The main goal of most soil improvement techniques used for reducing

liquefaction hazards is to avoid large increases in pore water pressure

during earthquake shaking. This can be achieved by densification of
the soil and/or improvement of its drainage capacity.
Vibroflotation

Vibroflotation involves the use of a vibrating probe that can

penetrate granular soil to depths of over 100 feet. The vibrations of
the probe cause the grain structure to collapse thereby densifying the
soil surrounding the probe. To treat an area of potentially liquefiable
soil, the vibroflot is raised and lowered in a grid pattern. Vibro
Replacement (right, HB) is a combination of vibroflotation with a
gravel backfill resulting in stone columns, which not only increases
the amount of densificton, but provides a degree of reinforcement and
a potentially effective means of drainage.

What Is Vibroflotation?
Vibroflotation is a ground improvement technique used at considerable depth that by
using a powered electrically or hydraulically probe, it strengthens the soil. The
vibroflotation will compact the soil making it suitable to support design loads. It
involves the introduction of granular soil to form interlocking columns with
surrounding soil. The technique is used toimprove bearing capacity and reduce the
possibility of differential settlements that might be allowed for the proposed loads.
Sometimes it is also referred as Vibrocompaction. The compaction of soil can be
obtained in soils as deep as 200 feet.The risk of liquefaction in an earthquake prone
area is also drastically reduced.

Vibroflotataion Techniques
Vibroflotation can be obtained by using three different techniques:
Vibro Compaction method- This method allows granular soils to be

compacted. This method is only used to compact sandy soils.

Vibro Replacement method- The technique is used to replace poor or

inadequate soil material by flushing out the soil with air or water and replacing it
with granular soil. This can be used in various soil types such as clay and sandy
soils.

Vibro Displacement method- This procedure is used with no or small amounts

of water used during the technique. The probe in inserted into the soil and it will
displace it laterally as the new soil column is being formed and compacted.

Vibroflotation Advantages:
Vibroflotation is one affordable way to improve ground conditions when deep layer of
inadequate soil is found.
The technique is so simple that will not require the delivery of additional materials
or additional equipment other than the probe and the equipment that has it
installed. The vibroflotation process can offer the following benefits:

When the process is done properly, it will reduce the possibility of differential
settlements that will improve the foundation condition of the proposed structure.

It is the fastest and easiest way to improve soil when bottom layers of soil will
not provide good load bearing capacity.

It is a great technology to improve harbor bottoms

On a cost-related standpoint, it helps improve thousands of cubic meters per

day. It is faster than piling.

It can be done around existing structures without damaging them .

It does not harm the environment

It improves the soil strata using its own characteristic

No excavations are needed, reducing the hazards, contamination of soils and

hauling material out from the site

No need to manage table water issues, neither the permits required to manage
water discharge and dewatering issues.

The technique of vibroflotation can be adapted to each scenario and site

When vibroflotation is performed at a site, it will reduce the possibility of

liquefaction during an earthquake

How Vibroflotation Works?

The process of vibroflotation is really simple as you will see in this short description:
The depth probe is located over the compaction point. Flushing water or air is
expelled trough jets in the tip of the probe. These induced injected vibrations will
liquefy the soil temporarily allowing the probe a continuous penetration under its own
weight. Once the probe has reached the strata or poor soil, the water and air
injections is stopped. At this point the soil is densify by the probe vibrations causing a
crater around the vibrator, that should be backfilledwith granular material. Once the
process has been completed, the probe is slowly withdrawn usually in satges of 12
inched. A cylindrical compaction zone is formed around the probe, and the achieved
degree of compaction is indicated by an increase in oil pressure. The area around the
probe is backfilled with granular material that will auto-consolidate, as the probe is
begin brought up. The material used to backfill should be free of silt,gravel or crushed
stoneclassified material.

Introduction
Loose soils are a well documented problem, common in the construction industry. Immediate
settlements of 1 inch per foot (depth) of loose sand can occur in worst-case scenarios. Contractors
have two main options: use deep foundations to bypass the unfavorable layers, or use a
compaction technique to improve the site conditions (DAppolonia, 1954). Vibroflotation was first
used in Germany in the 1930s and first appeared in the United States in 1948 when the Bureau of
Reclamation studied the possibilities for sand and silt compaction at the site of the Enders Dam in
Nebraska (DAppolonia, 1954).
The term vibroflotation is often used interchangeably with vibrocompaction in the literature.
However vibrocompaction is a broader term that encompasses two different techniques. The first is
vibroflotation, which uses a vibroflot that vibrates horizontally. The second utilizes a vibrating probe
which vibrates vertically. It should be noted that vibroflotation is used as a mechanism for
implementing vibro-replacement, a method which combines the technique of vibroflotation with
gravel backfilling in order to create stone columns. This is a review of vibroflotation only.
Vibroflotation utilizes horizontal vibrations in conjunction with fluid to reduce the interparticle
friction of the surrounding soil. This allows the material to densify and creates a column with
improved engineering characteristics, including an increase in strength and a reduction in
compressibility. Figure 2 displays the transition of soil from a loose state to a dense state. The goal
of vibroflotation is to increase the relative density of a soil. This increase in relative density results
in reduced settlements as well as improved resistance to liquefaction.

Figure 2: Densification of soil during vibroflotation (Bauer Maschinen GmbH, 2012)

Several factors, including the equipment size and quality, spacing and pattern, in situ material,
vibroflot withdrawal technique, backfill material, and workmanship greatly affect the level of
density achieved during vibroflotation (Brown, 1977).

Applicable Soils
The suitability of site conditions is the most important factor when considering vibratory
compaction as a solution. Most coarse-grained soils with fines content of less than 10% are
considered acceptable for this method, i.e. sands, gravels, and slags. A grain size distribution
showing the range of applicable soils is presented in Figure 3. Vibroflotation has been found to work
best for loose granular materials located below the water table.

Figure 3: The orange area represents the grain size distribution of soils suitable for vibroflotation
(Bauer Maschinen GmbH, 2012)
Clay layers, excessive fines content and organics can all cause serious complications when
attempting to improve a site with vibroflotation. These materials generate excess pore water
pressures which greatly inhibits volume change and results in preventing the granules to move into
a denser state. To accomodate some of these issues, "earthquake drains" is a possible solution for
sites which are susceptible to liquefaction (Rollins et al, 2003). The vibrations are also significantly
damped in the presence of these soils, and reduces the radial densification dramatically. If the in
situ material particle size is too great, the penetration of the vibroflot is greatly hindered which
increases the amount of time needed to achieve adequate compaction. This can make the
technique very expensive (Brown, 1977).

In order to accurately depict the site characteristics through grain size distribution, sieve tests are
needed in order to assess a large number of samples. A good alternative to this method is the use
of the cone penetration tests (CPT). The results from a CPT offer a continuous soil profile at each
location and measures variations through correlations in soil strength, compressibility and hydraulic
conductivity if the piezocone is used (Massarsch, 2005).

Figure 4: CPT applicability (Massarsch, 2005)

Construction Procedures
The vibroflot is inserted into the ground and typically can be used to improve soil up to depths of
150 feet. Vibroflotation utilizes water and the mechanical vibrations of the vibroflot to move the
particles into a denser state. Typical radial distances affected range from 5 to 15 feet (Bauer
Maschinen GmbH, 2012).
The vibroflot is suspended from a crane and seats on the surface of the ground that is to be
improved. To penetrate the material, the bottom jet is activated and the vibration begins. The water
saturates the material to create a quick sand condition (i.e. temporarily liquefying the material),
which allows the vibroflot to sink to the desired depth of improvement. At that point, the bottom jet
is stopped and the water is transferred to the upper jet. This is done to create a saturated
environment surrounding the vibroflot, thereby enhancing the compaction of the material. The
vibroflot remains at the desired depth of improvement until the material reaches adequate density.
The density of the soil is measured by using the power input (via the electric current or hydraulic
pressure) as an index. As the material densifies, the vibroflot requires more power to continue
vibrating at which point an ammeter or pressure gauge displays a peak in required power.
Once this point is reached, the vibroflot is raised one lift (generally ranging from 1 to 3 feet) and
compaction ensues until the peak amperage or hydraulic pressure is reached once again. A figure
of the successive steps is provided in Figure 5. The peak power requirement can be correlated to
the density of the soil, so an accurate measurement of the in situ density can be recorded.

Figure 5: Vibroflotation construction sequence (Bauer Maschinen GmbH, 2012)

As the procedure continues, a large crater is created at the surface which must be backfilled, as
seen in Figure 5. Roughly 5 cubic feet of backfill material is needed for every foot that is compacted
by vibroflotation (DAppolonia, 1954). Acceptable backfills include gravel or sand with minimal fines
content, or material from onsite with a fines content of less than 6% (Bauer Maschinen GmbH,
2012). Slag has been used in some cases, and can be an economical option if there is a large
supply available. The gradation of the backfill is the most important factor controlling the speed at
which the backfill reaches the void created by the vibroflot. The suitability number gives an index
for the quality of the backfill material. It is calculated as:

Equation 1: Suitability number (Brown, 1977)

Where D50, D20, and D10 are the grain size diameters (in millimeters) at 50%, 20%, and 10% passing,
respectively. Brown described suitability numbers in the range of 1-10 to be excellent, while
numbers greater than 50 are considered unsuitable (Brown, 1977).
Coarser material generally makes better backfill material, however, if the particle size is too large, it
can become stuck between the crater and the vibroflotation apparatus, preventing it from reaching
the desired depth. It should be noted that vibroflotation generally does not work for surface
materials (uppermost 2 to 3 feet of material) and instead a roller is needed to attain equivalent
compaction.

Figure 6: Crater created due to vibroflotation method (Bauer Maschinen GmbH, 2012)
Close attention and observation of the process is critical throughout the implementation of
vibroflotation. If the addition of backfill material is stopped or reduced, the vibroflot may become
starved. When this occurs, the vibroflot vibrates in the hole without contacting the surrounding
material, and thereby reducing compaction effort. This can happen when a hole collapses and cuts
off the supply of backfill material to the vibroflot, workers stop moving backfill into the hole, the
probe is extracted too quickly, or when the wash water flow is too great and prevents the backfill
from falling (Brown, 1977).

Quality Control
During the process, it is important to ensure that the technique is operating efficiently and
effectively so that low soil densities are not discovered after completion of the site improvement.
Like many construction activities, quality control is very important during construction. Several
aspects can be monitored during implementation, including penetration depth, penetration rate,
withdrawal rate, proper probe location, volume of added backfill, backfill gradation, ammeter or
hydraulic pressure peak, and vibroflot operating frequency.
Upon the conclusion of vibroflotation activities, densities are usually checked to ensure that
adequate compaction was achieved. While the standard penetration test (SPT) was the most used
and available method for doing this, it gave a poor measure of bearing capacity and relative
density. Today, CPTs are most commonly used for verifying relative density. Relationships have
been developed which correlate CPT results to relative density.

Vibroflot
The module which vibrates and compacts the surrounding material is known as the vibroflot.
Vibroflot dimensions and vibrating capabilities vary by manufacturer and are often modified by
contractors to suit their intended purpose. As part of quality assurance, it is important to verify
that the vibroflot mobilized is the one pretedermined, since minor variations can greatly affect
performance.
Though dimensions vary, generally they are 7 feet or greater in length, and rely upon an electric
motor or hydraulic power to generate the desired vibratory forces. The vibratory forces are
generated by a rotating eccentric shaft with frequencies ranging from about 2000 to 3000
revolutions per minute. The vibroflot is made up of two sections: the vibrator and the follow-up
pipe. The vibrator typically weighs on the order of 10,000 to 20,000 pounds and generates a
centrifugal force of 43,000 to 70,000 pounds (Bauer Maschinen GmbH, 2012). There are multiple
water discharge points along the apparatus, one of which is near the top (the upper jet) and one at
the base (the bottom jet). The follow-up pipe remains nearly stationary during operation and acts as
a rigid casing, providing protection to the power and water supply. Figure 7 below provides a crosssection and typical dimensions of the device.

Figure 7: Vibroflot cross section (DAppolonia, 1954)

Design
It is necessary to plan the vibroflotation so that the desired compaction and uniformity is achieved
throughout the site. Material compaction is measured in terms of relative density. This is calculated

as:

Equation 2: Relative density (DAppolonia, 1954)

Currently, 80 percent is the general criterion for compaction; this level of compaction is generally
deemed acceptable for soils beneath foundations. However, this number can vary considerably
from project to project depending on site and project requirements (Bauer Maschinen GmbH, 2012).
Spacing distance and pattern affects the uniformity of the densified material. Typical patterns
include square, triangular, and line and spacing distances range between 5 and 10 feet. Typical
spacing patterns are presented in Figure 8. Rectangular and square patterns are used to improve
soil beneath spread footings or for small isolated areas of improvement. Equilateral triangle
patterns are the most efficient and are commonly used in scenarios with large areas. It has been
observed that square patterns require about 5-8% more probe locations to achieve densities
equivalent to equilateral triangular patterns (Brown, 1977).

Figure 8: Vibroflotation example patterns (Brown, 1977)

Design spacing distance is a function of desired relative density, grain size distribution of the
material, fines content, and power capabilities of the vibroflotation device. The spacing is chosen so
that improved columns from each probe location overlap. The effectiveness of the process
decreases exponentially as the radial distance from the vibroflot increases. To determine a suitable
spacing, an arbitrary number called an influence coefficient is determined based on the compaction
in relation to the radial distance from the probe location. The influence coefficient is a function of
distance and relative density for one vibroflotation probe location, and increases as the distance to
the probe decreases. For considered design patterns, the influence coefficients are displayed
around the probe location and represent an equivalent value at the corresponding radial distance.

The critical point is determined based on the greatest distance from the surrounding probe
locations. The sum of the coefficients from each of the probe locations must be greater than the
required minimum coefficient value. Figure 9 from the International Mineral and Chemical
Corporation Phosphate Plant case study shows the sum at the critical point, A, is calculated as 4 +
4 + 4 = 12. For this project, a minimum influence coefficient was determined to be 10, based on
achieved relative density. A value of 12 shows that this design spacing is adequate (DAppolonia et
al., 1953).

Figure 9: Triangular spacing pattern showing sum of influence coefficients at critical point A
(DAppolonia et al., 1953)

Correlating CPT Results to Relative Density

As noted in the section on 'Quality Control,' the CPT is the most common form of verification testing
used today. Data obtained from CPTs is used to measure the relative density of the improved soil.
Accurately estimating relative density from CPT results is critical to ensuring the vibroflotation
process has achieved the desired densification results.
Research in large calibration chambers has yielded several correlations between cone penetration
resistance and relative density. Two of these correlations discussed by Robertson, et al. (1997) are
be presented below. It is important to note that most of the testing results used in the development
of these correlations was performed on un-aged, clean, fine to medium, uniform silica sands. Sitespecific testing is crucial in developing representative relationships for soil at a site. However, large

calibration chamber testing is expensive and often not implemented on projects, this can result in
problems later during the verification stage.
The research completed through verification testing has shown that cone penetration resistance is
controlled by soil density, sand compressibility, and vertical and horizontal effective stresses. Sand
compressibility has been shown to be especially important. Robertson, et al. (1997) discussed a
review of calibration chamber test results that demonstrated a lower cone penetration
resistance for high compressibility sands compared to low compressibility sands for a constant
relative density. Figure 10 below shows the relationship between relative density and cone
resistance for sands of different compressiblities.

Figure 10 : Relationship between relative density and cone penetration resistance for sands of
different compressibilities (Robertson et. al, 1997)
The first correlation is presented below (Equation 3) is based on calibration testing of Ticino sand,
which considers the effects of compressibility and effective vertical stress, was developed by Baldi
et al. (1986).

Equation 3: Relative density and cone penetration resistance correlation (Baldi et al, 1986)

In this correlation, C0, C1 and C2 are soil constants whose values can be seen in Figures 11 and 12.
The cone penetration resistance is represented by qc and is in units of kilopascals, as is the effective
vertical stress, '. This correlation was used to develop Figures 11 and 12, which show the
relationship between vertical effective stress and cone resistance for both normally consolidated
and overconsolidated Tocino sands.

Figure 11: Relationship between Dr, qc, and ' for normally consolidated Tocino sands (Robertson et.
al, 1997)

Figure 12: Relationship between Dr, qc, and ' for normally and over consolidated Tocino sands
(Robertson et. al, 1997)
The second correlation presented (Equation 4) was developed by Kulhway and Mayne (1990).

Equation 4: Relative density and cone penetration resistance correlation (Kulhway & Mayne,1990)
Here qc is the penetration resistance, v' is the effective vertical stress, Pa is atmospheric pressure,
OCR0.18 is the overconsolidation factor, QA is the ageing factor and QC is the compressibility factor
whose value ranges from 0.9, for low compressiblity sands to 1.09, for high compressiblity sands.
It is important to reiterate that the correlations presented above are based on testing performed on
un-aged, clean, medium to fine, uniform silica sands. These correlations may be appropriate to

apply to reasonably similar soils, however, site-specific calibration testing is crucial for producing
accurate and reliable relative density correlations from CPT results.

Cost
In one case study, vibroflotation was found to be one of the most economical remedial solutions
compared to other common ground improvement techniques. Concluded in 1999, the study
examined possible design solutions for Croton Dam, which was found to be susceptible to damage
due to earthquake shaking. Although, it is located near Muskegon, Michigan, it is considered a
high-hazard dam so it must be designed to account for large ground accelerations. The dam
consists of two earth embankments, a gated spillway, and a concrete and masonry powerhouse.
The earth embankments are composed of a hydraulically placed sand fill with concrete cores. A
seismic analysis of the embankments found that they were likely to liquefy in the event of a
magnitude 6 or greater earthquake. It was determined that adequate strength to resist liquefaction
could be achieved by compaction (Uddin & Baltz, 2004). Table 1 displays the possible remediation
techniques examined in this study, along with associated costs. Compared to the other two ground
improvement methods (jet grouting and compaction grouting), vibroflotation proved to be the most
economical solution for this case.

Table 1: Comparison of costs at Croton Dam (Uddin & Baltz, 2004)

The three ground improvement techniques examined (vibroflotation, jet grouting, and compaction
grouting) were quoted by contractors based on the maximum plausible area of improvement. This
was taken to be 70% of the maximum possible area of improvement. While vibroflotation was

judged to have the greatest increase on material strength, it was also considered to cause
significant damage to existing surficial structures (Uddin & Baltz, 2004).

Case Study: Densifying Sands Near Existing Structures

Vibroflotation for Ground Improvement (Sreekantiah, 1993)

Background
The Mangalore Chemicals and Fertilizers Company Limited is situated on the West Coast of India in
Mangalore, Karnataka. The company desired to install new machinery at their existing location. In
order to install the new machinery, the very loose granular soil which comprised the site had to be
improved in order to achieve adequate bearing capacity as well as to assure that settlements of the
soil where the new machinery was to be installed would be within permissible limits.
The company is located on a site that originally consisted of agricultural land. In 1966, the ground
level elevation, which was originally 6 feet above sea level, was raised through dredging. The soil
used for dredging was recovered during the construction of the New Mangalore Port on the West
Coast of India.

Figure 13: Mangalore location (Sreekantiah, 1993)

Site Characteristics
The subsurface soil on the site was comprised of the soil that had been dredged in 1966. The
profile consisted of two layers: a clean sand layer underlain by a clay layer with consistency that
varied from soft to stiff throughout the site.
Standard and cone penetration tests were performed throughout the site in order to the assess the
subsurface soil conditions. The clay layer was determined to be a marine clay with varying
consistency. The upper sand layer consisted of a stratum varying from fine sand to sandy gravel
with N values ranging from 1 to 16. Rock was found at depths ranging from 92 feet to 98 feet
below ground elevation.

Statement of Problem
The Mangalore Chemicals and Fertilizers Company site posed a great challenge. The use of a
shallow foundation to support the machines that were to be installed proved unfeasible. However,
the use of traditional driven piles was also not feasible because construction disturbance posed a
risk of damage to the nearby existing machinery at the site.

Solution and Design

Bored compaction piles were one of the alternatives considered for increasing bearing capacity of
the subsurface soil. However, difficulties were encountered during construction of the bored piles.
Additionally, the load tests performed on the bored compaction piles proved unsuccessful. The
expected applied loads from the machinery proposed to be installed on the site ranged from 229
pounds per square inch to 236 pounds per square inch. By virtue of the limiting site conditions,
ground improvement by vibroflotation was determined to be the best course of action.
A thorough analysis of the subsurface soils was conducted in order to determine whether
vibroflotation would be a feasible improvement technique. The upper sand layer was determined to
contain less than 10 percent fines making it ideal for improvement by vibroflotation. An area of 79
feet by 20 feet was selected to be compacted to a desired depth of 23 feet below ground elevation.
CEM-INDIA performed the work, electing a wet process using a standard vibroflot with a 15.75 inch
diameter, 26.5 feet length and a weight of 6750 pounds. A square grid spacing scheme of 6.5 feet
by 6.5 feet centre to centre was implemented. The vibroflot was inserted at intervals of 6.5 feet to
the desired depth and was removed in 9.6 inch intervals. The criteria provided for acceptance in
the contract with CEM-INDIA was a maximum acceptable settlement of 0.47 inches for a 6.2 feet
diameter plate under a pressure of 65 pounds per square inch. Additionally, a static cone
penetration test resistance of 22 pounds per square inch had to be achieved post compaction.

Results
After compaction was completed, the site was tested for the previously stated criteria. Five of the
eight load tests performed on the improved area resulted in a settlement of less than 0.47 inches,
while two load tests resulted in a settlement of less than 0.60 inches and one resulted in a
settlement of 1.6 inches. The static cone penetration test resistance of 2175 pounds per square

inch was generally achieved and demonstrated that between depths of 6.5 feet and 23 feet
penetration resistance achieved a threefold to fivefold increase post compaction, as can be seen
below in Figure 14. Raft foundations were selected for use on the improved site area. Foundation
settlement was monitored after the installation of the new machinery and was determined to be
within permissible limits.

Figure 14: Mangalore CPT results (Sreekantiah, 1993)

Conclusions
The installation of new machinery on an existing site posed challenges. The subsurface soil which
was comprised of granular soil underlain by a clay layer made the use of shallow foundations
unfeasible. However, the risk of potential damage to nearby existing machinery due to disturbance
caused by construction made traditional driven piles also unfeasible. Vibroflotation proved to be a
successful technique for improving the ground on site. It densified the soil which resulted in an
increased bearing capacity as well as reduced settlement to permissible limits. Vibroflotation was
the best technical and economical solution for improving the loose granular soil without posing a
great risk to existing structures and machinery near the site.

Case Study: Vibroflotation for Densification of Hydraulic Fill

Application of Vibro Techniques for Infrastructure Projects in India (Sharma, 2004)

Background & Site Characteristics

The Seabird Naval Base at Karwar in the Indian state of Karnataka required the construction of a
breakwater structure over a distance of more than 3 miles. The existing seabed was composed of
clay and soft silt. In order to create favorable soil conditions for construction of the breakwater, the
existing seabed was dredged to a depth of nearly 20 feet. Hydraulic sand fill obtained from nearby
borrow pits was used to the backfill the dredged area.

Figure 15: Project Seabird (Sharma, 2004)

Statement of Problem
After the hydraulic fill was placed, cone penetration tests were performed to assess the conditions
of the sand fill. The tests revealed the need for compaction of the top 13 feet of the fill in order to
reduce potential settlements and mitigate liquefaction potential.

Figure 16: Project Seabird soil profile (Sharma, 2004)

Solution and Design

Vibro compaction is a technique commonly used to densify hydraulic fills in offshore projects. For
the construction of the breakwater structure at the Seabird Naval Base an area of about 35 acres
was selected to be compacted to a depth of about 13 feet.
Keller Grundbau performed the work over a period of 10 working months. The equipment setup
included the use of four 49 foot long vibrators suspended from a crane situated on a barge in order
to allow for the compaction of the soil beneath 33 feet of seawater. The spacing scheme selected
was a 9.8 foot by 9.8 foot center to center grid.

Figure 17: Project Seabird setup (Raju et al., 2003)

Results
Seven days after compaction was completed, cone penetration tests were performed every 164
feet along the breakwater structure. The results demonstrated that the 13 feet of compacted fill
achieved a twofold to threefold increase in penetration resistance compared to the uncompacted
values. Settlement was monitored after the construction of the breakwater and range between 0.65
feet and 0.98 feet.

Conclusions
Offshore densification of hydraulic fills can be a challenging task. Vibro flotation proves to be an
easily implemented and economical technique for performing the necessary ground improvement.
The results from the use of vibro flotation at the Seabird Naval Base in Karwar support this. Vibro
flotation densified the hydraulic fill beneath the breakwater structure which increased the
penetration resistance of the fill and reduced future settlements.

Case Study: Compaction of Reclaimed Soil through Vibroflotation

On- and Offshore Vibro-Compaction for an Oil Pipeline in Singapore (Wehr & Raju, 2002)

Background
Jurong Island is a man made island that was formed from the combination of seven islands
southwest of the main island of Singapore. The installation of a crude oil pipeline on the island
mandated the densification of the existing sandfill in order to reduce future settlements beneath
the pipeline as well as to stabilize the seaside slope of the sand embankment adjacent to the
pipeline jetty.

Site Characteristics
Jurong Island is an artificial island made of reclaimed soil. The reclaimed soil consisted of medium
to coarse sand with fines contents less than 5 percent, making it ideal for vibroflotation. The
groundwater table was found approximately 16 feet below the ground level surface.
Cone penetration tests were performed both in the area where the pipeline was to be installed as
well as at the sand embankment at the pipeline jetty. Cone penetration resistances ranged from
725 pounds per square inch to 1160 pounds per square inch with friction ratios of approximately
0.5 percent.

Statement of Problem
Based on the results from the cone penetration tests, it was evident that densification of the
reclaimed soil would be necessary in two areas. The area beneath where the pipeline was to be
installed required densification in order to reduce potential settlements. The area of the sand bund
where the pipeline jetty was to be located also required densification in order to reduce settlements
and stabilize the adjacent seaside slopes. The project posed a unique challenge in selecting the
ground improvement method to be used. The method selected had to be of minimal disturbance to
nearby areas because of an existing gas pipeline situated approximately 6 feet to 10 feet below the
ground surface. This was especially crucial in the area where the crude oil pipeline and the gas
pipeline were to cross.

Figure 18: Jurong Island site layout (Wehr & Raju, 2002)

Solution and Design

Beneath the proposed pipeline, an area of nearly 2.8 miles in length and 65 feet in width was
selected for compaction to 70 percent relative density. Based on field trials, an equilateral
triangular scheme with 11.5 foot spacing was selected. The area of the sand bund where the VLCC
(very large crude carrier) jetty was to be located required offshore compaction spanning a distance
of over 3200 feet in length and 65 feet in width. This area was also compacted to 70 percent
relative density using the same 11.5 foot equilateral triangular spacing scheme. The slope adjacent
to this area had slopes of 1:3, vertical to horizontal. A 13 foot equilateral triangular spacing
scheme was utilized at the inclined slopes in order to achieve ISO/IEC JTC specifications for
compaction of inclined slopes. A crane situated on a barge was used for offshore compaction.

Results
Post compaction cone penetration tests were performed throughout the improved areas. The
criteria requiring 70 percent relative density in all areas of the project was achieved without any
major issues. Additionally, vibration measurements were carried out to assure there wasnt any
damage to the existing gas pipeline. Measurements showed maximum particle velocities well within
permissible limits.

Conclusions
The densification of reclaimed soil both on and off shore on Jurong Island was achieved through the
use vibroflotation. Vibroflotation was an appropriate method for this project because of its
relatively low cost, on and off shore flexibility as well as its low disturbance level during
construction when compared with other techniques.

Case Study: International Mineral and Chemical Corporation Phosphate

Plant
Sand Compaction by Vibroflotation (DAppolonia et al., 1953)

Background
Vibroflotation was chosen to improve the loose sand deposits at the site of the International Mineral
and Chemical Corporation Phosphate Plant, located outside of Bartow, Florida. This technique was
selected because of its simplicity and its economic superiority. The entire plant construction was
projected to cost roughly 12 million dollars, and included an improvement area of 156,000 square
feet. With compaction needed to an average depth of 12 feet, the contractor was able to use
vibroflotation on 1400 square feet per day, and cost about $0.10 per square foot of vibroflotation
improvement.

Site Characteristics
The site was composed of uniform vegetation, with no swamps present within the boundaries of the
project. Figure 19 displays a map of boring locations and proposed building footprints. This figure
also displays the areas which were improved with vibroflotation. The site is composed of a surface
layer of very loose, clean sand varying between 10 and 15 feet in thickness. SPT blow counts
ranged from 2 at the surface to 10 at the base of the sand layer. A sandy clay layer with phosphate
granules is located below the surficial layer, and is locally called a matrix. This layer has an
average depth of 15 feet and is fairly dense with a high bearing strength. Beneath the matrix,
alternating layers of sand, gravel, and clay compose a mix of stiff and soft strata. The presence of
coarse gravel in this lower layer gave rise to the possibility that the SPT values could be artificially
high.

Figure 19: Phosphate plant foundation layout (DAppolonia et al., 1953)

Statement of Problem
It was determined that settlement could occur in the loose sand layer and the soft clay layers,
located at depths greater than 30 feet. As stated in the site characteristics section, the uppermost
stratum consists of very loose sand. It was determined that the average relative density of the sand
in this layer was about 33%. The site will be subject to vibrations due to train movement and
pumps located within the plant. Both of these sources almost definitely ensure settlement. The
compressible clay layers, however, were only considered to be susceptible to a minor amount of
compression due to the small foundation stresses and the depth of the compressible layers.

Solution and Design

Several foundation systems were examined to determine the best course of action in minimizing
the amount of settlement experienced by the structures. Piles extending 50 to 60 feet to the
gravelly clay layer were considered, however it was determined that thepresence of the soft strata
at those depths would force the piles to utilize skin friction over tip resistance. The frictional forces
exerted on the soft strata would induce consolidation, and result in unacceptable amounts of
settlement at the surface.
Short point-bearing piles driven to refusal in the sandy matrix layer were also considered. However,
it was determined that the stress exerted on the sandy matrix would also adversely affect the clay
layers below, resulting in unacceptable settlement at the surface.
It was determined that spread and mat foundations on compacted sand would result in the
minimum settlement. Vibroflotation was selected to adequately compact the sand at depths up to

15 feet. Based on the experience of the engineers, the relative density goal was set at 70% or a dry
unit weight of at least 103 pounds per cubic foot. Three different spacing patterns were examined,
including the line, square, and triangular pattern. Different spacing distances were also examined
for each pattern. It was found that spacing and pattern combinations of 8 feet for the square and
triangular patterns, and 7.5 feet for the line pattern all resulted in the same relative density.
Ultimately, a triangular pattern with a 7.5 foot spacing was used. Compaction was conducted in one
foot lifts, and an average of 2.25 cubic yards of backfill material was added for each probe.

Results
Benchmarks were placed around the site to record the amount of settlement experienced before,
during, and after construction. Based on data acquired from the tests and boreholes, in conjunction
with the design building loads, the total settlement was estimated to be 3.96 inches. However, at
the time of completion of the report (131 days after the conclusion of construction), it was found
that building had only settled 0.42 inches compared to the projected 1.0 inch.

Conclusions
It is clear that vibroflotation was an excellent solution for this scenario of very loose sands. It
greatly improved the site and yielded less settlement than originally projected, while also offering a
better alternative to a deep foundation system. However, it should be noted that this case study is
from 1953; many contractors use updated technology and projects today may require higher
standards of relative density, typically around 80%.

Case Study: Effectiveness of Vibroflotation on Silty Sand

Vibroflotation Compaction at Thermalito Afterbay (Harder et. al., 1984)

Background
The construction of Thermalito Afterbay Dam in Northern California was completed in 1967. In
August of 1975 an earthquake of magnitude 5.7 revealed an active fault that had not been
previously detected. As a result of the rupture of the Cleveland Hill Fault during the 1975
earthquake, the Department of Water Resources evaluated the embankments resistance to
liquefaction under a 6.5 magnitude earthquake. Their analysis predicted that the silty sand layers
in the foundation of the embankment would liquefy entirely under these seismic conditions and
would result in failure of the dam. In 1979 storage restriction of the reservoir was implemented in
order to reduce risk of failure until the seismic evaluation was completed. The need to restore the
dam to full operation was evident and therefore numerous remedial methods for stabilization of the
dam were considered at Thermalito Bay.

Site Characterisitics
The embankment was 8 miles long with a maximum height of 39 feet. The foundation consisted of
several layers of different soils including clay, silt, sand and gravel. The surface layer throughout
most of the embankment was composed of a clay and silt layer several feet thick. The silty sand
layers which were targeted for densification contained a median of 15 percent fines, with 30
percent of the samples containing more than 20 percent fines. The groundwater table downstream
of the dam was found at a depth of 5 feet to 10 feet.

Statement of Problem
The seismic evaluation performed predicted that the silty sand layers of the embankment
foundation would liquefy entirely under an earthquake of magnitude 6.5. Densification of these
silty sand layers was necessary to mitigate liquefaction risks. A primary concern when selecting
the remedial method to be used at the site was assuring that the clay embankment would not be at
risk of large settlements or heaves during treatment.

Solution and Design

A vibroflotation testing program using 100 horsepower vibroflot was performed on the embankment
in order to determine the effectiveness of vibroflotation in densifying silty sand. Two worksites were
selected to assure a range of conditions were represented in the testing program. However, this
vibroflot was not used to penetrate the clay and silt surface layer. Instead pre-drilling with a 24
inch bucket auger was used to create holes that reached the silty sand layers. These holes were
then backfilled with sand before the vibroflot was inserted. An equilateral triangular spacing
scheme was utilized with spacings ranging from 6.5 feet to 9.5 feet. Table 2 summarizing the
vibroflotation test program and variables can be found below.

Table 2: Thermalito Bay worksites table (Harder et. al., 1984)

Results
Standard and cone penetration tests were performed before and after the vibroflotation testing
program was performed at the embankment. SPT blow counts and CPT resistance at both sites
showed generally no change before and after compaction. SPT and CPT results for worksite 2 can
be seen below and demonstrate the ineffectiveness of vibroflotation testing program.

Figure 20: Thermalito Bay CPT and SPT results (Harder et. al., 1984)

Conclusions
Based on the results of the vibroflotation testing program at Thermalito Afterbay we can conclude
that vibroflotation is not an effective method for the densification of silty sands below a cohesive
soil cap. The failure of vibroflotation as a technique in this case is most likely due to the relatively
high fines content of 15 percent in the silty sand layer. Generally, vibroflotation is ideal for sands
with less than 10 percent fines content.

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