School of Mechanical
and Aerospace Engineering,
Queens University, Belfast BT95AH, UK
e-mail:.s.goel@qub.ac.uk
Xichun Luo
Department of Design, Manufacture
and Engineering Management,
University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G11XQ, UK
Anupam Agrawal
Department of Business Administration,
University of Illinois
at Urbana Champaign, IL 61820
V. K. Jain
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology,
Kanpur 208016, India
A Theoretical Assessment
of Surface Defect Machining
and Hot Machining of
Nanocrystalline Silicon Carbide
In this paper, a newly proposed machining method named surface defect machining
(SDM) was explored for machining of nanocrystalline beta silicon carbide (3C-SiC) at
300 K using MD simulation. The results were compared with isothermal high temperature
machining at 1200 K under the same machining parameters, emulating ductile mode
micro laser assisted machining (l-LAM) and with conventional cutting at 300 K. In the
SDM simulation, surface defects were generated on the top of the (010) surface of the
3C-SiC work piece prior to cutting, and the workpiece was then cut along the h100i
direction using a single point diamond cutting tool at a cutting speed of 10 m/s. Cutting
forces, subsurface deformation layer depth, temperature in the shear zone, shear plane
angle and friction coefficient were used to characterize the response of the workpiece.
Simulation results showed that SDM provides a unique advantage of decreased shear
plane angle which eases the shearing action. This in turn causes an increased value of
average coefficient of friction in contrast to the isothermal cutting (carried at 1200 K)
and normal cutting (carried at 300 K). The increase of friction coefficient, however, was
found to aid the cutting action of the tool due to an intermittent dropping in the cutting
forces, lowering stresses on the cutting tool and reduced operational temperature. Analysis shows that the introduction of surface defects prior to conventional machining can be
a viable choice for machining a wide range of ceramics, hard steels and composites compared to hot machining. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4026297]
Keywords: surface defect machining, MD simulation, nanometric cutting, beta silicon
carbide
Introduction
electronic industry [7]. SiC is also recognized as a potential candidate for quantum computing applications as a substitute for diamond [8], in space-based laser mirrors [9] and for the
development of thermal protection system (TPS) materials for
defence applications [10]. Demand of SiC is growing further in
weapons, aerospace, microelectronic and biomedical applications
as well as in big-science programmes such as the European
Extremely Large Telescope (E-ELT), the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA), and next generation extreme
ultraviolet (EUV) lithography steppers. SiC is also finding amazing applications in biomedical sector especially as being a semiconductor material because of being more biocompatible than
silicon [11]. Traditional orthopaedic materials such as cobalt
chrome (CoCr), stainless steel and titanium, on account of being
low wear and oxidation resistant, succumb to bone loss which
causes implant loosening resulting in a reactive implant surface.
Contrarily, SiC is capable of permanently integrating into the new
bone growth on account of low wear debris and metallosis and is
thus very effective as a coating for stents to enhance hemocompatibility and as a coating for prosthetic-bearing surfaces and
uncemented joint prosthetics [12].
In a natural state, SiC exhibits one-dimensional polymorphism:
all polytypes have the same tetrahedral arrangement of Si and C
atoms but different stacking sequences. It is due to this reason that
almost 250 polytypes of silicon carbide (SiC) have been recognized to date [13]. Across all other polytypes, two major polymorphs are a-SiC and b-SiC with hexagonal and zinc-blende
lattice structures, respectively. The main engineering properties of
b-SiC (3C-SiC) and a-SiC (6H-SiC and 4H-SiC) have already
been summarized elsewhere [14]. 3C-SiC possess extremely high
hardness and low fracture toughness and is therefore very difficult
to manufacture [15]. Considering the high hardness of 3C-SiC, the
Theoretical approach
Experimental realization
2
hardest naturally occurring material, diamond, appears to be the
only viable choice to cut 3C-SiC. A hardness ratio of 5:1 between
the cutting tool and the workpiece is normally recommended for
machining [16], however, this ratio in the case of diamond
tool:3C-SiC workpiece is about 4:1 owing to high micro hardness
of 3C-SiC (about 2530 GPa) against diamond (100 GPa). It has
been experimentally found that nano hardness of SiC, depending
on the polytype, can vary in the range of 5570 GPa for lower
depth of cuts below 50 nm [16]. Therefore, below a cut depth less
than 50 nm, the hardness ratio of tool:workpiece reduces further to
around 2:1 and consequently the diamond tool faces tremendous
cutting resistance [16]. In such cases, methods are needed to be
identified to reduce the cutting resistance offered by the workpiece in order to improve the machinability. Microlaser assisted
machining (l-LAM) process is one such process [17], where the
workpiece is preferentially heated and thermally softened at the
tool-workpiece interface in order to improve the machinability.
Similarly, various other methods for improved machining
response of the workpiece to make them amenable to diamond
turning have been suggested over the period of time, a review is
provided in Table 1. These improvements have helped in improving the longevity of cutting tool and achieving better surface finish
of the product.
The current investigation was done on beta silicon carbide (3CSiC), but the SDM method can also be applied to other materials
which are not readily machinable through conventional
approaches, e.g., titanium [28], silicon [36], nickel [37], pretentious low carbon ferrous alloys [38,39], various polytypes of silicon carbide [40,41], silicon nitride [42] and Al-SiCp metal matrix
composites [43] where rapid tool wear and consequent deterioration to the quality of surface remains a major concern till date.
Researchers have also investigated preferential heating and thermal softening of the workpiece by a laser device prior to machin021015-2 / Vol. 136, APRIL 2014
MD Simulation Model
Fix d 2 xi
2;
mi
dt
Fix
dV
dxi
(1)
3
Np
Nb
1X
1X
7
6 mva vb
r1 F1b r2a F2b
r1 F1b r2a F2b
7
6
2 n1 a
2 n1 a
7
6
7
6
7
6
Na
Nd
X
X
7
6 1
1
Sab 6
r1a F1b r2a F2b r3a F3b
r1a F1b r2a F2b r3a F3b r4a F4b 7
7
63
4
7
6
n1
n1
7
6
7
6
Ni
Nf
7
6 1X
X
5
4
2
Red and grey bodies represent two different species of atoms in a single
molecule.
(2)
rvon Mises
s
rxx ryy 2 ryy rzz 2 rzz rxx 2 6r2xy r2yz r2zx
2
(3)
2.2. Details About the Potential Energy Function. The
potential energy function V is the backbone of any MD simulation. An example of the potential function comprising of bonded
and nonbonded interactions is shown in Fig. 4 through ball and
spring arrangements. An appropriate potential energy function
ensures the reliability of the simulation results. The selection of
potential energy function is therefore an important decision in an
MD simulation. Based on extensive tests and simulations performed prior to this work, it was found that the analytical bond
order potential (ABOP) [56] used in this work is the only available three-body potential energy function that does not suppress
the mechanism of cleavage in 3C-SiC and was therefore used in
this paper [3]. A comprehensive description along with the key
parameters of the ABOP potential function are provided elsewhere [56] in its respective reference and for the purpose of brevity they are not repeated here in this work. Table 2 lists the
computational parameters, details of the workpiece, uncut chip
thickness, details of the cutting tool and other relevant parameters
used in this study. The criterion for the selection of these parameters is driven by the fact that the author of this work has done prior
studies using these parameters and this work can therefore readily
be related to those previously published studies [52,53].
2.3 MD Simulation Setup. The MD simulation model was
developed by replicating the unit cell using periodic boundary
APRIL 2014, Vol. 136 / 021015-3
Fig. 3
3
Readers are requested to refer to the web based version of this article for correct
interpretation of the colour legends.
This section covers observations and discussion of the significance of the MD simulation results: cutting forces, chip morphology, stresses and temperature in the cutting zone.
Fig. 7 Schematic diagram of chip formation during single point diamond turning
[50]
Table 3
Machining condition
Average tangential
cutting forces (Fc)
Average thrust
forces (Ft)
Average resultant
forces ((Ft2 Fc2))
Average friction
coefficient (Fc/Ft)
835 nN
762 nN
751 nN
1185 nN
1177 nN
1038 nN
1449.64 nN
1402.13 nN
1281.19 nN
0.7046
0.6474
0.7235
S.N.
1
2
3
Fig. 10 Cutting forces using (a) normal hard turning and (b) surface defect machining [1]
Table 4 Comparison between surface defect machining (SDM) and vibration assisted machining (VAM)
Vibration assisted machining (VAM) and
surface defects machining (SDM)
Similarities
Differences
Not applicable
Not applicable
Not applicable
Not applicable
In VAM cutting tool loses contact with the chips on specified amplitude, whereas in SDM cutting chips remains in continuous contact with the tool.
Operational time
Not applicable
Not applicable
(MD cannot reach millimetre length scales due to restrictive computational speeds). However, the intent here is not to compare MD
simulation with experimental observations but to understand the
process and features of the cutting mechanism. During the experimental investigation, an improved average surface roughness (Ra)
value of 0.227 lm from SDM machining was obtained in comparison to 0.452 lm from conventional machining using a CBN tool
[1]. A more important outcome from the experiments was an intermittent reduction in the cutting forces as shown in Fig. 10.
As evident from Fig. 10, the cutting tool experiences intermittent relaxation in the cutting load during the cutting process when
surface defects are met by the cutting tool. This causes a steep
reduction in the cutting forces. This intermittent reduction in the
cutting load is favorable for tool longevity as it aids in the reduction of the local temperature at the cutting edge (we expand on
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering
this later). This trend in the variation of the cutting load is more
reminiscent of vibration assisted machining and in this sense a
qualitative comparison between these two processes can be drawn
which is shown in Table 4.
Fig. 11 Chip morphology of 3C-SiC while cutting the workpiece after tool advances to 8.3 nm
S.N.
1
2
3
Machining
condition
Shear plane
angle (u)
300 K
1200 K
SDM at 300 K
0.525
0.525
0.505
21.28 deg
21.28 deg
20.66 deg
increased and thus the shear plane angle has decreased. This was
verified using the following equation
tan /
r cos a
1 r sin a
(4)
where u is shear plane angle, a is tool rake angle, and r is the ratio
of uncut chip thickness and cut chip thickness.
Table 5 shows a decrease in shear plane angle from a value of
21.28 deg to 20.66 deg using SDM process compared to nanometric cutting at 300 K. A decrease in the value of shear plane angle
under the same machining parameters shows the dominance of
tangential cutting forces over thrust forces justifying the enhanced
cutting action of the tool. This corroborates to the increased force
ratio as seen earlier in Table 3 during the case of SDM suggesting
the dominance of tangential cutting force to be the reason of the
increase in friction coefficient (which improves the cutting
action).
Figure 12 shows the measurement of the cut chip thickness and
highlights the variation in the subsurface crystal deformation lattice layer depth. It is interesting to note that the subsurface crystal
deformation lattice layer depth becomes wider while cutting at
300 K, while it becomes a little deeper while cutting at 1200 K.
Moreover, the extent of the deformation of crystal layer underneath the finished surface is more pronounced in both these cases
compared to that in the SDM operation. It can be postulated that
high temperature weakens the bonding forces between the atoms
and hence, the atoms could easily be deformed without having
much influence on the neighbor atoms. Therefore, the deformation
did not become wider and remained concentrated under the
wake of the tool under the influence of high deviatoric stresses.
Contrarily, SDM process shows minimal subsurface deformation.
The waviness of the finished surface also seems to have decreased
during SDM. The defects generated for the purpose of SDM significantly weaken the material, which in turn reduces the bonding
strength of the atoms in the area of uncut chip thickness without
disturbing the subsurface. Also, a discontinuity in the material and
021015-8 / Vol. 136, APRIL 2014
Conclusions
Acknowledgment
Authors acknowledge the funding support of Ministry of Higher
Education, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia for funding the Ph.D of
Transactions of the ASME
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