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UnderstandingFatigueAnalysis

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UnderstandingFatigueAnalysis
Thisdocumentprovidesbackgroundinformationonfatigueanddescribesthemethodologyused
inMechanicafatigueanalysis.Itcoversthefollowingtopics:
Topic
HistoryofFatigue
PhysicsofFatigue
TheENApproach
StrainCycles
Includestheeffectofmeanresidualstresses,hysteresisloopcaptureandrainflowcycle
counting.
FactorsthatAffectFatigueLife
IncludesComponentSize,LoadingType,SurfaceFinish,SurfaceTreatment(thatis,
MechanicalTreatments,Plating,andThermalTreatments),andEffectofSurfaceTreatments
onEnduranceLimit.
ThesolvertechnologyintegratedwithMechanicafatigueanalysisisprovidedbynCode
International.FatigueanalysisrequiresaFatigueAdvisorlicensefromPTC.

HistoryofFatigue
Themajorityofcomponentdesignsinvolvepartssubjectedtofluctuatingorcyclicloads.Such
loadinginducesfluctuatingorcyclicstressesthatoftenresultinfailurebyfatigue.About95%of
allstructuralfailuresoccurthroughafatiguemechanism.
Thedamagedoneduringthefatigueprocessiscumulativeandgenerallyunrecoverable,dueto
thefollowing:
Itisnearlyimpossibletodetectanyprogressivechangesinmaterialbehaviorduringthe
fatigueprocess,sofailuresoftenoccurwithoutwarning.
Periodsofrest,withthefatiguestressremoved,donotleadtoanymeasurablehealingor
recovery.
Itwaswellknownthatwoodormetalcouldbemadetobreakbyrepeatedlybendingitbackand
forthwithalargeamplitude.But,itwasthendiscoveredthatrepeatedstressingcanproduce
fractureevenwhenthestressamplitudeisapparentlywellwithintheelasticrangeofthe
material.Whenfatiguefailuresofrailwayaxlesbecameawidespreadprobleminthemiddleof
thenineteenthcentury,thisdrewattentiontocyclicloadingeffects.Thiswasthefirsttimethat
manysimilarcomponentshadbeensubjectedtomillionsofcyclesatstresslevelswellbelowthe
monotonictensileyieldstress.Between1852and1870theGermanrailwayengineerAugust
Whlersetupandconductedthefirstsystematicfatigueinvestigation.
SomeofWhler'sdataareforKruppaxlesteelandareplotted,intermsofnominalstress(S)
vs.numberofcyclestofailure(N),onwhathasbecomeknownastheSNdiagram.Eachcurve
onsuchadiagramisstillreferredtoasaWhlerline.

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Note:1centner=50kg,1zoll=1inch,1centner/zoll2~0.75MPa
Ataboutthesametime,otherengineersbegantoconcernthemselveswithproblemsoffailures
associatedwithfluctuatingloadsinbridges,marineequipment,andpowergenerationmachines.
Duringthefirstpartofthetwentiethcentury,moreeffortwasplacedonunderstandingthe
mechanismsofthefatigueprocessratherthanjustobservingitsresults.Thisactivityfinallyled,
inthelatefiftiesandearlysixties,tothedevelopmentofthetwoapproaches,onebasedon
linearelasticfracturemechanics,LEFM,toexplainhowcrackspropagate,andthesocalled
CoffinMansonlocalstrainmethodologytoexplaincrackinitiation.Throughthisunderstanding,
moderndesignersandengineershavebeenabletocreatemorefatigueresistantcomponents
withoutrelyingsolelyonexperimentation.Fromapracticalpointofview,thishasbeenamuch
moreprofitableapproach.

PhysicsofFatigue
Since1830,ithasbeenrecognizedthatmetalunderarepetitiveorfluctuatingloadwillfailata
stresslevellowerthanrequiredtocausefailureunderasingleapplicationofthesameload.
Thefollowingdiagramshowsasimplecomponentsubjectedtoauniformsinusoidallyvarying
force.Afteraperiodoftime,acrackcanbeseentoinitiateonthecircumferenceofthehole.
Thiscrackwillthenpropagatethroughthecomponentuntiltheremainingintactsectionis
incapableofsustainingtheimposedstressesandthecomponentfails.

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Thephysicaldevelopmentofacrackisgenerallydividedinto2separatestages.Theserelateto
thecrackinitiationphase(StageI)andthecrackgrowthphase(StageII).Fatiguecracksinitiate
throughthereleaseofshearstrainenergy.Thefollowingdiagramshowshowtheshearstresses
resultinlocalplasticdeformationalongslipplanes.Astheloadingiscycledsinusoidally,theslip
planesmovebackandforthlikeapackofcards,resultinginsmallextrusionsandintrusionson
thecrystalsurface.Thesesurfacedisturbancesareapproximately1to10micronsinheightand
constituteembryoniccracks.

Acrackinitiatesinthiswayuntilitreachesthegrainboundary.Atthispointthemechanismis
graduallytransferredtotheadjacentgrain
Whenthecrackhasgrownthroughapproximately3grains,itisseentochangeitsdirectionof
propagation.StageIgrowthfollowsthedirectionofthemaximumshearplane,or45tothe
directionofloading.DuringStageIIthephysicalmechanismforfatiguechanges.Thecrackis
nowsufficientlylargetoformageometricalstressconcentration.Atensileplasticzoneis
createdatthecracktipasshowninthefollowingdiagram.Afterthisstage,thecrackpropagates
perpendiculartothedirectionoftheappliedload.

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Asthephysicalmechanismforfatigueisdividedintotwostages,themethodsofanalysisare
alsoconventionallydividedintotwostages.StageIistypicallyanalyzedusingthelocalstrain
(orEN)approach,whileStageIIisanalyzedusingafracturemechanicsbasedapproach.
Acompletefatiguepredictioncouldthereforeuseacombinationofbothmethods:
TotalLife=Lifetoinitiation+Lifetakentopropagatecracktofailure
However,mostengineeringcomponentsspendmostoftheirtimeateitheronestageorthe
other.Inthiscase,itisnormaltoconservativelyconsideronlyonestage.Forexample,inmost
groundvehicledesigns,lifeistypicallygovernedbytimetoinitiation.Componentsarerelatively
stiffandthematerialsfairlybrittle.Oncethecrackhasinitiated,ittakesarelativelyshorttime
topropagatetofailure.
Bycontrast,manyaerospaceapplicationsuseflexiblecomponentsmadeofveryductile
materials.Inthiscase,crackspropagaterelativelyslowlyandsothefracturemechanics
approachesareusuallymoreappropriate.
Thephysicalnatureoffatiguewasnotwidelyunderstoodduringtheearlydays.AugustWhler
thereforetookamorepragmaticviewoffatigueanalysis.Themethodhedevelopedlater
becameknownasnominalstress(orSN)fatigueanalysis.Thisdidnotdifferentiatebetweenthe
StageIandIIgrowthmethodsandinsteadrelatedthenominalstressrangetothetimetakento
completefailure.
ThoughSNanalysisisstillwidelyusedintestbasedfatigueanalysis,ithasonemajor
drawbackforCAEapplications.Fatigueinitiationisdrivenbylocalplasticstrains,butSN
analysisuseselasticstressastheinput.Therefore,SNanalysisisunsuitableforperforming
CAEanalysisoncomponentscontaininglocalareasofplasticity.Forthisreasonlocalstrain(or
EN)methodsaremoreuniversallysuitable.MechanicafatigueanalysisusestheENmethod.

TheENApproach
Inafatiguetest,hourglassshapedspecimensofdifferentmaterialtypesaresubjectedto
varioustypesofcyclicloading,suchas:smallscalebending,torsion,tension,andcompression.
TheENapproachusestheseteststomeasurefatiguelife.Theresultsareplottedintermsof
strain(E)vs.cyclestofailure(N)onanENdiagram.AtypicalENdiagramisillustratedbelow
foralowalloysteelandanaluminumalloy.

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Mechanicausesagenericsetoffatiguepropertiestomodellowalloysteels,unalloyedsteels,
aluminumalloys,andtitaniumalloys.ThesegenericpropertieshavebeencompiledbyBaumel
Jr.andSeegerandareknownastheUniformMaterialLaw.Whiletheycannotbeexpectedto
giveaccuratefatiguelivesforpracticalpurposes,theyareidealfordeterminingwhethera
componentislikelytosufferfromfatigueproblems,andwhetheramoredetailedanalysisis
neededbeforecommissioning.FormoreinformationontheUniformMaterialLaw,seeMaterials
ScienceMonographs,61,"MaterialsDataforCyclicLoading,Supplement1."
Thefollowingdiscussioncoverstwoaspectsoffatiguetheorythatarecriticaltoan
understandingofthehowFatigueAdvisormeasuresfatigue:
Topic
StrainCycles
FactorsThatAffectFatigueLife
StrainCycles
BeforelookinginmoredetailattheENprocedure,ithelpstounderstandthethreedifferent
typesofcyclicstrainsthatcontributetothefatigueprocess.Thefollowingdiagramsand
descriptionsexplaineachseparatetype.
Thefirstfigureillustratesafullyreversedstraincyclewithasinusoidalform.Thisisanidealized
loadingconditiontypicallyfoundinrotatingshaftsoperatingatconstantspeedwithoutoverloads.
Thisisalsothetypeofstraincycleusedformostfatiguetests.Forthiskindofcycle,the
maximum( max )andminimum( min)strainsareofequalmagnitudebutoppositesign.Usually
tensilestrainisconsideredtobepositiveandcompressivestrainnegative.Thestrainrange, r,
isthealgebraicdifferencebetweenthemaximumandminimumstrainsinacycle.
r= max min

Thestrainamplitude, a,isonehalfthestrainrange.
a= r/2=( max min)/2

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Thesecondfigureillustratesthemoregeneralsituationwherethemaximumandminimum
strainsarenotequal.Inthiscase,theyarebothtensileanddefineameanoffset, m=( max +
min)/2,forthecyclicloading.

Asmentionedabove,mostbasicfatiguedataarecollectedusingfullyreversedloads.Therefore,
thesedataarenotdirectlyapplicableforstraincycleswithanonzeromean( m 0).Inorder
topredictmorerealisticlifeestimatesforstraincycleswithtensileorcompressivemeanstress,
resultsofthetestsconductedusingfullyreversedloadsarecorrected.Thechoiceofcorrective
approachtousedependsonwhetherthemeanstressisprimarilytensileorcompressive.
Thereasonforthiscanbeseeninthefollowingplotwhichschematicallyillustratestheeffectof
meanstressonthestrainlife(EN)curve.Viewedconceptually,tensilemeanstressactstopull
openacrackwhilecompressivemeanstressworkstokeepitclosed.Typicallytheeffectsare
concentratedatthelonglifeendofthediagram,withtensilemeanstressreducinglifeand
compressivemeanstressextendingit.

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SincethetestsrequiredtocalculateENcurvesforarangeofmeanstressesarequite
expensive,severalempiricalrelationshipshavebeendevelopedtomodeltheeffectofmean
stress.Ofalltheproposedmethods,twohavebeenmostwidelyaccepted:
TheSmith,Watson,TopperApproach
TheMorrowCorrection
Forloadingsequenceswhicharepredominantlytensileinnature,theSmith,Watson,Topper
approachismoreconservativeandisthereforerecommended.Inthecasewheretheloadingis
predominantlycompressive,particularlyforwhollycompressivecycles,theMorrowcorrection
canbeusedtoprovidemorerealisticlifeestimates.Mechanicausesbothmethodsandthemost
appropriatemethodisautomaticallychosen.FormoreinformationontheSmith,Watson,Topper
approach,see"AStressStrainFunctionfortheFatigueofMetals",JournalofMaterials,Vol.5,
No.4,1970.FormoreinformationontheMorrowcorrection,see"FatigueDesignHandbook",
AdvancesinEngineering,Vol.4,SocietyofAutomotiveEngineers,1968.
Thenextfigureillustratesamorecomplex,variableamplitudeloadingpatternthatiscloserto
thecyclicstrainsfoundinrealstructures.

Forvariableamplitudeloadingitisnecessarytoextractthefatiguedamagingcyclesfromthe
signalandthenevaluatethedamagecarriedoutbyeachcycle.Thetotaldamageisthesumof
thedamagecausedbyeachindividualcycle.Eachfatiguecycleisextractedbyaprocessknown
ashysteresisloopcapture.Thelociofthestressandstrainareplottedasshowninthefollowing
diagram.

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Whenastressstrainhysteresisloopisclosed,thenthestrainrangeandmeanstressare
returnedandthedamagecalculatedusingtheENcurvemodifiedformeanstresscorrection.
Thisanalysisiscarriedoutoverthewholestraintimesignaluntilallthecycleshavebeen
extractedandthetotaldamageevaluated.Averyefficientalgorithmhasbeendevelopedto
performcycleextractionknownas:RainflowCycleCounting.Thisisthealgorithmthat
Mechanicauses.
Mechanicanormallyusesalinearelasticsolutiontodeterminethepseudoelasticstrainsina
component.Inotherwords,thesolutionignoresplasticity.Beforeproceedingwiththefatigue
analysis,thesestrainsareautomaticallyconvertedintononlinearelasticplasticstrainsusing
Neuber'srelationship.
FactorsthatAffectFatigueLife
Asmentionedabove,theENcurveisderivedfromstraincontroltestsbasedonhourglass
shapedspecimens.
Astandardized,fullyreversedfatiguetestisusedtodetermineabaselineENrelationshipfora
polishedspecimen,approximately6mmindiameter.Whilethefatigueorendurancelimit
measuredinthistestisdenotedby ' e,acomponentinservicehaslowerlimit, e,thatreflects
modificationstoaspecimenoutsideofthelaboratory.Forsteelsinparticular,severalempirical
relationshipsaccountforthevariationin easaresultofthefollowing:
Componentsize,Csize
Thetypeofloading,Cload
Theeffectofnotches,Cnotch
Theeffectofsurfacefinish,Csur<1(promotescrackgrowth)
Theeffectofsurfacetreatment,Csur>1(inhibitscrackgrowth)
Toaccountfortheseeffects,specificmodifyingfactorsaretypicallyappliedtothetestresultso
that:
e = ' e CnotchCsize CloadCsur...
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wherereciprocaloftheproduct,CnotchCsizeCloadCsur,iscollectivelyknownasthefailure
strengthreductionfactorKf:
Kf=1/(CnotchCsizeCloadCsur...)
Itisveryimportanttorememberthatallthemodificationfactorsareempirical,conservative
andgenerallyonlyapplicabletosteel.Theyprovidelittleornofundamentalinsightintothe
fatigueprocessitselfotherthanprovidingapproximatetrends.Inparticulartheyshouldnotbe
usedinareasoutsidetheirmeasuredapplicability.
Readthefollowingtolearnmoreaboutthefactorsthatinfluencefatiguelife:
Topic
TheInfluenceofComponentSize
TheInfluenceofLoadingType
TheInfluenceofSurfaceFinish
TheQualitativeInfluenceofSurfaceTreatment
TheQuantitativeEffectofSurfaceTreatmentsontheEnduranceLimit
TheInfluenceofComponentSize
Fatigueinmetalsresultsfromthenucleationandsubsequentgrowthofcracklikeflawsunder
theinfluenceofanalternatingstressfield.Thetheoryisthatfailurestartsattheweakestlink,
themostfavorablyorientatedmetalcrystalforexample,andthengrowsthroughlessfavorably
orientatedgrainsuntilfinalfailure.Intuitively,itwouldseemreasonabletosupposethatthe
largerthevolumeofmaterialsubjectedtothealternatingstress,thehighertheprobabilityof
findingtheweakestlinksooner.Actualtestdatadoconfirmthepresenceofasizeeffect
particularlyinthecaseofbendingandtorsion.
Thestressgradientbuiltupthroughthesection,inbendingandtoalesserextentintorsion,
concentratesmorethan95%ofthemaximumsurfacestressinathinlayerofsurfacematerial.
Inlargesections,thisstressgradientislesssteepthaninsmallersections.Sothevolumeof
materialavailablethatcouldcontainacriticalflawwillbegreater,leadingtoareducedfatigue
strength.Theeffectissmallforaxialtensionwherethestressgradientisabsent.Thevaluefor
Csizeisestimatedfromoneofthefollowing.
Ifthediameterofthetestspecimenshaftisd<6mm:
Csize=1
Ifthediameterofthetestspecimenshaftis6mm<d<250mm
Csize=1.189d0.097
Theeffectofsizeisparticularlyimportantfortheanalysisofrotatingshaftssuchasmightbe
foundinvehiclepowertrains.
Forsituationswherecomponentsdonothavearoundcrosssection,thefollowingequation
calculatesanequivalentdiameter,deq,forarectangularsectionunderbendingwithwidth(w)
andthickness(t):
deq2=0.65wt
TheInfluenceofLoadingType
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Fatiguedatameasuredusingonetypeofcyclicloading,axialtensionforexample,maybe
"corrected"torepresentthedatathatwouldhavebeenobtainedhadthetestbeenperformed
usingsomeotherloadingmethodologysuchastorsionorbending.Thestandardizedrotating
bendtestcallsforteststobecarriedoutunderconditionsoffullyreversedbending.
Inmovingfromoneloadingconditiontoanother,thevaluesofCloadtobeusedwiththe
endurancelimit, earedetailedbelow:
Measured
Loading

Target
Loading

C load

Axial

to

Bending

1.25

Axial

to

Torsion

0.725

Bending

to

Torsion

0.58

Bending

to

Axial

0.8

Torsion

to

Axial

1.38

Torsion

to

Bending

1.72

Thus,usingthevaluesfromthistable,ifanaxialtensionloadproducesastrainof e,thestrain
producedunderabendingloadwouldbe1.25 e.
Inadditiontoinfluencingtheendurancelimit,loadingconditionscanalsoinfluencetheBasquin
slope,b,whichisusedwhenplottingtheENcurveonloglogscale.Thiseffectisusuallytaken
intoaccountbymodificationofthestrainat103cycles, 3,aswellas e.Thefollowingfactors
areusedtodefineC' load,the 3modificationfactor:
Measured
Loading

Target
Loading

C'

Axial

to

Torsion

0.82

Bending

to

Torsion

0.82

Torsion

to

Axial

1.22

Torsion

to

Bending

1.22

load

TheInfluenceofSurfaceFinish
Averyhighproportionofallfatiguefailuresnucleateatthesurfaceofcomponentssothat
surfaceconditionsbecomeanextremelyimportantfactorinfluencingfatiguestrength.Various
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surfaceconditionsareusuallyjudgedagainstthepolishedlaboratoryspecimenstandard.
Normally,scratches,pits,machiningmarks,andsoforth,influencefatiguestrengthbyproviding
additionalstressraisersthataidtheprocessofcracknucleation.
Thediagrambelowshowsthathighstrengthsteelsaremoreadverselyaffectedbyarough
surfacefinishthansoftersteels.Forthisreason,thesurfacefinishcorrectionfactor,Csur<1,is
stronglyrelatedtotensilestrength.Herethesurfacefinishcorrectionfactorcategorizesfinishin
qualitativetermssuchaspolished,machined,andforged.

Notethatsomeofthecurvespresentedinthisfigureincludeeffectsotherthanjustsurface
finish.Forexample,theforgedandhotrolledcurvesincludetheeffectofdecarburization.
Otherdiagramspresentthesurfacefinishcorrectionfactorinamorequantitativewaybyusinga
quantitativemeasureofsurfaceroughnesssuchasRA (therootmeansquare)orAA(the
arithmeticaverage).Thefollowingdiagramshowstheeffectofsurfaceroughnessonthesurface
finishcorrectionfactor.

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Valuesofsurfaceroughnessassociatedwitheachofthemanufacturingprocessesarereadily
availableinhandbooks,asintheexamplebelow:
TypeofFinish
(Microns)

Surface
Roughness

Latheformed

2.67

Partlyhandpolished

0.15

HandPolished

0.13

Ground

0.18

Superfinished

0.18

Groundandpolished

0.05

TheQualitativeInfluenceofSurfaceTreatment
Asinthecaseofsurfacefinish,surfacetreatmentcangreatlyinfluencefatiguestrength,
particularlytheendurancelimit.Theneteffectofthetreatmentistoalterthestateofresidual
stressatthefreesurface.

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Residualstressesarisewhenplasticdeformationisnotuniformlydistributedthroughoutthe
entirecrosssectionofthecomponentbeingdeformed.Intheprecedingfigures,ametalbarhas
asurfacethatisbeingdeformedintensionbybending.
AttimeT=1,bendingmomentM1isbeingappliedandisintheelasticrange.
AttimeT=2,thebendingmomenthasincreasedtoM2,theyieldstress(Sy )hasbeen
reached,andthesurfaceundergoesplasticdeformation.
Whentheexternalforceisremoved,theregionsthatwereplasticallydeformedpreventthe
adjacentelasticregionsfromcompleteelasticrecoverytotheunstrainedcondition.Inthis
way,theelasticallydeformedregionsareleftinresidualtension,andtheplastically
deformedregionsareinastateofresidualcompression.Theresultisthestressdistribution
attimeT=3.
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Formanypurposes,residualstresscanbeconsideredidenticaltothestressesproducedbyan
externalforce.Thus,thepresenceofacompressiveresidualstressatthesurfaceofa
componentwilleffectivelydecreasetheprobabilityoffatiguefailure.

Theprecedingfigureillustratesthesuperpositionofappliedandresidualstresses.
ThetopschematicshowsanelasticstressdistributioninabeamunderbendingmomentM
withnoresidualstress.
Inthecenterschematic,atypicalresidualstressdistributionassociatedwithamechanical
surfacetreatmentsuchasshotpeeningisdetailed.Notethatthecompressivestressatthe
surfaceiscompensatedbyanequivalenttensilestressovertheinteriorofthecrosssection.
Inthebottomschematic,thedistributionduetothealgebraicsummationoftheapplied
stress(causedbybendingmomentM)andresidualstressisshown.Notethatthemaximum
tensilestressatthesurfacehasbeenreducedbytheamountoftheresidualstress.Also,the
peaktensilestresshasnowbeenmovedtotheinteriorofthebeam.Themagnitudeofthis
stresswilldependonthegradientoftheappliedstressandtheresidualstressdistribution.
Undertheseconditions,subsurfacecrackinitiationbecomesapossibility.
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Surfacetreatmentsaredividedbroadlyintomechanical,thermal,andplatingprocesses.The
firsttwoprocessesprovideacompressivelayer.Theplatingprocessprovidesatensile
residualstress.Followingisdetaileddescriptionofeachprocess:
MechanicalTreatmentsThemaincommercialmethodsforintroducingresidual
compressivestressesarecoldrollingandshotpeening.Althoughsomealterationinthe
strengthofthematerialoccursasaresultofworkhardening,theimprovementinfatigue
strengthisduemainlytothecompressivesurfacestress.Surfacerollingisparticularlysuited
tolargepartsandisfrequentlyusedincriticalcomponentssuchascrankshaftsandthe
bearingsurfaceofrailwayaxles.Boltswithrolledthreadstypicallypossesstwicethefatigue
strengthofconventionallymachinedthreads.
Shotpeening,whichconsistsoffiringfinesteelorcastironshotagainstthesurfaceof
acomponent,isparticularlywellsuitedtoprocessingsmallmassproducedparts.
Itisimportanttorememberthatcoldrollingandshotpeeninghavetheirgreatest
effectatlonglives.Atshortlivestheyhavelittleornoeffect.
Aswithothermodifyingfactors,correctionfactorscanbeusedtoaccountforthe
effectofthesemechanicallyinducedcompressivestressesbyadjustingtheendurance
limit e.Typicallythefactorassociatedwithpeeningisabout1.5to2.0.
ThermalTreatmentsThermaltreatmentsareprocessesthatrelyonthediffusionof
eithercarbon(carburizing)ornitrogen(nitriding)ontoandintothesurfaceofasteel
component.Bothtypesofatomsareinterstitial,thatistheyoccupythespacesbetween
adjacentironatoms,therebyincreasingthestrengthofthesteelandcausingacompressive
residualstresstobeleftonthesurfacethroughvolumetricchanges.
Carburizingistypicallyathreestepprocess:
packingthesteelcomponentswithinboxeswhichcontaincarbonaceoussolids
sealingtoexcludetheatmosphere
heatingtoabout900degreesCelsiusforaperiodoftimethatdependsonthedepthof
thecaserequired
Alternativelycomponentsmaybeheatedinafurnaceinthepresenceofahot
carburizinggassuchasnaturalgas.Thisprocesshastheadvantagethatitisquicker
andmoreaccurate.Inaddition,thecarburizingcyclemaybefollowedupbyadiffusion
cyclewithnocarburizingagentpresent.Thisallowssomeofthecarbonatomsto
diffusefurtherintothecomponentandthusreducesgradients.
Thenitridingprocessisverysimilarinnaturetogascarburizingexceptthatammonia
gasisusedandthecomponentsaresoakedatlowertemperatures.Typically48hours
atabout550degreesCelsiuswillprovideanitridedcasedepthofabout0.5mm.
Nitridingisparticularlysuitedtothetreatmentoffinishednotchedcomponentssuchas
gearsandslottedshafts.Theeffectivenessoftheprocessisillustratedinthefollowing
table:

EnduranceLimit(MPa)

Geometry

NotNitrided

Nitrided

Unnotched

310

620

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Semicircular
notch

175

600

Vnotch

175

550

PlatingChromeandnickelplatingofsteelcomponentscandecreasetheendurancelimit
bymorethanhalf,duetothecreationoftensileresidualstressesatthesurface.These
tensilestressesareadirectresultoftheplatingprocessitself.Asinthecaseofmechanically
inducedsurfacestresses,theeffectofplatingismostpronouncedatthelonglifeendofthe
spectrumandalsowithhigherstrengthmaterials.
Introducingacompressiveresidualstresspriortotheplatingprocesssuchasshotpeening
ornitridingcanreducetheharmfuleffectsofplating.Annealingcomponentsafterplating,
therebyrelievingthetensions,isanalternativeapproach.
TheQuantitativeEffectofSurfaceTreatmentsontheEnduranceLimit(Steels)
Theeffectofsurfacetreatmentdependsonthesurfacefinish.Theincreaseinendurancelimit
stressduetothesurfacetreatmentisgiveninthefollowingtable:

IncreaseinEnduranceLimit

Finish

ShotPeened

ColdRolled

Nitrided

Polished

+15%

+50%

+100%

Ground

+20%

+0%

+100%

Machined

+30%

+70%

+100%

Hot
Rolled

+40%

+0%

+100%

Cast

+40%

+0%

+100%

Forged

+100%

+0%

+100%

Whatevercorrectionwasmadebythesurfacefinish,applyingasurfacetreatmentwillhavea
subsequenteffectbasedontheprecedingtable.Forexample,ifmachiningreducesthe
endurancelimitby30%,thenfromthetableitcanbeseenthatcoldrollingwillrecovertheloss
byincreasingthelimit70%.

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