Topic

Learning

5
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.

Define learning;

2.

Compare classical and operant conditioning;

3.

Explain how we learn using cognitive learning theory;

4.

Describe the observational learning theory; and

5.

Apply learning theories in everyday life.

X INTRODUCTION
From the day we are born till the day we die, we never stop learning. First, we
learn how to crawl, and then walk. Hopefully by the time we die, we should
have learnt how to live and love.
In this topic, we will explore several kinds of learning. One type is learning to
associate one event with another. Learning involves the formation of concepts,
theories, ideas and other mental abstractions.

5.1

WHAT IS LEARNING?

As children and even as adults, we learn many things by just observing and
imitating people. We also learn through association. Learning an association
between a stimulus (e.g. expensive toys) and a response (e.g. happiness) is called
conditioning.
There are many ways in which we have been conditioned without us even being
aware of it. Who conditions us? Our parents, teachers, the media and society. We
have been conditioned by the media to consume just like how dogs are trained to

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sit and shake hands. We have been conditioned to associate material things
with success and happiness. Some of us realise that we have been conditioned
and work on de-conditioning ourselves as we learn what works best for us.
How do you define learning? Learning takes place whenever experience or
practice results in a relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural
potential (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2008).
Learning might consist of changes in immediate behaviour. For example, you
may change your brush stroke techniques immediately after your art teacher
suggests that you try something new. Learning can also consist of changes that
can potentially be initiated but do not occur because the opportunity never
arises. For example, you may learn how to hold a golf club the proper way by
watching a golfer on television but the opportunity to do so does not arise.
Although learning is relatively permanent, learnt behaviour is not necessarily
permanent, and can possibly be unlearnt (Huffman, Vernoy and Vernoy, 1997).
Learning is a result of practice or experience  we can learn by actively repeating
behaviour or simply from passively experiencing it (observing behaviour).

ACTIVITY 5.1
1.

Describe some examples of the things that you have learnt

through conditioning.

2.

Define learning in your own words.

3.

Learning might consist of changes in immediate behaviour or

potential behaviour. What does this mean?

5.1.1

Classical Conditioning

Our exploration of learning begins with a Russian Nobel Prize-winning scientist

called Ivan Pavlov who discovered classical conditioning almost by accident.
Pavlov was actually studying digestion; he was measuring how much saliva
dogs produced when fed. He noticed that the dogs began to salivate even before
they tasted the food. In fact, they began salivating as soon as they heard his
footsteps. This aroused Pavlovs curiosity and he decided to try something out.
On repeated occasions, he sounded a bell just before feeding the dogs. After
some time, the dogs began salivating as soon as the bell rang. It was as if they

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had learnt that the bell was a signal that they were going to be fed. If you have
any pets at home, you would have noticed that as well.

Figure 5.1: Classical conditioning

Source: www3.niu.edu/acad/psych/Millis/History/2003/Classical _Conditioning.jpg

There are four basic elements in classical conditioning, as shown in Figure 5.1:
(a) The unconditioned stimulus (UCS);
(b) The unconditioned response (UCR);
(c) The conditioned stimulus (CS); and
(d) The conditioned response (CR).
The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is an event that automatically triggers a reflex
response, which is the unconditioned response (UCR). In Pavlovs experiment,
food in the mouth was the US, and salivation was the UR (Weiten, 2001).
The conditioned stimulus (CS) is an event that is repeatedly paired with the US.
In Pavlovs experiment, the ringing of the bell was the CS. The learnt reaction 
salivating at the sound of the bell  is the conditioned response (CR).

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Let us look at the basic principles of classical conditioning as shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning
Basic Principles of Classical
Conditioning

Description

Stimulus generalisation

Occurs when stimuli similar to the original

conditioned stimulus (CS) elicit the conditioned
response (CR).

Stimulus discrimination

Takes place when only CS elicits the CR.

Extinction

Occurs when the UCS is repeatedly withheld and the

association between the CS and the UCS is weakened.

Spontaneous recovery

Is the reappearance of CR after extinction.

Higher-order conditioning

This type of conditioning occurs when a NS becomes a

conditioned stimulus (CS) through repeated pairings
with a previously CS.

Certain steps can be taken to make it easier to establish a classically conditioned

response, as shown in Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2: Steps to establish a classically conditioned response

Let us discuss the steps one by one.

(a)

Repeated Pairings of the UCS and the CS

The strength of the CS increases each time these two stimuli are paired until
it reaches a point where no further learning occurs. The conditioned
response is now fully established (Davis & Palladino, 2000).

(b)

Spacing of Pairings
If the CS and UCS pairings follow each other too closely or too far apart,
learning the association is slower. If the spacing is moderate, learning
occurs faster.

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One of the practical uses of classical conditioning is commercial advertising.

Commercial advertising uses classical conditioning to sell products. Advertisers
often pair their products (neutral stimulus) with gorgeous models (UCS). The
gorgeous models automatically trigger favourable responses (UCR) in the people
viewing the ads. After repeated viewings, advertisers hope that the products (CS)
alone will elicit the same favourable responses (CR).

SELF-CHECK 5.1
1.

What are the two steps that should be taken in order to make it
easier to establish a classically conditioned response?

2.

Explain in your own words how you would condition your

pets or children.

3.

Other than in commercial advertising, how else is classical

conditioning put into practical use? Discuss.

5.1.2

Operant Conditioning

While Pavlov was busy with his dogs, another psychologist by the name of
Edward Lee Thorndike was studying how cats learn. Thorndike confined a
hungry cat in a simple wooden cage he called the puzzle box, and placed some
food right outside the box where the cat could still see and smell it (Refer to
Figure 5.3). To get the food, the cat had to figure out how to open the latch on the
box door, a process Thorndike timed. Initially, it took the cat some time before it
could figure out how to open the latch. However, in each subsequent trial, it took
less and less time. Eventually, the cat could escape from the box in almost no
time at all. Thorndike was a pioneer of this type of learning, which involves
responding in a certain way because of the consequences it brings. This form of
learning is known as operant conditioning. Thorndikes law of effect summarises
the influences of consequences. Law of effect refers to Thorndikes theory that
behaviour which is consistently rewarded will be recorded as learnt behaviour,
and behaviours which have unpleasant outcomes will be removed.

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Figure 5.3: Thorndikes Puzzle Box

Source: www.animalbehaviour.net/gifs+pics/Thorndike%27s_cat.jpg

There are three basic principles of operant conditioning, as shown in Figure 5.4.

Figure 5.4: Principles of operant conditioning

Let us now discuss the principles of operant conditioning in greater detail.

(a)

Reinforcement
Reinforcement refers to delivering a stimulus immediately or shortly after a
response, which results in increasing the chances of that response occurring
again in the future. Reinforcement is divided into four categories:
(i)

Primary Reinforcers
Primary reinforcers are also sometimes known as unconditioned
reinforcers because they are naturally occurring reinforcers that have
developed in response to our basic needs. Primary reinforcers do not

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require pairing to function as a reinforcer. Examples of primary

reinforcers are water, food, sex and sleep.
(ii)

Secondary Reinforcers
On the other hand, secondary reinforcers must be paired with a
stimulus that functions as a reinforcer. For example, if money is
paired with the sound of water running, running water then becomes
the secondary reinforcer.

(iii) Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement happens when the rate of behaviour increases
due to the addition of a stimulus shortly after a response, for example,
giving food to the dog for obeying instructions to sit.
(iv) Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement happens when the rate of behaviour increases
due to the removal of an unpleasant stimulus shortly after a response.
For example, a rat is placed in a cage and then given electric shocks.
The electric shocks stop as soon as the rat presses on a lever. The rats
behaviour of pressing on the lever is reinforced by the consequence of
stopping the shocks. Negative reinforcement is often confused with
punishment but they are, in fact, very different.
(b)

Punishment
Punishment refers to any event which decreases the probability of
behaviour occurring again. Punishment is different from negative
reinforcement. Negative reinforcement strengthens behaviour by removing
something unpleasant from the environment. In contrast, punishment adds
something unpleasant to the environment to weaken behaviour. For
example, if you were to receive a heavy fine for littering, the behaviour of
littering would be weakened the next time. However, as we can observe
from real life, punishment does not always work. Why? In order for
punishment to be effective, it has to be swift  meaning punishment should
not be delayed and it should be put into action immediately after the
unwanted behaviour has taken place.
Punishment should also be consistent. If you punish your child for hitting
his sister, but not for hitting the dog, then he is most likely to do it again. In
some cases, even the mere threat of punishment is enough to remove
unwanted behaviour. This is called avoidance training. How effective is
punishment? Punishment does not encourage people to unlearn behaviours
or teach them how to behave better. Rather, if the threat of punishment is
removed, the negative behaviour is likely to occur again. Furthermore,
punishment also induces negative feelings which can hinder the learning of
new, more desirable behaviours. For example, if a child is punished for

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giving the wrong answer, the child may become very frustrated and unsure
of himself. Besides that, punishment makes people angry, and angry people
tend to be more aggressive.
(c)

Schedules of Reinforcement
Schedules of reinforcement refer to the rule in operant conditioning for
determining when and how often reinforcers will be delivered. There are
two types of schedules of reinforcement (Refer to Figure 5.4).
(i)

Continuous Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement results in behaviour that will persist for a
shorter time compared to behaviour learnt by partial reinforcement.
When people only receive reinforcements occasionally, they learn not
to expect reinforcement after every response; instead they respond
continuously hoping that eventually they will receive the desired
outcome (Morris & Maisto, 2001). Vending machines demonstrate the
effect of continuous reinforcement efficiently. Each time you put
money into a vending machine, you expect to get something in return
for your money. When you do not get anything in return for your
money, you do not put your money into the vending machine again.
However, if you put your money into a casino slot machine, and
receive nothing in return, you are still most likely to keep putting
money into the machine hoping that you will receive something the
next time. The casino slot machine demonstrates the concept of partial
reinforcement.

(ii)

Partial Reinforcement
Partial reinforcements are either fixed or variable. Table 5.2 explains
fixed ratio and variable ratio schedules; and fixed interval and
variable interval schedules by providing examples of these schedules
of reinforcement in everyday life.

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Table 5.2: Schedules of Reinforcement and Examples

Schedules of Reinforcement

Example

Fixed ratio schedule: The correct response

is reinforced after a fixed number of correct
responses.

Workers may be paid only after they

produce 50 pairs of shoes.

Variable ratio schedule: A varying number

of correct responses must occur before
reinforcement.

Sales commissions: You have to talk to

many customers before making a sale. The
number of people you talk to determines
when you are rewarded with a sale, and
this number will vary.

Fixed interval schedule: The correct

response is reinforced after a fixed length
of time since the last reinforcement.

You have an exam coming up and you

have not studied. You will have to make
up for all the time you have wasted
procrastinating by cramming for the exam
with the little time you have left.

Variable interval schedule: The correct

response is reinforced after varying lengths
of time following the last reinforcement.

Surprise quizzes make you study more

consistently because you never know when
they will take place, and you have to be
ready all the time just in case.

Source: Adapted from Morris & Maisto (2001)

There are two elements of operant conditioning, as shown in Figure 5.5.

Figure 5.5: Elements of operant conditioning

Let us discuss the elements of operant conditioning one by one.



Emitted behaviour
There is one major difference between classical conditioning and operant
conditioning. In classical conditioning, a response is automatically triggered
by some stimulus. For example, food in the mouth automatically triggers
salivation. In contrast, operant conditioning involves voluntary behaviour

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(Morris & Maisto, 2001). For example, Thorndikes cat voluntarily attempted
to open the box door. This is called operant behaviour because it involves
operating on the environment.
 Consequence
Consequences which increase the chances that a behaviour will be repeated
are called reinforcers. For example, Thorndikes cat gained freedom and food
for escaping from the puzzle box. In contrast, consequences which decrease
the chances that a behaviour will be repeated are called punishers.
Thorndike found that the influences of consequences can essentially follow
two paths. First, when a certain behaviour is rewarded (reinforced), the
behaviour is most likely to be performed again. Whereas, when a certain
behaviour brings about a negative effect such as punishment, the behaviour
is most likely to be suppressed. This is often referred to as the principle of
reinforcement by modern psychologists. It is not always easy to tell whether a
particular consequence will be reinforcing or punishing. We must wait to see
if the consequence increases or decreases the behaviour that comes before.
For example, you might assume that chocolate is always reinforcing for
children, but some children may not be motivated by this reward, so for them
it is not reinforcing. Hence, we must be careful when identifying
consequences as reinforcers or punishers.
Table 5.3 demonstrates the differences and similarities between classical
conditioning (CC) and operant conditioning (OC).
Table 5.3: Comparison between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning
Similarities

Differences

Both involve learning through association.

In CC, it is a learnt association between one

stimulus and another (e.g. food and a bell).

In both cases, the responses are under the

control of stimuli in the environment.

In OC, it is a learnt association between

some action and a consequence.

Neither CC nor OC responses will last

forever if they are not periodically
renewed.

In CC, the responses are automatically

triggered.

In both CC and OC, new behaviours can

build on previously established ones.

In OC, the responses are voluntary.

Source: Morris & Maisto (2001)

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ACTIVITY 5.2
1.

According to the principles of operant conditioning, how does

learning take place? Discuss.

2.

Compare classical conditioning and operant conditioning 

what are the main differences and similarities?

5.2

COGNITIVE LEARNING

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are considered by some

psychologists to be the only legitimate types of learning for scientific study. This
is because they can be measured and observed. However, others argue that
mental activities should not be ignored because they are of utmost importance to
learning. How do you visualise the layout of a chessboard from someone elses
description of it? How do you know how to hold a knife the proper way just by
watching a cooking show on television? How do you absorb abstract concepts
such as reinforcement in your memory? You do all these things and much more
through cognitive learning. Conditioning will never be able to explain what you
are learning by reading this module. Essentially, cognitive learning refers to the
mental processes that go on inside us when we learn (Morris & Maisto, 2001).
It is difficult to design experiments in which mental processes such as thinking
and reasoning can be directly observed and measured because they are internal
experiences. This is a major reason why conditioning theories were dominant for
so long. However, Wolfgang Khler successfully designed experiments to study
the cognitive element in learning.
Khler believed there was more to learning than simply responding to stimuli in
a trial and error fashion. In fact, the trial and error strategy cannot be used to
solve complex problems. He was interested in studying the role of insight in
learning. Insight is a sudden flash of understanding that occurs when you are
trying to solve a problem (Weiten, 2001). For example, imagine you have spent
days trying to find a solution to a problem. Then one day, all of a sudden you
understand how to solve the problem.
Khler used chimpanzees as the subjects of his research. He created several
different problems for his chimpanzee friends. He placed a banana just outside
the reach of a caged chimpanzee. In order to reach the banana, the chimpanzee
would have to use two bamboo sticks placed near the cage. The chimpanzee did

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not solve this problem by using the trial and error strategy like Thorndikes cat,
but rather seemed to think about the problem for a period of weeks. Then, in a
flash of insight, the chimpanzee picked up the bamboo sticks and connected
them by inserting one end into the hollow end of another. With this extension,
the chimpanzee was able to reach the banana.
Edward Tolman went on to say that in order for learning to occur, the response
does not necessarily have to be reinforced, contrary to what most learning
theorists/behaviourists believed at that time. He found that a significant amount
of learning consists of latent learning, as he called it. Latent learning occurs in the
absence of any reward and the knowledge learnt remains hidden until some day
in the future when it can be finally retrieved and used.
In short, cognitive learning is the basis for many modern educational approaches
such as constructivism and problem-based learning.

5.3

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

We learn many things just by watching and listening to others. Essentially,

observational learning involves interaction with other people and is known to be
a form of social learning.
How do you define observational learning? Observational learning or vicarious
learning is very common. We use it all the time. For example, by watching others,
we can learn how to turn on the computer and pay bills online. We also learn
how to show love or respect, as well as hostility and aggression by observing
others. We can even learn bad habits like smoking. This is one of the reasons why
cigarette advertisements have been banned on television because it is believed
that providing models of smokers would prompt people to imitate smoking
(Gazzaniga & Heatherton, 2003). However, we obviously do not imitate
everything other people do. Why are we selective in our imitation?
Let us look at some of the reasons:
(a)

We do not pay attention to everything that goes on around us. We usually

opt to imitate behaviours that are modelled by someone we look up to like
a famous or attractive person, or an expert.

(b)

If the behaviour expressed by the model is not memorable, it will not be

learnt.

(c)

If we have no motivation to perform the observed behaviour, we probably

will not show what we have learnt.

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This is the difference between learning and performance. We can learn without
any change in external behaviour that shows that we have learnt. However,
whether or not we perform depends on our motivation.
The kind of consequences associated with the observed behaviour (the rewards
or punishments) is an important motivation for acting. These consequences
(rewards or punishments) do not necessarily have to happen to the observer.
They may simply occur to the other people the observer is watching. This is
called vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment because the
consequences are not directly experienced by the observer; rather they are
experienced through other people. For example, if you see your father drinking
alcohol and enjoying himself, you are experiencing vicarious reinforcement of
drinking and you are much more likely to imitate it.
One of the pioneers of social learning theory is Albert Bandura, who refers to his
perspective as social cognitive theory. Bandura (1986) demonstrated in his
experiment that people can learn behaviour without being reinforced directly for
it, and that learning a behaviour and performing it are not the same thing. Three
groups of preschool children watched a film in which an adult starts hitting a
doll after it refuses to obey him. The film ended differently for the children in
each of the three groups. Those in the model-rewarded condition saw the adult
who had hit the doll being rewarded with lots of goodies and praise by a second
adult (vicarious reinforcement). Those in the model-punished condition saw the
second adult scolding and beating the adult who had hit the doll (vicarious
punishment). Finally, those in the no-consequences condition saw nothing
happen to the model as a result of his aggressive behaviour. Immediately after
watching the film, the children were escorted into another room where they
found the same doll. Each child played alone for 10 minutes while being
observed behind a one-way mirror. Much of the behaviour the children
displayed was what had been reinforced on the adult in the film.
This study teaches us an important lesson regarding how we should not provide
a model of aggression for children to follow unintentionally. Imagine you want
your child to stop hitting his sibling. You might resort to hitting the child as
punishment in order to discourage this kind of behaviour. However, hitting the
child also shows that hitting is an effective method of getting your way.
Therefore, hitting not only provides a model of aggression; it also provides
vicarious reinforcement. Both you and your child will be happier if the
punishment for hitting was not a similar form of aggression, and if the child is
also rewarded for showing kindness to others.

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SELF-CHECK 5.2
1.

According to observational learning theory, why are we selective

in our imitation? List three reasons.

2.

Use the principles of observational learning to explain why

physical punishment increases aggressive behaviour.

Learning takes place whenever experience or practice results in a relatively

permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential.

Learning an association between a stimulus (e.g. expensive toys) and a

response (e.g. happiness) is called conditioning.

Operant conditioning involves mainly voluntary responses that are governed

by their consequences.

Cognitive learning refers to the mental processes that go on inside us when

we learn.

Observational learning involves interaction with other people, and is known

to be a form of social learning.

Classical conditioning
Cognitive learning
Conditioned response
Conditioned stimulus
Latent learning
Neutral stimulus

Observational learning
Punishment
Reinforcement
Unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned response
Vicarious conditioning

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Davis, S. F., & Palladino, J. J. (2000). Psychology (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River,
New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Gazzaniga, M. S., & Heatherton, T. F. (2003). Psychological science: The mind,
brain and behaviour. London: W.W Norton & Company.
Gerrig, R. J., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2008). Psychology and life (18th ed.). Boston:
Pearson Education.
Huffman, K., Vernoy, M., & Vernoy, J. (1997). Psychology in action (4th ed.). John
Wiley & Sons Inc.
Morris, C. G., & Maisto, A. A. (2001). Understanding psychology (5th ed.).
Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Chapter 5: Learning
Weiten, W. (2001). Psychology themes & variations (5th ed.). Wadsworth/
Thomson Learning.