalileodiscoveredandensconcedinthissimpleequation,
oneofthemostconsequentialinscientifichistory,isthat,whenairresistanceisleftout,thedistanceinfeet,d,thatanobject
fallsisequalto16timesthesquareofthetimeinseconds,t.Thus,ifyoudropapebbleoffacliff,inoneseconditwillfall16
feet,intwoseconds64feet,inthreeseconds144feet,andsoon.
Galileo'ssuccinctformulaneatlyexpressesthenotionofaccelerationofobjectsnearthesurfaceoftheEarth,butthatisjust
thestartofitsusefulness.First,justaswithanyvalueoftyoucancalculated,foranyvalueofdyoucanfiguret.Togettot,
simplydividebothsidesoftheformulad=16t2by16,thentakethesquarerootofbothsides.Thisleavesanewformula:
t=

d
16

Thiscompactequationtellsyouthetimeneededforyourpebbletofallagivendistanceanydistance.Sayyourcliffis150
high.Howlongwouldthepebbletaketoreachthebottom?Aquickcalculationrevealsjustoverthreeseconds.Athousand
feethigh?Justshyofeightseconds.
Boulder,pebble,pea:Despitetheirgreatdifferencesinmass,allthreeobjects,if
droppedfromourhypotheticalcliffinavacuum,wouldreachthegroundbelowinthe
sameamountoftime.ThisiswhatGalileossimpleformulareveals.Enlarge
Photocredit:LorettaHostettler/iStockphoto

BROADSTROKES
Whatelsecanyoudowithapithyformulaliked=16t2?Well,ashintedabove,youcanmakecalculationsforaninfinite
numberofdifferentvaluesforeitherdort.Inessence,thismeansthatd=16t2containsaninfiniteamountofinformation.You
canalsosubstituteanyobjectforyourpebbleapea,say,oraboulderandtheformulastillholdsupperfectly(underthe
conditionspreviouslymentioned).Couldasinglepoemorpaintingdoasmuch?

"Mathematicscapturespatternsthattheuniversefinds
pleasant,ifyoulike."
Andbecausethesamemathematicallawmaygovernmultiplephenomena,acuriousscientistcandiscoverrelationships
betweenthosephenomenathatmighthaveotherwisegoneundetected.Trigonometricfunctions,forinstance,applytoallwave
motionslight,sound,andradiowavesaswellaswavesinwater,wavesingas,andmanyothertypesofwavemotions.The
personwho"gets"thesetrigfunctionsandtheirpropertieswillipsofacto"get"allthephenomenathatthesefunctionsgovern.
AWEALTHOFDATA
Thepowerofapotentequationextendsstillfurther.TakeIsaacNewton'suniversallawofgravitation,whichbrilliantlycombines
Galileo'slawsoffallingbodieswithKepler'slawsofplanetarymotion.Manyofusknowgravityvaguelyasthatunseenforce
thatkeepsthepebbleinyourpalmoryourfeetontheground.Newtondescribeditthisway:
F=

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Iwon'tgointothisformula,butjustknowthatfromityoucancalculatethegravitationaltugbetweenjustaboutanytwoobjects
youcanthinkof,fromthatbetweenyourcoffeecupandthetableitrestson,tothatbetweenonegalaxyandanother.Or,
dependingonwhichvariablesyouknow,youcannaildowneverythingfromtheaccelerationofanyfreelyfallingobjectnear
theEarth'ssurface(32feetpersecondduringeverysecondofitsfall)tothemassofourplanet(about
6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000tons).
Ifallothervariablesareknownandtheyaretodayonecanevencalculatethemass
ofourplanetusingNewtonsterseformulaongravitationalattraction.Enlarge
Photocredit:CourtesyNASA

"Withafewsymbolsonapage,youcandescribeawealthofphysicalphenomena,"saysastrophysicistBrianGreene,hostof
NOVA'sseries(/wgbh/nova/physics/fabricofcosmos.html)basedonhisbookTheFabricoftheCosmos."Andthatis,insome
sense,whatwemeanbyelegancethatthemessy,complexworldaroundusemanatesfromthisverysimpleequationthat
youhavewrittenonapieceofpaper."
AndlikeGalileo'sd=16t2,Newton'sformulaisamazinglyaccurate.In1997,UniversityofWashingtonresearchersdetermined
thatNewton'sinversesquarelawholdsdowntoadistanceof56,000thsofamillimeter.Itmayholdfurther,butthat'sas
preciseasresearchershavegottenatthemoment.
EXACTSCIENCE
WhatamazesmemostaboutGalileoandNewton'sformulasistheirexactitude.InGalileo's,thedistanceequalsexactlythe
squareofthetimemultipliedby16inNewton's,theforceofattractionbetweenanytwoobjectsisexactlythesquareofthe
distancebetweenthem.(That'sther 2inhisequation.)Suchexactnesscropsupregularlyinmathematicaldescriptionsof
reality.Einsteinfound,forinstance,thattheenergyboundupin,say,apebbleequalsthepebble'smasstimesthesquareof
thespeedoflight,orE=mc2.
Eventhingswecanseeandtouchinnatureflirtwithmathematicalproportionsandpatterns.ConsidertheFibonaccisequence:
1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144Noticeapattern?Afterthefirst,everynumberisthesumoftheprevioustwo.The
Fibonaccisequencehasmanyinterestingproperties.OneisthatfractionsformedbysuccessiveFibonaccinumberse.g.,3/2
and5/3and8/5getcloserandclosertoaparticularvalue,whichmathematiciansknowasthegoldennumber.Butwhat
aboutthis:ManyplantsadheretoFibonaccinumbers.Theblackeyedsusanhas13petals.Astershave21.Manydaisieshave
34,55,or89petals,whilesunflowersusuallyhave55,89,or144.
Whydosunflowersoftenhaveprecisely55,89,or144petals,numbersthatfigurein
thefamousFibonaccisequence?Nature,itseems,hascertainmathematical
underpinnings.Enlarge
Photocredit:sefaoncul/iStockphoto

ISGODAMATHEMATICIAN?
TheapparentmathematicalnatureofNature,fromforcestoflowers,hasleftmanysincethetimeoftheGreekswondering,as
themathematicianMarioLiviodoesinhisbookofthesametitle,"IsGodamathematician?"Doestheuniverse,thatis,havean
underlyingmathematicalstructure?Manybelieveitdoes."Justasmusicisauditorypatternsthatthehumanmindfinds
pleasant,"saysStanfordmathematicianKeithDevlin,"mathematicscapturespatternsthattheuniversefindspleasant,ifyou
likepatternsthatareimplicitinthewaytheuniverseworks."

"Einsteinusedmathematicstoseeapieceoftheuniverse
thatnoonehadeverseenbefore."
Sodidwehumansinventmathematics,orwasitalreadyoutthere,limningthecosmos,awaitingthelikesofEuclidtorevealit?
InhisbookMathematicsinWesternCulture,themathematicianMorrisKlinechosetosidestepthephilosophicalandfocuson
thescientific:"Theplanthatmathematicseitherimposesonnatureorrevealsinnaturereplacesdisorderwithharmonious
order.ThisistheessentialcontributionofPtolemy,Copernicus,Newton,andEinstein."
SEEINGTHEINVISIBLE
FormulaslikeGalileo'sandNetwon'smaketheinvisiblevisible.Withd=16t2,wecan"see"themotionoffallingobjects.With
Newton'sequationongravity,wecan"see"theforcethatholdsthemooninorbitaroundtheEarth.WithEinstein'sequations,
wecan"see"atoms."Einsteinisfamousforalotofthings,butonethingthatisoftenoverlookedishe'sthefirstpersonwho
actuallysaidhowbiganatomis,"saysJimGates,aphysicistattheUniversityofMaryland."Einsteinusedmathematicstosee
apieceoftheuniversethatnoonehadeverseenbefore."

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Today,withadvancedtechnology,wecanobserveindividualatoms,butsomenaturalphenomenadefyanydescriptionbuta
mathematicalone."Theonlythingyoucansayabouttherealityofanelectronistociteitsmathematicalproperties,"notedthe
latemathematicswriterMartinGardner."Sothere'sasenseinwhichmatterhascompletelydissolvedandwhatisleftisjusta
mathematicalstructure."CharlesDarwin,whoadmittedtohavingfoundmathematics"repugnant"asastudent,mayhaveputit
bestwhenhewrote,"Mathematicsseemstoendowonewithsomethinglikeanewsense."
Mathematicspredictedwhatnaturehaslongknownthatthestripesonthemarine
angelfishactuallymigrateacrossitsbodyovertime.Enlarge
Photocredit:IliutaGoean/iStockphoto

FORTUNETELLING
Mathematicsalsoendowsonewithanabilitytopredict,asGalileo'sandNewton'sformulasmakeclear.Suchpredictive
capabilityoftenleadstonewdiscoveries.Inthemid1990s,KyotoUniversityresearchersrealizedtotheirsurprisethat
equationsoriginallydevisedbythemathematicalgeniusAlanTuringpredictedthattheparallelyellowandpurplestripesofthe
marineangelfishhavetomoveovertime.Stable,unmovingpatternsdidn'tjivewiththemathematics.Tofindoutifthiswas
true,theresearchersphotographedangelfishinanaquariumoverseveralmonths.Sureenough,anangelfish'sstripesdo
migrateacrossitsbodyovertime,andinjustthewaytheequationshadindicated.Mathhadrevealedthesecret.
"Therereallyisafacingthemusicthatmathforces,andthat'swhyit'sawonderfullanguagefordescribingnature,"Greene
says."Itdoesmakepredictionsforwhatshouldhappen,and,whenthemathisaccuratelydescribingreality,thosepredictions
areborneoutbyobservation."
AMATHFORALLSEASONS
Somuchmathematicsexistsnowonescholarestimatesthatamillionpagesofnewmathematicalideasarepublishedeach
yearthatwhenscientistsfaceproblemsnotsolvablewithmaththeyknow,theycanoftenturntoanothervarietyforhelp.
WhenEinsteinbeganworkonhistheoryofgeneralrelativity,heneededamathematicsthatcoulddescribewhathewas
proposingthatspaceiscurved.HefounditinthenonEuclideangeometryof19thcenturymathematicianGeorgF.B.
Riemann,whichprovidedjustthetoolherequired:ageometryofcurvedspacesinanynumberofdimensions.
Withfractalgeometry,youcanwritedownformulasthatdescriberoughshapeslike
trees,incontrasttosmoothshapeslikeripples.Enlarge
Photocredit:ChrisHepburn/iStockphoto

Or,ifnecessary,theyinventnewmath.WhenthelatemathematicianBenoitMandelbrotconcludedthatstandardEuclidean
geometry,whichisallaboutsmoothshapes,fellshortwhenhetriedtomathematicallyportray"rough"shapeslikebushytrees
orjaggedcoastlines,heinventedanewmathematicscalledfractalgeometry."Mathisouroneandonlystrategyfor
understandingthecomplexityofnature,"saysRalphAbraham,amathematicianattheUniversityofCaliforniaSantaCruz,in
NOVA'sHuntingtheHiddenDimension(/wgbh/nova/physics/huntinghiddendimension.html)."Fractalgeometryhasgivenusa
muchlargervocabulary,andwithalargervocabularywecanreadmoreofthebookofnature."Galileowouldbesoproud.
TECHNOLOGICALWONDERS
Galileowouldalsobeproudofjusthowmuchhissuccessorshaveachievedwithhisscientificmethod.Formulasfromhisown
onfallingbodiestoWernerHeisenberg'sonquantummechanicshaveprovidedusthemeanstocollectandinterpretthemost
valuableknowledgewehaveeverattainedabouttheworkingsofnature.Altogether,themostgroundbreakingadvancesof
modernscienceandtechnology,boththeoreticalandpractical,havecomeaboutthroughthekindofdescriptive,quantitative
knowledgegatheringthatGalileopioneeredandNewtonrefined.

"DonotworryaboutyourdifficultiesinmathematicsIcan
assureyouthatminearestillgreater."
Newton'slawofgravity,forinstance,hasbeencriticalinallourmissionsintospace."Byunderstandingthemathematicsor
forceofgravitybetweenlotsofdifferentbodies,yougetcompletecontrolandunderstanding,withveryhighprecision,of
exactlythebestwaytosendaspaceprobetoMarsorJupiterortoputsatellitesinorbitallofthosethings,"saysIanStewart,
anemeritusprofessorofmathematicsattheUniversityofWarwickinEngland."Withoutthemath,youwouldnotbeabletodo
it.Wecan'tsendathousandsatellitesupandhopeoneofthemgetsintotherightplace."
WithoutNewtonsformulaongravitationalattraction,wewouldneverhavebeenabletosendsatellitesandothercraftintospacesosuccessfully.
Here,theInternationalSpaceStationasseenin2007.Enlarge

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Mathematicsunderliesvirtuallyallofourtechnologytoday.JamesMaxwell'sfourequationssummarizingelectromagnetismled
directlytoradioandallotherformsoftelecommunication.E=mc2leddirectlytonuclearpowerandnuclearweapons.The
equationsofquantummechanicsmadepossibleeverythingfromtransistorsandsemiconductorstoelectronmicroscopyand
magneticresonanceimaging.
Indeed,manyofthetechnologiesyouandIenjoyeverydaysimplywouldnotworkwithoutmathematics.Whenyoudoa
Googlesearch,you'rerelyingon19thcenturyalgebra,onwhichthesearchengine'salgorithmsarebased.Whenyouwatcha
movie,youmaywellbeseeingmountainsandothernaturalfeaturesthat,whileappearingasrealasrock,ariseentirelyfrom
mathematicalmodels.WhenyouplayyouriPod,you'rehearingamathematicalrecreationofmusicthatisstoreddigitallyyour
cellphonedoesthesameinrealtime.
"Whenyoulistentoamobilephone,you'renotactuallyhearingthevoiceofthepersonspeaking,"Devlintoldme."You're
hearingamathematicalrecreationofthatvoice.Thatvoiceisreducedtomathematics."
AFTERMATH
AndI'mreducedtoconcedingthatmathdoesn'tscaremesomuchanymore.Howaboutyou?Ifyoustillfeelqueasy,perhaps
youcantakesolacefromEinsteinhimself,whooncereassuredajuniorhighschoolstudent,"Donotworryaboutyour
difficultiesinmathematicsIcanassureyouthatminearestillgreater."
PeterTysoniseditorinchiefofNOVAOnline.

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