Aero 6sem HT

Department of Aeronautical engineering
School of Mechanical engineering

Vel Tech Dr RR & SR Technical University
Course Material
U6AEA23- Heat Transfer
U6AEA23
UNIT I Heat Conduction
HEAT TRANSFER
9
Basic Modes of Heat Transfer One dimensional steady state heat conduction: Composite Medium Critical
thickness Effect of variation of thermal Conductivity Extended Surfaces Unsteady state. Heat Conduction:
Lumped System Analysis Heat Transfer in Semi infinite and infinite solids Use of Transient Temperature
charts Application of numerical techniques.
UNIT II
Convective Heat Transfer
Introduction Free convection in atmosphere free convection on a vertical flat plate Empirical relation in free
convection Forced convection Laminar and turbulent convective heat transfer analysis in flows between
parallel plates, over a flat plate and in a circular pipe. Empirical relations, application of numerical techniques in
problem solving.
UNIT III
Radiative Heat Transfer
Introduction to Physical mechanism Radiation properties Radiation shape factors Heat exchange between
non black bodies Radiation shields.
UNIT IV
Heat Exchangers
Classification Temperature Distribution Overall heat transfer coefficient, Heat Exchange Analysis LMTD
Method and E-NTU Method, problems using LMTD and E-NTUmethds.
UNIT V
Heat Transfer Problems In Aerospace Engineering
High-Speed flow Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer problems in gas turbine combustion chambers Rocket thrust
chambers Aerodynamic heating Ablative heat transfer, Heat transfer problems in nozzles.
TEXT BOOKS
1.
Yunus A. Cengel., Heat Transfer A practical approach, Second Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2002.
2.
Incropera. F.P.and Dewitt.D.P. Introduction to Heat Transfer, John Wiley and Sons 2002.
REFERENCE BOOKS
1.
Lienhard, J.H., A Heat Transfer Text Book, Prentice Hall Inc., 1981.
2.
Holman, J.P. Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 6th Edn., 1991.
3. Sachdeva, S.C., Fundamentals of Engineering Heat & Mass Transfer, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi,
1981.
4.Mathur, M. and Sharma, R.P. Gas Turbine and Jet and Rocket Propulsion, Standard Publishers, New
Delhi 1988.
UNIT I
Basic Modes of Heat Transfer
One dimensional steady state heat conduction:

Composite Medium
Critical thickness
Effect of variation of thermal Conductivity
Extended Surfaces
Unsteady state. Heat Conduction: Lumped System Analysis
Heat Transfer in Semi infinite and infinite solids
Use of Transient Temperature charts
Application of numerical techniques.
CONDUCTION
PART A
1. Define Heat Transfer.

Heat transfer can be defined as the transmission of energy from one region to another
region due to temperature difference.
2. What are the modes of Heat Transfer?
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
3. Define Conduction.
Heat conduction is a mechanism of heat transfer from a region of high temperature to
a region of low temperature within a medium (solid, liquid or gases) or between different
medium in direct physical contact.
In condition energy exchange takes place by the kinematic motion or direct impact of
molecules. Pure conduction is found only in solids.
4. Define Convection.
Convection is a process of heat transfer that will occur between a solid surface and a
fluid medium when they are at different temperatures.
Convection is possible only in the presence of fluid medium.
5. Define Radiation.
The heat transfer from one body to another without any transmitting medium is
known as radiation. It is an electromagnetic wave phenomenon.
6. State Fouriers Law of conduction.
The rate of heat conduction is proportional to the area measured normal to the
direction of heat flow and to the temperature gradient in that direction.
dT
dx
dT
Q - KA
dx
Q - A
where A are in m2
dT
dx
- Temperature gradient in K/m
K Thermal conductivity W/mK.

7. Define Thermal Conductivity.
Thermal conductivity is defined as the ability of a substance to conduct heat.

8. Write down the equation for conduction of heat through a slab or plane wall.
Heat transfer Q
Toverall
R
Where
T = T1 T2
L
R
- Thermal
KA
resistance of slab
L = Thickness of slab
K = Thermal conductivity of slab
A = Area
9. Write down the equation for conduction of heat through a hollow cylinder.
Heat transfer Q
Toverall
R
Where
T = T1 T2
R
r
1
in 2
2 LK
r1
thermal resistance of slab
L Length of cylinder
K Thermal conductivity
r2 Outer radius
r1 inner radius
10. Write down equation for conduction of heat through hollow sphere.
Heat transfer Q
Toverall
R
Where
T = T1 T2
R
r2 r1
4 K (r1r2 )
- Thermal resistance of hollow sphere.
11. State Newtons law of cooling or convection law.

Heat transfer by convection is given by Newtons law of cooling
Q = hA (Ts - T)
Where
A Area exposed to heat transfer in m2
h - heat transfer coefficient in W/m2K
Ts Temperature of the surface in K
T - Temperature of the fluid in K.
12. Write down the equation for heat transfer through a composite plane wall.
Heat transfer Q
Toverall
R
Where
T = Ta Tb
R
L
L
L
1
1
1 2 3
ha A K1 A K 2 A K 3 A hb A
L Thickness of slab
ha heat transfer coefficient at inner diameter
hb heat transfer coefficient at outer side.
13. Write down the equation for heat transfer through composite pipes or cylinder.
Heat transfer Q
Toverall
R
Where
T = Ta Tb
r
In 2
In
r
1
1
R
1
2 L ha r1
K1
r1
L2
r2
K2
1
.
hb r3
14. Write down one dimensional, steady state conduction equation without internal heat
generation.
2T
0
x 2
15. Write down steady state, two dimensional conduction equation without heat
generation.
2T 2T
0
x 2 y 2
16. Write down the general equation for one dimensional steady state heat transfer in
slab or plane wall without heat generation.
2T 2T 2T 1 T
x 2 y 2 z 2 t
17. Define overall heat transfer co-efficient.

The overall heat transfer by combined modes is usually expressed in terms of an
overall conductance or overall heat transfer co-efficient U.
Heat transfer Q = UA T.
18. Write down the general equation for one dimensional steady state heat transfer in
slab with heat generation.
2T 2T 2T q 1 T

x 2 y 2 z 2 K t
19. What is critical radius of insulation (or) critical thickness.

Critical radius = rc
Critical thickness = rc r1
Addition of insulating material on a surface does not reduce the amount of heat
transfer rate always. In fact under certain circumstances it actually increases the heat loss up
to certain thickness of insulation. The radius of insulation for which the heat transfer is
maximum is called critical radius of insulation, and the corresponding thickness is called
critical thickness.
20. Define fins (or) Extended surfaces.
It is possible to increase the heat transfer rate by increasing the surface of heat
transfer. The surfaces used for increasing heat transfer are called extended surfaces or
sometimes known as fins.
21. State the applications of fins.
The main application of fins are
1.
2.
3.
4.
Cooling of electronic components

Cooling of motor cycle engines.
Cooling of transformers
Cooling of small capacity compressors
22. Define Fin efficiency.

The efficiency of a fin is defined as the ratio of actual heat transfer by the fin to the
maximum possible heat transferred by the fin.
fin
Q fin
Qmax
23. Define Fin effectiveness.

Fin effectiveness is the ratio of heat transfer with fin to that without fin
Q with fin
Fin effectiveness = Q
without fin
24. What is meant by steady state heat conduction?
If the temperature of a body does not vary with time, it is said to be in a steady state
and that type of conduction is known as steady state heat conduction.
25. What is meant by Transient heat conduction or unsteady state conduction?
If the temperature of a body varies with time, it is said to be in a transient state and
that type of conduction is known as transient heat conduction or unsteady state conduction.
26. What is Periodic heat flow?
In periodic heat flow, the temperature varies on a regular basis.
Example:
1. Cylinder of an IC engine.
2. Surface of earth during a period of 24 hours.
27. What is non periodic heat flow?
In non periodic heat flow, the temperature at any point within the system varies non
linearly with time.
Examples :
1. Heating of an ingot in a furnace.
2. Cooling of bars.
28. What is meant by Newtonian heating or cooling process?
The process in which the internal resistance is assumed as negligible in comparison
with its surface resistance is known as Newtonian heating or cooling process.
29. What is meant by Lumped heat analysis?
In a Newtonian heating or cooling process the temperature throughout the solid is
considered to be uniform at a given time. Such an analysis is called Lumped heat capacity
analysis.
30. What is meant by Semi-infinite solids?
In a semi infinite solid, at any instant of time, there is always a point where the effect
of heating or cooling at one of its boundaries is not felt at all. At this point the temperature
remains unchanged. In semi infinite solids, the biot number value is .
31. What is meant by infinite solid?
A solid which extends itself infinitely in all directions of space is known as infinite solid.
In semi infinite solids, the biot number value is in between 0.1 and 100.
0.1 < Bi < 100.
32. Define Biot number.
It is defined as the ratio of internal conductive resistance to the surface convective
resistance.
Bi =
Bi =
Internal conductive resistance

Surface convective resistance
hLL
.
K
33. What is the significance of Biot number?

Biot number is used to find Lumped heat analysis, semi infinite solids and infinite solids
If Bi < 0.1 L Lumped heat analysis
Bi = Semi infinite solids
0.1 < Bi < 100 Infinite solids.
34. Explain the significance of Fourier number.
It is defined as the ratio of characteristic body dimension to temperature wave
penetration depth in time.
Fourier Number =
Characteristic body dimension

Temperature wave penetration
depth in time
It signifies the degree of penetration of heating or cooling effect of a solid.

35. What are the factors affecting the thermal conductivity?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Moisture
Density of material
Pressure
Temperature
Structure of material
36. Explain the significance of thermal diffusivity.

The physical significance of thermal diffusivity is that it tells us how fast heat is
propagated or it diffuses through a material during changes of temperature with time.
37. What are Heisler charts?
In Heisler chart, the solutions for temperature distributions and heat flows in plane
walls, long cylinders and spheres with finite internal and surface resistance are presented.
Heisler charts are nothing but a analytical solutions in the form of graphs.
PART B
1. A wall of 0.6m thickness having thermal conductivity of 1.2 w/Mk. The wall is to be
insulated with a material having an average thermal conductivity of 0.3 W/mK. Inner
and outer surface temperatures are 1000 C and 10C. Heat transfer rate is 1400 W/m 2
calculate the thickness of insulation.
Given Data
Thickness of wall L1 = 0.6 m
Thermal conductivity of wall K1 = 1.2 W/mK.
Thermal conductivity of insulation K2 = 0.3 W/mK.
Inner surface Temperature
T1 = 1000C + 273 = 1273 K
Outer surface Temperature
T3 = 10C + 273 = 283 K
Heat transfer per unit area Q/A = 1400 W/m2.
Solution:
Let the thickness of insulation be L2
We know
Q
Toverall
R
[From equation (13)] (or) [HMT Data book page No. 34]
Where
T = Ta Tb (or) T1 T3
L
L
L
1
1
R
1 2 3
[T1 T3 ]
L1
L
L
1
1
2 3
Heat transfer coefficient ha, hb and thickness L3 are not given. So neglect that terms.
Q=
T1 T3
L1
L
2
K1 A K 2 A
Q T1 T3
A L1 L2
K1 K 2
1273 283
0.6 L2
1.2 0.3
L2 0.0621 m
1400
10
2. The wall of a cold room is composed of three layer. The outer layer is brick 30cm
thick. The middle layer is cork 20 cm thick, the inside layer is cement 15 cm thick. The
temperatures of the outside air is 25C and on the inside air is -20C. The film coefficient for outside air and brick is 55.4 W/m 2K. Film co-efficient for inside air and
cement is 17 W/m2K. Find heat flow rate.
Take
K for brick
= 2.5 W/mK
K for cork
= 0.05 W/mK
K for cement = 0.28 W/mK
Given Data
Thickness of brick L3 = 30 cm = 0.3 m
Thickness of cork L2 = 20 cm = 0.2 m
Thickness of cement L1 = 15 cm = 0.15 m
Inside air temperature Ta = -20C + 273 = 253 K
Outside air temperature Tb = 25C + 273 = 298 K
Film co-efficient for inner side ha = 17 W/m2K
Film co-efficient for outside hb = 55.4 W/m2K
Kbrick = K3 = 2.5 W/mK
Kcork = K2 = 0.05 W/mK.
Kcement = K1 = 0.08 W/mK.
Solution:
Heat flow through composite wall is given by
Q
Toverall
R
Where
T = Ta Tb
L
L
L
1
1
R
1 2 3
11
[Ta Tb ]
L
L1
L
1
1
2 3
Q/ A
Q/ A
Ta Tb
L
L
L
1
1
1 2 3
ha K1 K 2 K3 hb
253 298
1 0.15 0.2 0.3
1
17 0.28 0.05 2.5 55.4
Q / A 9.5 W / m 2
The negative sign indicates that the heat flows from the outside into the cold room.
3. A wall is constructed of several layers. The first layer consists of masonry brick 20
cm. thick of thermal conductivity 0.66 W/mK, the second layer consists of 3 cm thick
mortar of thermal conductivity 0.6 W/mK, the third layer consists of 8 cm thick lime
stone of thermal conductivity 0.58 W/mK and the outer layer consists of 1.2 cm thick
plaster of thermal conductivity 0.6 W/mK. The heat transfer coefficient on the interior
and exterior of the wall are 5.6 W/m 2K and 11 W/m2K respectively. Interior room
temperature is 22C and outside air temperature is -5C.
Calculate
a)
b)
c)
d)
Overall heat transfer coefficient

Overall thermal resistance
The rate of heat transfer
The temperature at the junction between the mortar and the limestone.
Given Data
Thickness of masonry L1 = 20cm = 0.20 m
Thermal conductivity K1 = 0.66 W/mK
Thickness of mortar L2 = 3cm = 0.03 m
Thermal conductivity of mortar K2 = 0.6 W/mK
Thickness of limestone L3 = 8 cm = 0.08 m
Thickness of Plaster L4 = 1.2 cm = 0.012 m
Interior heat transfer coefficient ha = 5.6 W/m2K
Exterior heat transfer co-efficient hb = 11 W/m2K
Interior room temperature Ta = 22C + 273 = 295 K
Outside air temperature Tb = -5C + 273 = 268 K.
Solution:
Heat flow through composite wall is given by
12
Toverall
R
Where
T = Ta Tb
R
L
L
L
L
1
1
1 2 3 4
ha A K1 A K 2 A K 3 A K 4 A hb A
Ta Tb
L1
L2
L
L
1
1
3 4
Q/ A
295 268
1 0.20 0.03 0.08 0.012 1
5.6 0.66 0.6 0.58

0.6 11
Heat transfer per unit area Q/A = 34.56 W/m2
We know
Heat transfer Q = UA (Ta Tb) [From equation (14)]
Where U overall heat transfer co-efficient
U
Q
A (Ta Tb )
34.56
295 268
Overall heat transfer co - efficient U = 1.28 W/m2 K
We know
Overall Thermal resistance (R)
R
L
L
L
L
1
1
1 2 3 4
For unit Area

R
1 L1 L2 L3 L4 1
ha K1 K 2 K 3 K 4 hb
1 0.20 0.03 0.08 0.012 1
56 0.66 0.6 0.58

0.6 11
R 0.78 K / W
=
Interface temperature between mortar and the limestone T3

Interface temperatures relation
13
Ta T1 T1 T2 T2 T3 T3 T4 T4 T5 T5 Tb
Ra
R1
R2
R3
R4
Rb
Ta T1
Ra
Q=
295-T1
1/ ha A
Q Ra
ha A
295 T1
Q/ A
1/ ha
295 T1
1/ 5.6
T1 288.8 K
34.56
T1 T2
R1
288.8 T2
L1
K1 A
Q/ A
Q R1
L1
k1 A
288.8 T2
L1
K1
288.8 T2
0.20
0.66
T2 278.3 K
34.56
Q =
Q
T2 T3
R2
278.3 T3
L2
K2 A
Q/ A
Q R2
L2
K 2 A
278.3 T3
L2
K2
278.3 T3
0.03
0.6
T3 276.5 K
34.56
Temperature between Mortar and limestone (T3 is 276.5 K)
14
4. A steam to liquid heat exchanger area of 25.2 m 2 is constructed with 0.5cm nickel and
0.1 cm plating of copper on the steam sides. The resistivity of a water-scale deposit on
the steam side is 0.0015 K/W. The steam and liquid surface conductance are 5400
W/m2K ad 560 W/m2K respectively. The heated steam is at 110C and heated liquid is at
70C.
Calculate
1. Overall steam to liquid heat transfer co-efficient
2. Temperature drop across the scale deposit
Take
K(Copper) = 350 W/mK and K (Nickel) = 55 W/mK.
Given
Area A = 25.2 m2
Thickness of Nickel L1 = 0.5 cm = 0.5 10-2 m
Thickness of Copper L2 = 0.1 cm = 0.1 10-2 m
Resistivity of scale R3 = 0.0015 K/W
Liquid surface conductance ha = 560 W/m2K
Steam surface conductance hb = 5400 W/m2K
Steam temperature Tb = 110C + 273 = 383 K
Liquid temperature Ta = 70C + 273 = 343 K
K2 (Copper) = 350 W/mK
K1 (Nickel) = 55 W/mK
Solution:
Heat transfer through composite wall is given by
Q
Toverall
R
Where
T = Ta Tb = 343 383 = -40 K
R
L
L
L
1
1
1 2 3
= R a R1 R2 R3 Rb
R3 value is given, R3 = 0.0015 K/W

R
=
L
L
1
1
1 2 0.0015
ha A K1 A K 2 A
hb A
1
0.5 10-2 0.1102
1
+
0.0015
560 25.2
55 25.2 350 25.2
5400 25.2
R 1.58 103 K / W
Q
Toverall
R
15
40
1.58 103
Heat transfer Q = - 25.2 103 W
[-ve sign indicates that the heat flows from, outside to inside]
we know
Heat transfer Q = UA (Ta Tb) [From equation No. (14)]
U=
Q
A(Ta Tb )
25.2 103
25.2 (40)
Overall heat transfer co - efficient U = 25 W/m2 K
Temperature drop (T3 T4) across the scale is given by

Q
T
Rscale
25.2 103
T= T3 T4
T
0.0015
T 37.8C
5. A surface wall is made up of 3 layers one of fire brick, one of insulating brick and one
of red brick. The inner and outer surface temperatures are 900C and 30C
respectively. The respective co-efficient of thermal conductivity of the layers are 1.2,
0.14 and 0.9 W/mK and the thickness of 20cm, 8 cm and 11 cm. Assuming close bonding
of the layers at the interfaces. Find the heat loss per square meter and interface
temperatures.
Given
Inner temperature T1 = 900C + 273 = 1173 K
Outer temperature T4 = 30C + 273 = 303 K
Thermal conductivity of fire brick K1 = 1.2 W/mK
Thermal conductivity of insulating brick K2 = 0.14 W/mK
Thermal conductivity of red brick K3 = 0.9 W/mK
Thickness of fire brick L1 = 20 cm = 0.2 m
Thickness of insulating brick L2 = 8 cm = 0.08 m
Thickness of red brick L3 = 11 cm = 0.11 m
Solution:
(i)
Heat loss per square metre (Q/A)
Heat transfer Q
Toverall
R
[From equation (13)] (or)
Where
= T1 T4
T = Ta Tb
16
[HMT Data book page No. 34]
L
L
L
1
1
1 2 3
Q=
T1 T4
L
L1
L
1
1
2 3
[Convective heat transfer co-efficient ha, hb are not given.

So neglect that terms]
T1 T4
L
L1
L
2 3
K1 A K 2 A K 3 A
Q=
T1 T4
L1 L2 L3
K1 K 2 K3
Q/ A
1173 303
0.2 0.08 0.11
1.2 0.14 0.9
Q / A 1011.2546 W / m 2
(ii) Interface temperatures (T2 and T3)

We know that, interface temperatures relation
Q
T1 T4 T1 T2 T2 T3 T3 T4
......( A)
R
R1
R2
R3
( A) Q
T1 T2
R1
where
R1
L1
K1 A
Q/A =
T1 T2
L1
K1 A
T1 T2
L1
K1
1011.2546
1173 T2
0.2
1.2
T2 1004.457 K
Similarly,
Q
T2 T3
R2
where
17
R2
L2
K2 A
T2 T3
L2
K2 A
Q/A =
T2 T3
L2
K2
1004.457 T3
0.08
0.14
T3 426.597 K
1011.2546
6. A furnace wall made up of 7.5 cm of fire plate and 0.65 cm of mild steel plate. Inside
surface exposed to hot gas at 650C and outside air temperature 27C. The convective
heat transfer co-efficient for inner side is 60 W/m 2K. The convective heat transfer coefficient for outer side is 8W/m 2K. Calculate the heat lost per square meter area of the
furnace wall and also find outside surface temperature.
Given Data
Thickness of fire plate L1 = 7.5 cm = 0.075 m
Thickness of mild steel L2 = 0.65 cm = 0.0065 m
Inside hot gas temperature Ta = 650C + 273 = 923 K
Outside air temperature Tb = 27C + 273 = 300K
Convective heat transfer co-efficient for
Inner side ha = 60W/m2K
Convective heat transfer co-efficient for
Outer side hb = 8 W/m2K.
Solution:
(i)
Heat lost per square meter area (Q/A)
Thermal conductivity for fire plate

K1 = 1035 10-3 W/mK
[From HMT data book page No.11]
Thermal conductivity for mild steel plate
K2 = 53.6W/mK
[From HMT data book page No.1]
Heat flow Q
Toverall
R
Where
T = Ta Tb
18
L
L
L
1
1
1 2 3
Ta Tb
L1
L
L
1
1
2 3
Q=
[The term L3 is not given so neglect that term]

Q=
Ta Tb
L
L
L
1
1
1 2 3
The term L 3 is not given so neglect that term]

Q=
Q/ A
Ta Tb
L1
L
1
1
2
ha A K1 A K 2 A hb A
923 300
1 0.075 0.0065 1
60 1.035
53.6
8
Q / A 2907.79 W / m 2
Outside surface temperature T3
(ii)
We know that, Interface temperatures relation

Q
Ta Tb Ta T1 T1 T2 T2 T3 T3 Tb
......( A)
R
Ra
R1
R2
Rb
( A) Q
T3 Tb
Rb
where
Rb
1
hb A
Q/A =
T3 Tb
1
hb A
T3 Tb
1
hb
T3 300
1
8
T3 663.473 K
2907.79
19
7. A mild steel tank of wall thickness 10mm contains water at 90C. Calculate the rate of
heat loss per m2 of tank surface area when the atmospheric temperature is 15C. The
thermal conductivity of mild steel is 50 W/mK and the heat transfer co-efficient for
inside and outside the tank is 2800 and 11 W/m 2K respectively. Calculate also the
temperature of the outside surface of the tank.
Given Data
Thickness of wall L1 = 10mm = 0.01 m
Inside temperature of water Ta = 90 + 273 = 363 K
Atmospheric temperature Tb = 15C + 273 = 288 K
Heat transfer co-efficient for inside ha = 2800 W/m2K
Heat transfer co-efficient for outside hb = 11 W/m2K
Thermal conductivity of mild steel K = 50 W/mK
To find
Rate of heat loss per m2 of tank surface area (Q/A)
Tank outside surface temperature (T2)
(i)
(ii)
Solution:
Heat loss
Q
Toverall
R
Where
T = Ta Tb
R
L
L
L
1
1
1 2 3
[L3, L2 not given so neglect L2 and L3 terms]

R=
Q=
Q/A =
Q/ A
L
1
1
1
ha A K1 A hb A
Ta Tb
L
1
1
1
ha A K1 A hb A
Ta Tb
1 L1 1
ha K1 hb
363 288
1
0.01 1
2800 50 11
Q / A 819.9 W / m 2
We know
20
Ta Tb Ta T1 T1 T2 T2 Tb
......( A)
R
Ra
R1
Rb
( A) Q
Q
Q/A =
Ta T1
Ra
where R a
1
ha A
363 T1
1
ha A
363 - T1
1
ha
363 T1
1
2800
T1 362.7 K
819.9
( A) Q
Q
Q/A =
T1 T2
R1
where R 1
L1
K1 A
T1 T2
L1
K1 A
T1 T2
L1
K1
362.7 T2
0.01
50
T2 362.5 K
819.9
8. A composite slab is made of three layers 15 cm, 10 cm and 12 cm thickness

respectively. The first layer is made of material with K = 1.45 W/mK, for 60% of the
area and the rest of material with K = 2.5 W/mK. The second layer is made of material
with K = 12.5 W/mK for 50% of area and rest of material with K = 18.5 W/mK. The
third layer is made of single material of K = 0.76 W/mK. The composite slab is exposed
on one side to warn at 26C and cold air at -20C. The inside heat transfer co-efficient is
15 W/m2K. The outside heat transfer co-efficient is 20 W/m 2K determine heat flow rate
and interface temperatures.
Given Data
L1 = 15 cm = 0.15 m
L2 = 10 cm = 0.1 m
L3 = 12 cm = 0.12 m
K1a = 1.45 W/mK,
K1b = 2.5 W/mK
K2a = 12.5 W/mK
K2b = 18.5 W/mK
A1a = .60
A1b = .40
A2a = .50
A2b = .50
21
K3 = 0.76 W/mK
Ta = 26C + 273 = 299 K
Tb = -20C + 273 = 253 K
ha = 15 W/m2K
hb = 20 W/m2K
Solution :
Heat flow Q
Toverall
R
Where
T = Ta Tb
R
=
1 1 L1 L2 L3 1
A ha K1 K 2 K3 hb
L
L
L
1
1
1 2 3
Aa ha A1 K1 A2 K 2 A3 K 3 Ab hb
R = R a R1 R2 R3 Rb
Q =
Ta Tb
....( A)
R a R1 R2 R3 Rb
Where
1
1
Ra
Aa ha 1 15
Ra 0.066 K / W
R1
R1a R1b
R1a R1b
R 1a
.....(1)
L1
0.15
K1a A1a 1.45 0.6
R1a 0.1724 K/W

R1b
L1
0.15
K1b A1b 2.5 0.4
R1b 0.15 K/W
Substitute R1a and R1b value in (1)

0.1724 0.15
0.1724 0.15
R1 0.08 K / W
(1) R1
Similarly,
22
R2
R2 a R2 b
R2 a R2 b
R 2a
.....(2)
L2
0.1
K 2 a A2 a 12.5 0.5
R2 a 0.016 K/W
R 2b
L2
0.1
K 2b A2b 18.5 0.5
R2b 0.0108 K/W
0.016 0.0108
0.016 0.0108
R2 0.0064 K / W
(2) R2
R3
L3
0.12
A3 K 3 1 0.76
Q A 3 1m 2
R3 0.15789 K/W
Rb
1
1
Aa hb 1 20
Q A b 1m 2
Rb 0.05 K/W
299 253
0.066 0.08 0.0064 0.15789 0.05
Q 127.67 W
( A) Q
(ii) Interface temperatures (T1, T2, T3 and T4)

We know
Q
Ta Tb Ta T1 T1 T2 T2 T3
R
Ra
R1
R2
(B) Q
T3 T4
R3
T4 Tb
.....(B)
Rb
Ta T1
Ra
299 T1
0.066
299 T1
127.67
0.066
=
T1 290.57 K
23
T1 T2
R1
(B) Q
290.57 T2
0.08
T2 280.35 K
127.67
(B) Q
T2 T3
R2
280.35 T3
0.0064
T3 279.532 K
127.67
(B) Q
T3 T4
R3
279.532 T4
0.15789
T4 259.374 K
127.67
9. An external wall of a house is made up of 10 cm common brick (K = 0.7 W/mK)

followed by a 4 cm layer of zibsum plaster (K = 0.48 W/mK). What thickness of loosely
packed insulation (K = 0.065 W/mK) should be added to reduce the heat loss through
the wall by 80%.
Given Data
Thickness of brick L1 = 10 cm = 0.1 m
Thermal conductivity of brick K1 = 0.7 W/mK
Thickness of zibsum L2 = 4 cm = 0.04 m
Thermal conductivity of zibsum K2 = 0.48 W/mK
Thermal conductivity of insulation K3 = 0.065 W/mK
To find
Thickness of insulation to reduce the heat loss through the wall by 80% (L3)
Solution:
Heat flow rate Q
Toverall
R
[From HMT data book Page No.34]

Where
R
1 1 L1 L2 L3 1
A ha K1 K 2 K 3 hb
[The terms ha , hb is not given so neglect that terms].

R =
1 L1 L2 L3
A K1 K 2 K 3
24
Considering two slabs

T
Q=
[Assume heat transfer (Q) = 100 W]
L1 L2
K1 K 2
100 =
T
0.1 0.04
0.7 0.48
Q A = 1m 2
T 22.619 K
Heat loss is reduced by 80% due to insulation, so heat transfer is 20 W.

T
1 L1 L2 L3
A K1 K 2 K 3
22.619
20 =
L
1 0.1 0.04
3
1 0.7 0.48 0.065
Q=
[Q A = 1m2 ]
L3 0.0588 m
10. A furnace wall consists of steel plate of 20 mm thick, thermal conductivity 16.2
W/mK lined on inside with silica bricks 150 mm thick with conductivity 2.2 W/mK and
on the outside with magnesia brick 200 mm thick, of conductivity 5.1 W/mK. The inside
and outside surfaces of the wall are maintained at 650C and 150C respectively.
Calculate the heat loss from the wall per unit area. If the heat loss is reduced to
2850W/m2 by providing an air gap between steel and silica bricks, find the necessary
width of air gap if the thermal conductivity of air may be taken as 0.030 W/mK.
Given Data
Steel plate thickness L1 = 20 mm = 0.02 m
Thermal conductivity of steel K1 = 16.2 W/mK
Thickness of the silica L2 = 150 mm = 0.150 m
Thermal conductivity of silica K2 = 2.2 W/mK
Thickness of the magnesia L3 = 200 mm = 0.2 m
Thermal conductivity of magnesia K3 = 5.1 W/mK
Inner surface temperature T1 = 650C + 273 = 923
Outer surface temperature T4 = 150C + 273 = 423 K
Heat loss reduced due to air gap is 2850 W/m2
Thermal conductivity of the air gap Kair = 0.030 W/mK
Solution :
Heat transfer through composite wall is given by [without considering air gap]
25
T
R
Where
T = T1 T4
R
L
L
L
1
1
1 2 3
Q=
T1 T4
L
L1
L
1
1
2 3
Neglecting unknown terms (ha and hb)

Q=
T1 T4
L
L1
L
2 3
K1 A K 2 A K 3 A
923 423
0.02
0.150
0.2
16.2 1 2.2 1 5.1 1

500
Q=
0.1086
Q A = 1m 2
Q 4602.6 W / m 2
Heat loss is reduced to 2850 W/m2 due to air gap. So the new thermal resistance is
T1
Rnew
T T
2850 1 4
Rnew
Q
923 423
2850
0.1754 K/W
Rnew
Rnew
Thermal resistance of air gap

Rair = Rnew R
= 0.1754 0.1086
QR
Rair
L
L1
L
2 3 0.1086
K1 A K 2 A K 3 A
0.066 K/W
We know
Rair
Lair
K air A
0.066
Lair
0.030 1
Q A = 1m 2
L air 1.98 10 3 m
Thickness of the air gap = 1.98 10-3 m
26
11. A thick walled tube of stainless steel [K = 77.85 kJ/hr mC] 25 mm ID and 50 mm
OD is covered with a 25 mm layer of asbestos [K = 0.88 kJ/hr mC]. If the inside wall
temperature of the pipe is maintained at 550C and the outside of the insulator at 45C.
Calculate the heat loss per meter length of the pipe.
Given Data
Inner diameter of steel d1 = 25 mm
Inner radius r1 = 12.5 mm 0.0125 m
Outer diameter D2 = 50 mm
Outer radius r2 = 25 mm 0.025 m
Radius r3 = r2 + 25 mm = 50 mm 0.05 m
Thermal conductivity of stainless steel
K1 = 77.85 kJ/hr mC =
77.85
3600
kJ/sec mC
= 0.0216 kJ/sec mC 0.0216 kW/mC

K1 21.625 W / mC
Similarly,
Thermal conductivity of asbestos K2 = 0.88 kJ/hr mC
K 2 0.244 W / mC
Ta 550C
Tb 45C
Solution :
Heat flow through composite cylinder is given by
Q
Toverall
R
[From equation No.(19) or HMT

data book Page No.35]
Where
T = Ta Tb
r
In 2
r
1 1
R
1
2 L h a r1
K1
r3
In

r2 1
K2
hb r3
Convective heat transfer co-efficient are not given so neglect ha and hb terms.
27
Q =
Ta Tb
r2
r3
In
In

1
r1 r2
2 L K1
K2
Ta Tb
Q/L =
r2
r3
In
In

1
r1 r2
2 K1
K2
550 - 45
Q/L =
0.05
0.025

In
In
0.025

1
0.0125
2
21.625
0.244
Q / L 1103.9 W/m
12. A steel tube (K = 43.26 W/mK) of 5.08 cm inner diameter and 7.62 cm outer
diameter is covered with 2.5 cm layer of insulation (K = 0.208 W/mK) the inside surface
of the tube receivers heat from a hot gas at the temperature of 316C with heat transfer
co-efficient of 28 W/m2K. While the outer surface exposed to the ambient air at 30C
with heat transfer co-efficient of 17 W/m2K. Calculate heat loss for 3 m length of the
tube.
Given
Steel tube thermal conductivity K1 = 43.26 W/mK
Inner diameter of steel d1 = 5.08 cm = 0.0508 m
Inner radius r1 = 0.0254 m
Outer diameter of steel d2 = 7.62 cm = 0.0762 m
Outer radius r2 = 0.0381 m
Radius r3 = r2 + thickness of insulation
Radius r3 = 0.0381 + 0.025 m
r3 = 0.0631 m
Thermal conductivity of insulation K2 = 0.208 W/mK
Hot gas temperature Ta = 316C + 273 = 589 K
Ambient air temperature Tb = 30C + 273 = 303 K
Heat transfer co-efficient at inner side ha = 28 W/m2K
Heat transfer co-efficient at outer side hb = 17 W/m2K
Length L = 3 m
Solution :
Heat flow Q
Toverall
R
28
Where
T = Ta Tb
r
1
1
1 r3
In 2
In

K 2 r2
h a r1 K1 r1
Ta Tb
Q =
r
1 1
1
1
In 2
In
2 L h a r1 K1 r1
K 2
R
1
2 L
r
1
1
In 4
K 3 r3
hb r4
r4
r3
1
1
r K In r h r
2
3
3
b 4
[The terms K3 and r4 are not given, so neglect that terms]

Q =
Q =
Ta Tb
r
1 1
1
1
In 2
In
2 L h a r1 K1 r1
K 2
r3
1
r h r
2
b 3
1
1
In
2 3 28 0.0254 43.26
589 - 303
0.0381
1 0.0631
1
+
In
0.0254
0.208 0.0381
17 0.0631
Q 1129.42 W
Heat loss Q = 1129.42 W.

13. A hollow sphere (K = 65 W/mK) of 120 mm inner diameter and 350 mm outer
diameter is covered 10 mm layer of insulation (K = 10 W/mK). The inside and outside
temperatures are 500C and 50C respectively. Calculate the rate of heat flow through
this sphere.
Given
Thermal conductivity of sphere K1 = 65 W/mK
Inner diameter of sphere d1 = 120 mm
Radius r1 = 60 mm = 0.060 m
Outer diameter of sphere d2 = 350 mm
Radius r2 = 175 mm = 0.175 m
R3 = 0.175 + 0.010
r3 0.185m
Thermal conductivity of insulation K2 = 10 W/mK

Inside temperature Ta = 500C + 273 = 773 K
Outside temperature Tb = 50C + 273 = 323 K
Solution:
29
Heat loss through hollow sphere is given by

Q
Toverall
R

data book Page No.34 & 35]
Where
T = Ta Tb
1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1

2
K 2 r2 r3
hb r32
h a r1 K1 r1 r2
Ta Tb
Q =
1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1
2
4 h a r1 K1 r1 r2
K 2 r2 r3
hb r32
R
1
4
ha, hb not given so neglect that terms.

Q
Ta Tb
1 1
1 1 1

k2 r2 r3
r1 r2
773 -323
1 1 1
1
1
1
1

4 65 0.060 0.175
10
0.175
0.185

1
4
K1
Q = 28361 W
Heat transfer = Q = 28361 W

= 0.0455 + 90 10-3 m
r3 = 0.1355 m
= 0.1355 + 40 10-3 m
r4 = 0.1755 m
Thermal conductivity of pipe K1 = 47 W/mK
Thermal conductivity of insulation (I) K2 = 0.5 W/mK
Thermal conductivity of insulation (II) K3 = 0.25 W/mK
Outside temperature T4 = 20C + 273 = 293 K
Solution :
Heat flow through composite cylinder is given by
Q
Toverall
R

Where
30
r
r
r3
In 4
In 2
In
r
r
r
1 1
1
R
1 2 3
2 L h a r1
K1
K2
K 3 hb r4
T1 T4
Q =
r
r
r3
In 2
In
In 4
r
r
r
1 1
1
1 2 3
2 L h a r1
K1
K2
K3
hb r4
Heat transfer coefficients ha,h are not given.

b
So neglect that terms.
T1 T4
Q=
Q =
In
2 L
r
r2
r3
In 4
In
In

1
r1 r2 r3
2 L K1
K2
K3
523 - 293
0.0455
0.1755
0.1355
In
0.0455
In 0.1355
0.040
47
0.5
0.25
Q / L 448.8 W/m
Heat transfer Q/L = 448.8 W/m.

14. A hollow sphere has inside surface temperature of 300C and then outside surface
temperature of 30C. If K = 18 W/mK. Calculate (i) heat lost by conduction for inside
diameter of 5 cm and outside diameter of 15 cm (ii) heat lost by conduction, if equation
for a plain wall area is equal to sphere area.
Given Data :
T1 = 300C + 273 = 573 K
T2 = 30C + 273 = 303 K
K1 = 18 W/mK
d1 = 5 cm = 0.05 m
r1 = 0.025 m
d2 = 15 cm = 0.15 m
r2 = 0.075 m
31
Solution:
(i) Heat lost (Q)
Heat flow Q
Toverall
R
[From HMT data book Page
No.34 & 35]

Where
1
1 1 1
1

2
K1 r1 r2
hb r2 2
h a r1
T1 T2
Q =
1 1
1 1 1
1

2
4 h a r1
K1 r1 r2
hb r2 2
R
1
4
[The terms ha, hb not given so neglect that terms].

Q
T1 T2
1 1

r1 r2
573 -303
Q=
1 1 1
1
4 18 0.025 0.075
1
4
K1
Q = 2290.22 W
(ii) Heat loss (If the area is equal to the plain wall area) Q1
L = r 2 r1
= 0.075 0.025
L 0.05 m
A1 A2
2
4 r12 4 r2 2
=
2
Q A = 4 r 2
A 2 (r 21 r 2 2 )
We know
Q1
T
R
32
Q1
T1 T2
L
KA
Q R= KA for plain wall
T1 T2
L
Q1
K1 2 r12 r 2 2
Q1
573 - 303
0.05
18 2 (0.0252 0.0752 )
Q1 3817.03W
Derive an expression of Critical Radius of Insulation For A Cylinder.

Consider a cylinder having thermal conductivity K. Let r 1 and r0 inner and outer radii
of insulation.
Q
Heat transfer
Ti T
r
In 0
r1
2 KL
[From equation No.(3)]
Considering h be the outside heat transfer co-efficient.

Q =
Ti T
r
In 0
r1 1
2 KL A 0h
Here A 0 2 r0L
Q
Ti T
r
In 0
r1 1
2 KL 2 r0Lh
To find the critical radius of insulation, differentiate Q with respect to r 0 and equate it
to zero.
33
dQ
dr0
1
1
2
2 KLr0 2 hLr0
r
1
1
In 0
2 KL r1
2 hLr0
0 (Ti T )
since (Ti T ) 0
1
1
0
2 KLr0 2 hLr0 2
r0
K
rc
h
15. A wire of 6 mm diameter with 2 mm thick insulation (K = 0.11 W/mK). If the

convective heat transfer co-efficient between the insulating surface and air is 25 W/m 2L,
find the critical thickness of insulation. And also find the percentage of change in the
heat transfer rate if the critical radius is used.
Given Data
d1= 6 mm
r1 = 3 mm = 0.003 m
r2 = r1 + 2 = 3 + 2 = 5 mm = 0.005 m
K = 0.11 W/mK
hb = 25 W/m2K
Solution:
1. Critical radius rc
rc
K
h
0.11
4.4 10 3 m
25
rc 4.4 10 3 m
Critical thickness = rc r1
4.4 10 3 0.003
1.4 103 m
Critical thickness t c = 1.4 10 -3 (or) 1.4 mm
2. Heat transfer through an insulated wire is given by

Ta Tb
Q1
r2
In
1 r1
1
2 L K1
hbr2
34
From HMT data book Page No.35

=
2 L (Ta Tb )
0.005
1
0.003
0.11
25 0.005
In

Q1 =
2 L (Ta Tb )
12.64
Heat flow through an insulated wire when critical radius is used is given by
Q2
Ta Tb
rc
In
1 r1
1
2 L K1
hbrc
r2 rc
2 L (Ta Tb )
4.4 10 3
In
1
0.003
0.11
25 4.4 10 3
2 L (Ta Tb )
Q2 =
12.572
=
Percentage of increase in heat flow by using

Q2 Q1
100
Q1
1
1
100
12.57
12.64
1
12.64
0.55%
Critical radius =
Internal Heat Generation Formulae used

For plane wall :
qL
1. Surface temperature Tw T
2h
qL2
2. Maximum temperature Tmax Tmax
8K
35
where
T - Fluid temperature, K
q - Heat generation, W/m3
L Thickness, m
h - Heat transfer co-efficient, W/m2K
K Thermal conductivity, W/mK.
For Cylinder
Q
1. Heat generation q
V
2. Maximum temperature Tmax Tw
3. Surface temperature Tw T
qr 2
4K
rq
2h
Where
V Volume - r2 L
r radius m
For sphere
1. Temperature at the centre Tc Tw
qr 2
6K
16. A current of 200 A is passed through a stainless steel wire (K = 19 W/mK) 3 mm in

diameter. The resistivity of the steel may be taken as 70 cm and the length of the
wire is submerged in a liquid at 110C with heat transfer co-efficient h = 4 kW/m 2C.
Calculate the centre temperature of the wire.
Given
Current A = 200 A
Thermal conductivity K = 19 W/mK
Diameter d = 3 mm = 3 10-3 m
Resistivity = 70 - cm
Liquid temperature Tw = 110C + 273 = 383 K
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 4 kW/m2C
= 4 10-3 W/m2C
Solution:
The maximum temperature in the wire occurs at the centre.
qr 2
Tmax Tc Tw
........(A) [From Equation No.12]
4K
36
Resistivity Length
Area
-6
2
70 10 10 1
=
3 103 2
4
Re sis tance of wire R =
R 0.099
We know that
Q = I2R
= (200)2 (0.099)
Q = 3960 W
Q
3960
Heat generated q V
d2 L
4
3960
q
3 103 2 1
4
q 560 106 W / m3
Substituting q value in Equation (A)

Tmax Tc 383
560 106 (1.5 10 3 )2

4 19
Tc 399.5 K
17. A sphere of 100 mm diameter, having thermal conductivity of 0.18 W/mK. The outer
surface temperature is 8C and 250 W/m2 of energy is released due to heat source.
Calculate
1. Heat generated
2. Temperature at the centre of the sphere.
Given
Diameter of sphere d = 100 mm
r = 50 mm = 0.050 m
Thermal conductivity K = 0.18 W/mK
Surface temperature Tw = 8C + 273 = 281 K
Energy released Q = 250 W/m2
Solution:
Heat generated q
Q
V
37
q/ A
Q/A
V
q/ A
Q/A
V
q/ A
250
4 / 3 r 3
Here Q/A = 250 W/m 2
q
250
2
4 r
4 / 3 r 3
Here Q/A = 250 W/m 2
250 4 (0.050)2
4 / 3 (0.50)3
q = 15,000 W/m3
Temperature at the centre of the sphere

qr 2
Tc Tw
[From Equation No.16]
6K
15000 (0.050)2
= 281 +
6 0.18
Tc 315.7 K
18. One end of the long solid rod of 50 mm diameter is inserted into a furnace with the
other end is projecting the atmosphere at 25C. Once the steady state is reached, the
temperature of the rod is measured at two points 20 cm apart are found to be 150 C
and 100C. The convective heat transfer co-efficient between the rod and the
surrounding air is 30 W/m2K. Calculate the thermal conductivity of the rod material.
Given Data:
Atmospheric Temperature T = 25C + 273 = 298 K
Distance x = 20 cm = 0.20 m
Base temperature Tb = 150C + 273 = 423 K
Intermediate temperature T = 100C + 273 = 373 K
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 30 W/m2K.
Solution:
Since the rod is long, it is treated as long fin. So, temperature distribution
T T
e mx
[From HMT data book (CPK)
Tb T
Page No.41]
38
373 - 298
e m(0.20)
423 - 298
0.6 = e -m (0.20)
In (0.6)= -m (0.20)
- 0.51 = -m (0.20)
m = 2.55 m-1
We know that,
hP
m
KA
[From HMT data book

(CPK) Page No.41]
hP
.............(A)
KA
h heat transfer co-efficient = 30 W/m2K
P Perimeter = d = 0.050
P 0.157 m
A Area d2
4
= (0.050)2
4
2.55 =
A 1.96 10 3 m2
30 0.157
K 1.96 10 3
30 0.157
6.50 =
K 1.96 10 -3
(A) 2.55
K = 369.7 W/mK
19. An aluminium alloy fin of 7 mm thick and 50 mm long protrudes from a wall, which
is maintained at 120C. The ambient air temperature is 22C. The heat transfer
coefficient and conductivity of the fin material are 140 W/m 2K and 55 W/mK
respectively. Determine
1. Temperature at the end of the fin.
2. Temperature at the middle of the fin.
3. Total heat dissipated by the fin.
Given
Thickness t = 7mm = 0.007 m
Length L= 50 mm = 0.050 m
39

Ambient temperature T = 22 + 273 = 295 K
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 140 W/m2K
Thermal conductivity K = 55 W/mK.
Solution:
Length of the fin is 50 mm. So, this is short fin type problem. Assume end is
insulated.
We know
Temperature distribution [Short fin, end insulated]
T T cos h m [L -x]
.......(A)
Tb T
cos h (mL)

(i) Temperature at the end of the fin, Put x = L
T - T cos h m [L-L]
Tb T
cos h (mL)
(A)
T - T
1
Tb T cos h (mL)
...(1)
where
hP
KA
P = Perimeter = 2 L (Approx)
m=
= 2 0.050
P = 0.1 m
A Area = Length thickness = 0.050 0.007
A 3.5 10 4 m2
m=
hP
KA
140 0.1
55 3.5 10 4
m 26.96
40
(1)
T - T
1
Tb T cos h (26.9 0.050)
T - T
1
Tb T 2.05
T - 295
1
393 - 295 2.05

T - 295 = 47.8
T = 342.8 K
Temperature at the end of the fin Tx L 342.8 K
(ii) Temperature of the middle of the fin,

Put x = L/2 in Equation (A)
T - T cos hm [L-L/2]
(A)
Tb T
cos h (mL)
0.050
cos h 26.9 0.050 T - T

2
Tb T
cos h 26.9 (0.050)
T- 295
1.234
393 - 295 2.049

T - 295
0.6025
393 -295
T 354.04 K
Temperature at the middle of the fin
Tx L / 2 354.04 K
(iii) Total heat dissipated

Q = (hPKA)1/2 (Tb T )tan h (mL)
[140 0.1 55 3.5 10 -4 ]1/ 2 (393 295)
tan h (26.9 0.050)
Q = 44.4 W
20. Ten thin brass fins (K = 100 W/mK), 0.75 mm thick are placed axially on a 1 m long
and 60 mm diameter engine cylinder which is surrounded by 35C. The fins are
extended 1.5 cm from the cylinder surface and the heat transfer co-efficient between
cylinder and atmospheric air is 15 W/m 2K. Calculate the rate of heat transfer and the
temperature at the end of fins when the cylinder surface is at 160C.
41
Given
Number of fins = 10
Thickness of the fin t = 0.75 mm = 0.75 10-3 m
Length of engine cylinder = 1m
Diameter of the cylinder d = 60 mm = 0.060 m
Atmosphere temperature T = 35C + 273 = 300 K
Length of the fin L = 1.5 cm = 1.5 10-2 m
Cylinder surface temperature
i.e. Base temperature Tb = 160C + 273 = 433 K
Solution
Assuming that the fin end is insulated and length of the fin is 1.5 cm. So this is short
fin end insulated type problem.
We know
Heat transferred Q = (hPKA)1/2 (Tb - T) tan h (mL).(A)
Where
P Perimeter = 2 Length of the cylinder
=21
P 2m
A = Area = length of the cylinder thickness

= 1 0.75 10-3 m
A 0.75 10 3 m2
m
=
hP
KA
15 2
100 0.75 10 -3
m 20
Q = (hPKA)1/2 (Tb T ) tan h (mL)
[15 2 100 0.75 10 3 ]1/ 2 (433 300)

tan h (20 1.5 10 2 )
Q = 1.5 133 0.29
Q = 58.1 W
Heat transferred per fin = 58.1 W

The heat transfer for 10 fins = 58.1 10
Q1 581 W
....(B)
42
Heat transfer from unfinned surface due to convection is

Q2 h A T
= h ( dL - 10 t L) (Tb T )
[Q Area of unfinned surface = Area of cylinder - Area of
fin]
= 15 [ 0.060 1] [10 0.75 10 3 1.5 10 2 ]
[433 - 300]
Q2 375.8 W ..........(C)
So, Total heat transfer Q = Q1 + Q2

Q = 581 + 375.8
Total heat transfer Q 956.8 W
We know that,
Temperature distribution [short fin, end insulated]
T T
cos h m [L-x]
Tb T
cos h (mL)

Temperature at the end of fin, so put x = L
21. Aluminium fins 1.5 cm wide and 10 mm thick are placed on a 2.5 cm diameter tube
to dissipate the heat. The tube surface temperature is 170C ambient temperature is
20C. Calculate the heat loss per fin. Take h = 130 W/m 2 C and K = 200 W/m 2 C for
aluminium.
Given
Wide of the fin b = 1.5 cm = 1.5 10-2 m
Thickness t = 10 mm = 10 10-3 m
Diameter of the tube d = 2.5 cm = 2.5 10-2 m
Surface temperature Tb = 170C + 273 = 443 K
Ambient temperature T = 20C + 273 = 293 K
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 130 W/m2 C
Thermal conductivity K = 200 W/mC
Solution
Assume fin end is insulated, so this is short fin end insulated type problem.
Heat transfer [short fin, end insulated]
Q = (hPKA)1/2 (Tb - T) tan h (mL) ..(1)
Where
A Area = Breadth thickness
43
1.5 102 10 10 3
A 1.5 104 m2
P Perimeter 2(b t)
= 2[(1.5 10 2 ) (10 10 3 )]
P = 0.05 m
m=
=
hP
KA
130 0.05
200 1.5 10-4
m = 14.7 m -1
(1) Q = [130 0.05 200 1.5 10 4 ]1/ 2

(443-293) tan h (14.7 1.5 10 -2 )
Q 14.3 W
22. A straight rectangular fin has a length of 35 mm, thickness of 1.4 mm. The thermal
conductivity is 55W/mC. The fin is exposed to a convection environment at 20C and h
= 500 W/m2C. Calculate the heat loss for a base temperature of 150C.
Given
Length L = 35 mm = 0.035 m
Thickness t = 1.4 mm = 0.0014 m
Thermal conductivity K = 55 W/mC
Fluid temperature T = 20C + 273 = 293 K
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 500 W/m2K.
Solution
Length of the fin is 35 mm, so this is short fin type problem. Assume end is insulated.
Heat transferred [Short fin, end insulated]
Q = (hPKA)1/2 (Tb - T) tan h (mL) .(1)
Where
P Perimeter = 2 Length (Approximately)
= 2 0.035
P = 0.07 m
A Area = Length thickness
= 0.035 0.0014
A 4.9 10 5 m2
44
hP
KA
500 0.07
55 4.9 10 -5
m = 113.9 m -1
Substituting h, p, K, A, Tb, T, m, L values in equation (1)

(1) Q = [500 0.07 55 4.0 10 -5 ]1/ 2
(423 - 293) tan h (113.9 0.035)
Q = 39.8 W
23. A heating unit made in the form of a cylinder is 6 cm diameter and 1.2 m long. It is
provided with 20 longitudinal fins 3 mm thick which protrude 50 mm from the surface
of the cylinder. The temperature at the base of the fin is 80C. The ambient
temperatures is 25C. The film heat transfer co-efficient from the cylinder and fins to
the surrounding air is 10 W/m2K. Calculate the rate of heat transfer from the finned
wall to the surrounding. Take K = 90 W/mK.
Given
Diameter of the cylinder d = 6 cm = 0.06 m
Length of the cylinder = 1.2 m
Number of fins = 20
Thickness of fin (t) = 3 mm = 0.003 m
Length of fin L = 50 mm = 0.050 m
Ambient temperature T = 25C + 273 = 298 K
Film heat transfer co-efficient h = 10 W/m2K
Thermal conductivity K = 90 W/mK.
Solution
Length of the fins is 50 mm. Assume end is insulated. So this is short fin end insulated
type problem.
We know
Heat transferred [short fin, end insulated]
Q = (hPKA)1/2 (Tb - T) tan h (mL) ..(1)
[From HMT data book Page No. 41]
Where
P Perimeter = 2 Length of the cylinder
45
= 2 1.2
P 2.4 m
A Area = Length of the cylinder thickness of fin
= 1.2 0.003
A 3.6 10 3 m2
m
hP
KA
10 2.4
90 3.6 10 -3
m = 8.6 m -1
(1) Q = [10 2.4 90 3.6 10 3 ]1/ 2

(353 - 298) tan h (8.6 0.050)
Q 62.16 W
Heat transferred per fin = 62.16 W
Number of fins = 20
So, Total heat transferred Q1 = 62.16 20
Q1 = 1243.28 W
Heat transfer from unfinned surface due to convection is Q2 = h A T
h dL 20 t L (Tb T )
[Q Area of unfinned surface = Area of cylinder - Area

of fin]
= 10 [ 0.06 1.2 - 20 0.003 0.050]
[353 - 298]
Q2 122.75 W
So,
Total heat transfer Q = Q1 + Q2
Q = 1243.28 + 122.75
Total heat transfer Q 1366 W
24. An aluminium cube 6 cm on a side is originally at a temperature of 500C. It is

suddenly immersed in a liquid at 10C for which h is 120 W/m2K. Estimate the time
46
required for the cube to reach a temperature of 250C. For aluminium = 2700 kg/m3,
C = 900 J/kg K, K = 204 W/mK.
Given
Thickness of cube L = 6 cm = 0.06 m
Initial temperature T0 = 500C + 273 = 773 K
Final temperature T = 10C + 273 = 283 K
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 120 w/m2K
Density = 2700 kg/m3
Specific heat C = 900 J/Kg k
Solution
For Cube,
Characteristic length Lc
L
6
0.06
6
Lc 0.01 m
We know
hL c
K
120 0.01
204
Bi = 5.88 10 3 0.1
Biot number Bi
Biot number value is less than 0.1. So this is lumped heat analysis type problem
For lumped parameter system,
hA
T T
C V
e
....(1)
T0 T
We know,
V
Characteristics length Lc
A
47
T-T
C L
(1)
e c
T0 T
120
523 - 283
e 9000.012700
773 - 283
-120
In (0.489) =
t
900 0.01 2700
t = 144.86 s
Time required for the cube to reach 250C is 144.86 s.

25. A copper plate 2 mm thick is heated up to 400C and quenched into water at 30C.
Find the time required for the plate to reach the temperature of 50C. Heat transfer coefficient is 100 W/m2K. Density of copper is 8800 kg/m 3. Specific heat of copper = 0.36
kJ/kg K.
Plate dimensions = 30 30 cm.
Given
Thickness of plate L = 2 mm = 0.002 m
Specific heat C= 360 J/kg k
Plate dimensions = 30 30 cm
To find
Time required for the plate to reach 50C.
Solution:
Thermal conductivity of the copper K = 386 W/mK
For slab,
L
Characteristic length Lc
2
0.002
=
2
L c 0.001 m
We know,
48
hL c
K
100 0.001
386
Bi = 2.59 10 4 0.1
Biot number Bi
Biot number value is less than 0.1. So this is lumped heat analysis type problem.
hA
T T
C V
.(1)
e
T0 T
We know,
V
Characteristics length Lc =
A
T-T
C L
(1)
e c
T0 T
100
323 - 303
e 3600.0018800
673 - 303
t = 92.43 s
Time required for the plate to reach 50C is 92.43 s.

26. A 12 cm diameter long bar initially at a uniform temperature of 40 C is placed in a
medium at 650C with a convective co-efficient of 22 W/m2K. Determine the time
required for the center to reach 255C. For the material of the bar, K = 20 W/mK,
Density = 580 kg/m3, specific heat = 1050 J/kg K.
Given:
Diameter of bar, D = 12 cm = 0.12 m
Radius of bar, R = 6 cm = 0.06 m
Density = 580 kg/m3
Specific heat C = 1050 J/kg k
Solution
For cylinder,
49
Characteristic Length Lc
=
R
2
0.06
2
Lc 0.03 m
We know,
hL c
K
22 0.03
20
Biot number Bi
Bi = 0.033 < 0.1

hA
T T
C V
.(1)
e
T0 T
We know,
V
A
T-T
C L
(1)
e c
T0 T
22t
528 - 923
e 10500.03580
313 - 923
t = 360.8 s
Time required for the cube to reach 255C is 360.8 s.

27. A steel ball (specific heat = 0.46 kJ/kgK. and thermal conductivity = 35 W/mK)
having 5 cm diameter and initially at a uniform temperature of 450C is suddenly
placed in a control environment in which the temperature is maintained at 100C.
Calculate the time required for the balls to attained a temperature of 150C. Take h =
10W/m2K.
Given
Specific heat C = 0.46 kJ/kg K = 460 J/kg K
Diameter of the sphere D = 5 cm = 0.05 m
Radius of the sphere R = 0.025 m
50

To find
Time required for the ball to reach 150C
Solution
Density of steel is 7833 kg/m3
7833 kg / m3
For sphere,
R
3
0.025
3
Lc 8.33 10 3 m
We know,
hL c
K
10 8.3 10 3
35
Biot number Bi
Bi = 2.38 10-3 < 0.1

hA
T T
C V
e
T0 T
.(1)

We know,
V
A
T-T
C L
(1)
e c
T0 T
10
423 - 373
3
e 4608.3310 7833
723 - 373
423 - 373
10
In
t
723 - 373 460 8.33 10 3 7833
t = 5840.54 s
Time required for the ball to reach 150C is 5840.54 s.

28. An aluminium sphere mass 5.5 kg and initially at a temperature of 290 o is suddenly
51
immersed in a fluid at 15C with heat transfer co-efficient 58 W/m 3K. Estimate the time
required to cool the aluminium to 95C. For aluminium take = 2700 kg/m3, C = 900
J/kg K, K = 205 W/mK.
Given
Mass, m = 5.5 kg
Intermediate temperature T = 95C + 273 =368 K
Specific heat C = 900 J/kg K.
Solution
We know,
mass
m
volume V
m
V=
5.5
=
2700
Density =
V 2.037 10 3 m3
We know,
4
R3
3
3V 3 2.03 10 3
R3
4
4
R 0.0786 m
Volume of sphere V
For sphere,
R
3
0.0786
=
3
L c 0.0262 m
We know,
hL c
K
58 0.0262
205
Biot number Bi
52
Bi = 7.41 10-3 < 0.1

hA
T T
C V
e
T0 T
.(1)

We know,
V
A
T-T
C L
(1)
e c
T0 T
58
368 - 288
e 9000.02622700
563 - 288
58
368 - 288
In
900 0.0262 2700

563 - 288
t = 1355.36 s
Time required to cool the aluminium to 95C is 1355.6 s.

29. Alloy steel ball of 2 mm diameter heated to 800C is quenched in a bath at 100C.
The material properties of the ball are K = 205 kJ/m hr K, = 7860 kg/m3, C = 0.45
kJ/kg K, h = 150 KJ/ hr m 2 K. Determine (i) Temperature of ball after 10 second and (ii)
Time for ball to cool to 400C.
Given
Diameter of the ball D = 12 mm = 0.012 m
Radius of the ball R = 0.006m
Thermal conductivity K = 205 kJ/m hr K
205 1000J
3600 s mK
56.94 W / mK
[ Q J/s = W]
3
Density = 7860 kg/m
Specific heat C = 0.45 kJ/kg K
= 450 J/kg K
53
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 150 kJ/hr m2 K

150 1000J
3600 s m2K
41.66 W / m2K
Solution
Case (i) Temperature of ball after 10 sec.
For sphere,
R
3
0.006
=
3
L c 0.002 m
We know,
hL c
K
41.667 0.002
56.94
Biot number Bi
Bi = 1.46 10-3 < 0.1

hA
T T
C V
.(1)
e
T0 T
We know,
V
A
T-T
C L
(1)
e c
T0 T
41.667
..........(2)
10
T - 373
e 4500.0027860
1073 - 373
T = 1032.95 K
Case (ii) Time for ball to cool to 400C

T = 400C + 273 = 673 K
54
T-T
C L
(2)
e c
T0 T
41.667
.......(2)
673 - 373
e 4500.0027860
1073 - 373
41.667
673 - 373
In
450 0.002 7860

1073 - 373
t = 143.849 s
30. A large wall 2 cm thick has uniform temperature 30C initially and the wall
temperature is suddenly raised and maintained at 400C. Find
1. The temperature at a depth of 0.8 cm from the surface of the wall after 10 s.
2. Instantaneous heat flow rate through that surface per m2 per hour.
Take = 0.008 m2/hr, K = 6 W/mC.
Given
Thickness L = 2 cm = 0.02 m
Initial temperature Ti = 30C + 273 = 303 K
Surface temperature T0 = 400C + 273 = 673 K
Thermal diffusivity = 0.008 m2/h
= 2.22 10-6 m2/s
Thermal conductivity K = 6 W/mC.
Case (i)
Depth 0.8 cm = 0.8 10-2 m
= 0.008 m
Time t = 10 s
Case (ii)
Time t = 1 h = 3600 s
Solution
In this problem heat transfer co-efficient h is not given. So take it as . i.e. h .

We know that,
hLc
Biot number Bi =
K
h=
Bi
Bi value is . So this is semi infinite solid type problem.
55
Case (i)
For semi infinite solid.
Tx T0
x
erf
Ti T0
2 at
Tx T0
erf (X) .......(1)

Ti T0
Where,
x
X
2 at
Put x = 0.008 m, t = 10 s, = 2.22 10-6 m2/s.
X=
0.008
2 2.22 10 -6 10
X = 0.848
X = 0.848, corresponding erf (X) is 0.7706
erf (X) = 0.7706

[Refer HMT data book Page No.52]
(1)
Tx -T0
0.7706
Ti T0
Tx - 673
0.7706
303 - 673
T - 673
x
0.7706
- 370
Tx = 387.85 K
Case (ii)
Instantaneous heat flow
qx
K T0 Ti
a t
x 2
4 t
56
t = 3600 s (Given)
qx
6 (673 303)
2.22 10-6 3600
6
42.2210 3600
(0.008)2
qx 13982.37 W / m2
Intermediate temperature Tx = 387.85 K
Heat flux qx = 13982.37 W/m2.
31. A large cast iron at 750C is taken out from a furnace and its one of its surface is
suddenly lowered and maintained at 45C. Calculate the following:
1. The time required to reach the temperature 350C at a depth of 45 mm from the
surface.
2. Instantaneous heat flow rate at a depth of 45 mm and on surface after 30
minutes.
3. Total heat energy after 2 hr for ingot,
Take = 0.06 m2/hr, K = 48.5 W/mK.
Given
Surface temperature T0 = 45C + 273 = 318 K
Intermediate temperature Tx = 350C + 273 = 623 K
Depth x = 45 mm = 0.045 m
Thermal diffusivity = 0.06 m2/hr = 1.66 10-5 m2/s
Thermal conductivity K = 48.5 W/mK.
Solution
In this problem heat transfer co-efficient h is not given. So take it as , i.e. h .
We know that,
Biot number Bi =
hLc
K
h=
Bi
Bi value is . So this is semi infinite solid type problem.
1. For semi infinite solid.
57
Tx T0
x
erf
Ti T0
2 at
Tx T0
erf (X) where,
Ti T0
x
X
2 at
623 318
erf (X)
1023 318
0.432 = erf (X)
erf (X) = 0.432
erf (X) = 0.432, corresponding X is 0.41
X 0.41
We know
x
2 at
0.045
0.41 =
2 1.66 10-5 t
(0.045)2
2
(0.41)
(2)2 1.66 10 5 t
t = 181.42 s
Time required to reach 350C is 181.42 s.
2. Instantaneous heat flow

qx
K T0 Ti
a t
x 2
4 t

t = 30 minutes (Given)
t = 1800 s
qx
48.5 (318 1023)
1.66 10-5 1800
(0.045)2
5
41.6610 1800
qx 109725.4 W / m2
58
[Negative sign shows that heat lost from the ingot].
3. Total heat energy

q 2K[T0 Ti ]
7200
1.66 10 5
[Time is given, 2 hr = 7200 s]
2 48.5(318 1023)
q 803.5 106 J / m2
[Negative sign shows that heat lost from the ingot]

32. A large steel plate 5 cm thick is initially at a uniform temperature of 400C. It is
suddenly exposed on both sides to a surrounding at 60C with convective heat transfer
co-efficient of 285 W/m2K. Calculate the centre line temperature and the temperature
inside the plate 1.25 cm from themed plane after 3 minutes.
Take K for steel = 42.5 W/mK, for steel = 0.043 m2/hr.
Given
Thickness L = 5 cm = 0.05 m
Distance x = 1.25 mm = 0.0125 m
Time t = 3 minutes = 180 s
Thermal diffusivity = 0.043 m2/hr
= 1.19 10-5 m2/s.
Thermal conductivity K = 42.5 W/mK.
Solution
For Plate :
L
2
0.05
=
2
L c 0.025 m
We know,
59
hL c
K
285 0.025
42.5
Bi 0.1675
Biot number Bi
0.1 < Bi < 100, So this is infinite solid type problem.

Infinite Solids
Case (i)
[To calculate centre line temperature (or) Mid plane temperature for infinite plate,
refer HMT data book Page No.59 Heisler chart].
t
X axis Fourier number = 2
Lc
1.19 10-5 180

(0.025)2
X axis Fourier number = 3.42

Curve
hLc
K
285 0.025
0.167
42.5
Curve
hLc
0.167
K
X axis value is 3.42, curve value is 0.167, corresponding Y axis value is 0.64
Y axis =
T0 T
0.64
Ti T
T0 T
0.64
Ti T
T0 T
0.64
Ti T
T0 333
0.64
673 333
T0 550.6 K
Center line temperature T0 550.6 K
60
Case (ii)
Temperature (Tx) at a distance of 0.0125 m from mid plane
[Refer HMT data book Page No.60, Heisler chart]
hL
X axis Biot number B i c 0.167
K
x 0.0125
Curve
0.5
Lc
0.025
X axis value is 0.167, curve value is 0.5, corresponding Y axis value is 0.97.
Tx T
0.97
T0 T
Y axis =
Tx T
0.97
T0 T
Tx T
0.97
T0 T
Tx 333
0.97
550.6 333
Tx 544 K
Temperature inside the plate 1.25 cm from the mid plane is 544 K.
33. A 10 cm diameter apple approximately spherical in shape is taken from a 20C
environment and placed in a refrigerator where temperature is 5C and average heat
transfer coefficient is 6 W/m2K. Calculate the temperature at the centre of the apple
after a period of 1 hour. The physical properties of apple are density = 998 kg/m 3.
Specific heat = 4180 J/kg K, Thermal conductivity = 0.6 W/mK.
Given:
Diameter of sphere D = 10 cm = 0.10 m
Radius of sphere R = 5 cm = 0.05 m
Time t = 1 hour = 3600 s
Density = 998 kg/m3
Specific heat C = 4180 J/kg K
Thermal conductivity K = 0.6 W/mK
K
0.6
Thermal diffusivity =
C 998 4180
61
1.43 10 7 m2 / s.
Solution
For Sphere,
=
R
3
0.05
3
L c 0.016 m
We know,
hL c
K
6 0.016
0.6
Biot number Bi
Bi 0.16
0.1 < Bi < 100, So this is infinite solid type problem.
Infinite Solids
[To calculate centre line temperature for sphere, refer HMT data book Page No.63].
t
R2
1.43 10-7 3600
=
(0.05)2
X axis =
X axis = 0.20
Curve
hR
K
6 0.05
0.5
0.6
Curve 0.5
X axis value is 0.20, curve value is 0.5, corresponding Y axis value is 0.86.
Y axis =
T0 T
0.86
Ti T
62
T0 T
0.86
Ti T
T0 278
0.86
293 278
T0 290.9 K
Center line temperature T0 = 290.9 K.

34. A long steel cylinder 12 cm diameter and initially at 20C is placed into furnace at
820C with h = 140 W/m2K. Calculate the time required for the axis temperature to
reach 800C. Also calculate the corresponding temperature at a radius of 5.4 cm at that
time. Physical properties of steel are K = 21 W/mK, = 6.11 10-6 m2/s.
Given:
Diameter of cylinder D = 12 cm = 0.12 m
Radius of sphere R = 6 cm = 0.06 m
Axis temperature
(or)
T0 800C 273 1073 K
Centre line temperature
Intermediate radius r = 5.4 cm = 0.054 m
Thermal diffusivity = 6.11 10-6 m2/s.
Thermal conductivity K = 21W/mK
To find
1. Time (t) required for the axis temperature to reach 800C.
2. Corresponding temperature (Tt) at a radius of 5.4 cm.
Solution
For Cylinder,
R 0.06
2
2
Lc 0.03 m
We know,
hLc
K
140 0.03
21
Biot number Bi =
Bi 0.2
63
0.1 < Bi <100, So this is infinite solid type problem.

Infinite Solids
Case (i)
Axis temperature
(or)
Centre line temperature
T0 800 C
To = 800C + 273 = 1073 K

Time (t) ?
[Refer HMT data book Page No.61. Heisler chart]
hR
K
140 0.06
=
0.4
21
Curve
Y axis =
=
T0 T
Ti T
1073 - 1093
293 - 1093
Y axis = 0.025
Curve value is 0.4, Y axis 0.025, corresponding X axis value is 5.
T0 T
0.025
Ti T
t
5
R2
5 (0.06)2
t=
(6.11 10-6 )
X axis =
t 2945.9 s
Case (ii)
Intermediate radius r 5.4 cm = 0.054 m
[Refer HMT data book Page No.62]
64
r 0.054
0.9
R 0.06
hR
X axis =
K
140 0.06
=
0.4
21
Curve
Curve value is 0.9, X axis value is 0.4, corresponding Y axis value is 0.84.
Tr T
0.84
T0 T
Y axis =
Tr T
0.84
T0 T
Tr 1093
0.84
1073 1093
Tr 1076.2 K
1. Time required for the axis temperature to reach 800C is 2945.9 s.

2. Temperature (Tr) at a radius of 5.4 cm is 1076.2 K
65
UNIT II
Introduction
Free convection in atmosphere free convection on a vertical flat plate
Empirical relation in free convection
Forced convection
Laminar and turbulent convective heat transfer analysis in flows
between parallel plates, over a flat plate and in a circular pipe.
Empirical relations,
Application of numerical techniques in problem solving.
66
CONVECTION
PART A
1. What is dimensional analysis?
Dimensional analysis is a mathematical method which makes use of the study of the
dimensions for solving several engineering problems. This method can be applied to all types
of fluid resistances, heat flow problems in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics.
2. State Buckingham theorem.
Buckingham theorem states as Follows: If there are n variables in a dimensionally
homogeneous equation and if these contain m fundamental dimensions, then the variables are
arranged into (n m) dimensionless terms. These dimensionless terms are called terms.
3. What are all the advantages of dimensional analysis?
1. It expresses the functional relationship between the variables in dimensional terms.
2. It enables getting up a theoretical solution in a simplified dimensionless form.
3. The results of one series of tests can be applied to a large number of other similar
problems with the help of dimensional analysis.
4. What are all the limitations of dimensional analysis?
1.
The complete information is not provided by dimensional analysis. It only indicates

that there is some relationship between the parameters.
2. No information is given about the internal mechanism of physical phenomenon.
3. Dimensional analysis does not give any clue regarding the selection of variables.
5. Define Reynolds number (Re).
It is defined as the ratio of inertia force to viscous force.
Inertia force
Re
Viscous force
6. Define prandtl number (Pr).
It is the ratio of the momentum diffusivity of the thermal diffusivity.
67
Pr
Momentum diffusivity
Thermal diffusivity
7. Define Nusselt number (Nu).

It is defined as the ratio of the heat flow by convection process under an unit
temperature gradient to the heat flow rate by conduction under an unit temperature gradient
through a stationary thickness (L) of metre.
Nusselt number (Nu) =
Qconv
.
Qcond
8. Define Grash of number (Gr).

It is defined as the ratio of product of inertia force and buoyancy force to the square of
viscous force.
Gr
Inertia force Buyoyancy force

(Viscous force)2
9. Define Stanton number (St).

It is the ratio of nusselt number to the product of Reynolds number and prandtl
number.
Nu
St
Re Pr
10. What is meant by Newtonion and non Newtonion fluids?
The fluids which obey the Newtons Law of viscosity are called Newtonion fluids and
those which do not obey are called non newtonion fluids.
11. What is meant by laminar flow and turbulent flow?
Laminar flow: Laminar flow is sometimes called stream line flow. In this type of flow, the
fluid moves in layers and each fluid particle follows a smooth continuous path. The fluid
particles in each layer remain in an orderly sequence without mixing with each other.
Turbulent flow: In addition to the laminar type of flow, a distinct irregular flow is frequency
observed in nature. This type of flow is called turbulent flow. The path of any individual
particle is zig zag and irregular. Fig. shows the instantaneous velocity in laminar and
turbulent flow.
12. What is hydrodynamic boundary layer?
In hydrodynamic boundary layer, velocity of the fluid is less than 99% of free stream
velocity.
68
13. What is thermal boundary layer?

In thermal boundary layer, temperature of the fluid is less than 99% of free stream
velocity.
14. Define convection.
Convection is a process of heat transfer that will occur between a solid surface and a
fluid medium when they are at different temperatures.
15. State Newtons law of convection.
Heat transfer from the moving fluid to solid surface is given by the equation
Q = h A (Tw T)
This equation is referred to as Newtons law of cooling.
Where
h Local heat transfer coefficient in W/m2K.
A Surface area in m2
Tw Surface (or) Wall temperature in K
T - Temperature of fluid in K.
16. What is meant by free or natural convection?
If the fluid motion is produced due to change in density resulting from temperature
gradients, the mode of heat transfer is said to be free or natural convection.
17. What is forced convection?
If the fluid motion is artificially created by means of an external force like a blower or
fan, that type of heat transfer is known as forced convection.
18. According to Newtons law of cooling the amount of heat transfer from a solid surface of
area A at temperature Tw to a fluid at a temperature T is given by ________.
Ans : Q = h A (Tw T)
19. What is the form of equation used to calculate heat transfer for flow through
cylindrical pipes?
Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)n
n = 0.4 for heating of fluids
n = 0.3 for cooling of fluids
20. What are the dimensionless parameters used in forced convection?
1. Reynolds number (Re)
2. Nusdselt number (Nu)
3. Prandtl number (Pr)
21. Define boundary layer thickness.
69
The thickness of the boundary layer has been defined as the distance from the surface
at which the local velocity or temperature reaches 99% of the external velocity or
temperature.
PART B
1. Air at 20C, at a pressure of 1 bar is flowing over a flat plate at a velocity of 3 m/s. if
the plate maintained at 60C, calculate the heat transfer per unit width of the plate.
Assuming the length of the plate along the flow of air is 2m.
Given : Fluid temperature T = 20C,
Pressure p
= 1 bar,
Velocity U
= 3 m/s,
Plate surface temperature Tw = 60C,
Width W
= 1 m,
Length L
= 2m.
Solution : We know,
Film temperature Tf
60 20
2
Tf 40C
Tw T
2
Properties of air at 40C:

Density = 1.129 Kg/m3
Thermal conductivity K = 26.56 10 3 W / mK,
Kinematic viscosity v = 16.96 10 6 m2 / s.
Prandtl number
Pr = 0.699
We know,
UL
Reynolds number Re =
v
32
16.96 10 6
35.377 10 4
70
Re 35.377 10 4 5 105
Reynolds number value is less than 5 105, so this is laminar flow.
For flat plate, Laminar flow,
Local Nusselt Number Nux = 0.332 (Re)0.5 (Pr)0.333
Nux 0.332 (35.377 10 4 )0.5 (0.699)0.333
Nux 175.27
We know that,
Local Nusselt Number Nu x
175.27
hs 2
26.56 10 3
hs L
K
Local heat transfer coefficient hx = 2.327 W/m2K

We know,
Average heat transfer coefficient h = 2 hx
h 2 2.327
2
h = 4.65 W/m K
Heat transfer Q = h A (Tw - T)
4.65 2 (60 20)
[ Area width length 1 2 2]
Q 372 Watts.
2. Air at 20C at atmospheric pressure flows over a flat plate at a velocity of 3 m/s. if the
plate is 1 m wide and 80C, calculate the following at x = 300 mm.
1. Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness,
2. Thermal boundary layer thickness,
3. Local friction coefficient,
4. Average friction coefficient,
5. Local heat transfer coefficient
6. Average heat transfer coefficient,
7. Heat transfer.
Given: Fluid temperature T = 20C
Velocity
U = 3 m/s
Wide
W=1m
Surface temperature
Tw = 80C
Distance x = 300 mm = 0.3 m
Solution: We know
71
Film temperature Tf
Tw T
2
80 20
2
Tf 50C
Properties of air at 50C

Density = 1.093 kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity v = 17.95 10 -6m2 / s
Pr andt l number Pr =0.698
Thermal conductivity K = 28.26 10 -3 W / mK
We know,
UL
v
3 0.3
17.95 106
Re 5.01 10 4 5 105
Since Re < 5 105, flow is laminar

For Flat plate, laminar flow,
1. Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness:
hx 5 x (Re)0.5
= 5 0.3 (5.01 10 4 ) 0.5
hx 6.7 10 3 m
2. Thermal boundary layer thickness:
TX hx (Pr)0.333
TX 6.7 10 3 (0.698)0.333
TX 7.5 10 3 m
3. Local Friction coefficient:
Cfx 0.664(Re)0.5
= 0.664 (5.01 10 4 )0.5
Cfx = 2.96 10-3
4. Average friction coefficient:
72
CfL 1.328 (Re)-0.5

= 1.328 (5.01 10 4 )0.5
= 5.9 10 -3
CfL 5.9 10 3
5. Local heat transfer coefficient (hx):
Local Nusselt Number
Nux = 0.332 (Re)0.5 (Pr)0.333
0.332 (5.01 10 4 ) (0.698)0.333
Nux 65.9
We know
h L
Nux x
K
hx 0.3
65.9
Q x = L = 0.3m
23.26 10 3
hx 6.20 W/m2K
Local heat transfer coefficient h x 6.20 W / m2K
6. Average heat transfer coefficient (h):
h 2 hx
2 6.20
h 12.41 W / m2K
7. Heat transfer:
We know that,
Q h A(Tw T )
= 12.41 (1 0.3) (80-20)
Q = 23.38 Watts
3. Air at 30C flows over a flat plate at a velocity of 2 m/s. The plate is 2 m long and 1.5
m wide. Calculate the following:
1. Boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of the plate,
2. Total drag force,
3. Total mass flow rate through the boundary layer between x = 40 cm and x = 85
cm.
Velocity
U = 2 m/s
73
Length
Wide W
L =2m
W = 1.5 m
To find:
1. Boundary layer thickness
2. Total drag force.
3. Total mass flow rate through the boundary layer between x = 40 cm and x = 85
cm.
Solution: Properties of air at 30C
1.165 kg/m3
v 16 10 6 m 2 / s
Pr 0.701
K 26.75 10 3 W / mK
We know,
UL
Reynolds number Re
v
22
16 10 6
Re 2.5 105 5 105
Since Re<5 10 5 ,flow is laminar
For flat plate, laminar flow, [from HMT data book, Page No.99]
Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness
hx 5 x (Re)0.5
= 5 2 (2.5 105 )0.5
hx 0.02 m
Thermal boundary layer thickness,
tx hx (Pr)0.333
=0.02 (0.701)-0.333
TX 0.0225 m
We know,
Average friction coefficient,
CfL 1.328 (Re)0.5
= 1.328 (2.5 10 5 )0.5
CfL 2.65 10 -3
We know
74
CfL
t
U2
2
t
1.165 (2)2
2
Average shear stress t = 6.1 10 -3N / m2
Drag force = Area Average shear stress
2.65 10-3
= 2 1.5 6.1 10 -3
Drag force = 0.018 N
Drag force on two sides of the plate
= 0.018 2
= 0.036 N
Total mass flow rate between x = 40 cm and x= 85 cm.
5
m U hx 85 hx 40
8
Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness
hx 0.5 5 x (Re)0.5
U x
0.5
2 0.85
5 0.85
6
16 10
HX0.85 0.0130 m
0.5
= 5 0.85
hx=0.40
= 5 x (Re)-0.5
U x
5 0.40
0.5
2 0.40
5 0.40
6
16 10
0.5
HX0.40 8.9 103 m

5
(1) m= 1.165 2 0.0130 8.9 10 3
8
m = 5.97 10 -3Kg / s,
4. Air at 30C, Flows over a flat plate at a velocity of 4 m/s. The plate measures 50 30
75
cm and is maintained at a uniform temperature of 90C. Compare the heat loss from
the plate when the air flows
(a) Parallel to 50 cm,
(b) Parallel to 30 cm
Also calculate the percentage of heat loss.
Velocity U
= 4 m/s
Plate dimensions = 50 cm 30 cm
0.50 0.30 m2
Surface temperature Tw = 90C
Solution: Film temperature Tf
90 30
2
Tf 60C
Tw T
2
Properties of air at 60C,

1.060 Kg/m3
18.97 106 m2 / s
Pr 0.696
K = 28.96 10 -3 W/mK
Case (i) : When the flow is parallel to 50 cm.
UL
Reynolds number Re
v
4 0.50
18.97 10 6
Re 1.05 105 5 10 5
Since Re <5 10 5,flow is laminar
Local nusselt number NUx
NUx =0.332 1.05 105
0.5
= 0.332(Re)0.5(Pr)0.333
(0.696)0.333
Local nusselt number NUx =95.35

We know
76
h xL
K
hx 0.50
95.35
28.96 10 3
Local heat transfer coefficient h x 5.52 W/m2K
NUx
We know
Average heat transfer coefficient h 2 hx
h 2 5.52
h 11.04 W/m 2K
Heat transfer Q1 h A(Tw T )
11.04 (0.5 0.3) (90 30)
Q1 99.36 W
Case (ii) : When the flow is parallel to 30 cm side.

UL
v
4 0.3
18.97 10 6
Re = 6.3 10 4 5 10 5
Since Re<5 105 , flow is laminar
For flat plate, laminar flow,
NUx 0.332 (Re)0.5 (0.696)0.333
0.332 (6.32 10 4 )0.5 (0.696)0.333
NUx 74.008
We know that, NUx
hx 0.30
28.96 103
hx 7.141 W/m2K
h xL
K
74.008
Local heat transfer coefficient h x 7.141 W /m2K
Average heat transfer coefficient h = 2hx
77
h 2 7.14
h 14.28 W/m2K
We know
Heat transfer Q 2 h A (Tw T )
h L W (Tw T )
14.28 0.3 0.5 (363 303)
Q2 128.5W
Case (iii):
% heat loss =
Q2 Q1
100
Q1
128.5-99.36
100
99.36
% heat loss = 29.3%
=
5. Air at 40C is flows over a flat plate of 0.9 m at a velocity of 3 m/s. Calculate the
following:
1. Overall drag coefficient
2. Average shear stress,
3. Compare the average shear stress with local shear stress (shear stress at the
trailing edge)
Given : Fluid temperature T = 40C
Length L = 0.9 m
Velocity U = 3 m/s.
Solution:
1.128 Kg/m3
= 16.96 10-6 m2 / s
Pr 0.699
K 26.56 10 -3 W/mK
We know,
UL
Reynolds number Re
v
78
3 0.9
16.96 10 6
Re 1.59 105 5 10 5
Since Re< 5 10 5, flow is laminar

For plate, laminar flow,
Drag coefficient (or) Average skin friction coefficient
CfL 1.328 (Re)0.5
1.328 (1.59 105 )0.5
CfL 3.3 10 3
We know
Average friction coefficient
CfL
U2
2
U2
2
3.3 10-3 1.128 (3)2
=
2
Average shear stress = 0.016 N/m2
We know,
CfL
Local skin friction coefficient

Cfx 0.664 (Re)0.5
0.664 (1.59 105 )0.5
Cfx 1.66 10 3
we know
Local skin friction coefficient
1.128 (3)2
2
3
2
x 8.4 10 N / m
Cfx
U2
2
1.66 10 3
Local shear stress x 8.4 10 3 N / m 2

Local shear stress x
8.4 10 3 N / m2
Average shear stress

0.016 N / m 2
0.52
79
6. Air at 290C flows over a flat plate at a velocity of 6 m/s. The plate is 1m long and 0.5
m wide. The pressure of the air is 6 kN/ 2. If the plate is maintained at a temperature of
70C, estimate the rate of heat removed form the plate.
Velocity U
= 6 m/s.
Length L
=1m
Wide W
= 0.5 m
Pressure of air P = 6 kN/m2
6 103 N / m2
Plate surface temperature Tw = 70C
To find: Heat removed from the plate
Solution:
We know
Film temperature Tf
70 290
2
Tf 180C
Tw T
2
Properties of air at 180C (At atmospheric pressure)

0.799 Kg/m3
= 32.49 10-6 m2 / s
Pr 0.681
K 37.80 10 -3 W/mK
Note: Pressure other than atmospheric pressure is given, so kinematic viscosity will vary with
pressure. Pr, K, Cp are same for all pressures.
Patm
Kinematic viscosity atm
Pgiven
1 bar
6 103N / m2
Q Atmospheric pressure = 1 bar
32.49 10 6
105 N / m2
32.49 10
6 103 N / m3
6
Q 1 bar = 1 105N / m2
Kinematic viscosity v = 5.145 10 -4m 2 / s.
80
We know,
Reynolds number Re
UL
v
6 1
5.145 10 4
Re 1.10 10 4 5 10 5
Since Re< 5 105, flow is laminar

For plate, laminar flow,
Local nusselt number
NUx 0.332 (Re)0.5 (Pr)0.333
0.332 (1.10 10 4 )0.5 (0.681)0.333
NUx 30.63
We know
hL
NUx = x
K
hx 1
30.63
[ Q L = 1 m]
37.80 10 3
Local heat transfer coefficient h x 1.15 W/m2K
We know
Average heat transfer coefficient h = 2hx

h 2 1.15
h 2.31 W/m2K
We know
Heat transferred Q h A (T Tw )
2.31 (1 0.5) (563 343)
Q 254.1 W
Heat transfer from both side of the plate = 2 254.1
= 508.2 W.
7. Air at 40C flows over a flat plate, 0.8 m long at a velocity of 50 m/s. The plate surface
is maintained at 300C. Determine the heat transferred from the entire plate length to
air taking into consideration both laminar and turbulent portion of the boundary layer.
Also calculate the percentage error if the boundary layer is assumed to be turbulent
nature from the very leading edge of the plate.
Length
L = 0.8 m
81
Velocity
U = 50 m/s
To find :
1. Heat transferred for:
i. Entire plate is considered as combination of both laminar and turbulent flow.
ii. Entire plate is considered as turbulent flow.
2. Percentage error.
Solution: We know
Film temperature Tf
300 40
443 K
2
Tf 170C
Tw T
T
2
Pr operties of air at 170C:
= 0.790 Kg/m3
31.10 10 6 m2 / s
Pr 0.6815
K 37 10 3 W/mK
We know
Reynolds number Re=
UL
v
50 0.8
1.26 10 6
6
31.10 10
Re = 1.26 10 6 5 105
Re 5 105 ,so this is turbulent flow

Case (i): Laminar turbulent combined. [It means, flow is laminar upto Reynolds number
value is 5 105, after that flow is turbulent]
Average nusselt number = Nu = (Pr)0.333 (Re)0.8 871
Nu = (0.6815)0.333 [0.037 (1.26 106)0.8 871
Average nusselt number Nu = 1705.3
hL
We know Nu =
K
h 0.8
1705.3
37 10 3
82
h 78.8 W / m2K
Average heat transfer coefficient
h=78.8 W/m 2K
Head transfer Q1 h A (Tw T )
h L W (Tw T )
= 78.8 0.8 1 (300 - 40)
Q1 16390.4 W
Case (ii) : Entire plate is turbulent flow:
Local nusselt number} Nux = 0.0296 (Re)0.8 (Pr)0.333
NUx = 0.0296 (1.26 106)0.8 (0.6815)0.333
NUx = 1977.57
We know
h L
NUx x
K
h 0.8
1977.57 x
37 10 3
hx 91.46 W/m 2K
Local heat transfer coefficient hx = 91.46 W/m2K
Average heat transfer coefficient (for turbulent flow)
h = 1.24 hx
= 1.24 91.46
Average heat transfer coefficient} h = 113.41 W/m2K
We know Heat transfer Q2 = h A (Tw + T)
= h L W (Tw + T)
= 113.41 0.8 1 (300 40)
Q2 = 23589.2 W
Q Q1
2. Percentage error = 2
Q1
23589.2 - 16390.4
100
16390.4
= 43.9%
=
83
8. Air at 20C flows over a flat plate at 60C with a free stream velocity of 6 m/s.
Determine the value of the average convective heat transfer coefficient upto a length of
1 m in the flow direction.
Plate temperature Tw = 60C
Velocity
U = 6 m/s
Length
L =1m
To find : Average heat transfer coefficient
Solution : We know
Tw T
2
Film temperature Tf
60+20
2
Tf 40C

Thermal conductivity K = 26.56 10 -3 W/mK
Kinematic viscosity
Pr andtl number
v = 16.96 10 -6m 2 / s
Pr = 0.699
We know
UL
v
6 1
16.96 10 6
Re 3.53 10 5 5 105
Since Re < 5 105, flow is laminar

For flat plate, laminar flow
Local nusselt number} Nux = 0.332 (Re)0.5 (Pr)0.333
= 0.332 (3.53 105)0.5 (0.699)0.333
NUx = 175.27
We know,
Local nusselt number} NUx
hx L
K
84
hx 1
26.56 10 3
Local nusselt number} NUx 4.65 W/m 2K
175.27
Average heat transfer coefficient} h = 2 hx

2 4.65
h 9.31 W/m2K
9. Air at 25C at the atmospheric pressure is flowing over a flat plate at 3 m/s. If the
plate is 1 m wide and the temperature Tw = 75C. Calculate the following at a location of
1m from leading edge.
i.
Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness,
ii.
Local friction coefficient,
iii.
Thermal boundary layer thickness,
iv.
Local heat transfer coefficient
Velocity
U = 3 m/s
Wide
W=1m
Distance
=1m
To find:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness.

Local friction coefficient
Thermal boundary layer thickness
Local heat transfer coefficient
Solution: We know
Film temperature Tf
Tw T
2
75 25
323 K = 50C
2
Tf 50C
Pr operties of air at 50C:

Density = 1.093
Kinematic viscosity 10 6 m 2 / s
Prandtl number Pr = 0.698
Thermal conductivity K = 28.26 13 -3 W/m K
We know,
85
Reynolds number Re=
UL
v
[ Q x = L 1m]
3 1
1.67 105
17.95 10 6
Re 1.67 105 5 10 5
Since Re < 5 10 5 ,flow is laminar
1. Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness,
hx 5 x (Re)0.5
= 5 1 (1.67 10 5 )0.5
hx 0.0122 m
2. Local friction coefficient
Cfx 0.644 (Re)-0.5
= 0.644 (1.67 10 5 )0.5
Cfx 1.62 10 3
3. Thermal boundary layer thickness,
TX hx (Pr)0.333
0.0122 (0.698)0.333
TX 0.01375
4. Local heat transfer coefficient (hx):
We know
Local nusselt number} NUx = 0.332 (Re)0.5 (Pr)0.333
= 0.332 (1.67 105)0.5 (0.698)0.333
NUx = 120.415
h L
We know, NUx x
K
hx 1
120.415 =
Q x = L = 1m
28.26 10-3
Local heat transfer coefficient} h x 3.4 W / m2K
86
10. Atmospheric air at 300 K with a velocity of 2.5 m/s flows over a flat plate of length L
= 2m and width W = 1m maintained at uniform temperature of 400 K. Calculate the
local heat transfer coefficient at 1 m length and the average heat transfer coefficient
from L = 0 to L = 2m. Also find the heat transfer,
Given: Fluid temperature T = 300 K
Velocity
U = 2.5 m/s
Total Length L = 2 m
Width
W=1m
Surface temperature Tw = 400 K
To find:
1. Local heat transfer coefficient at L = 1 m
2. Average heat transfer coefficient at L = 2 m
3. Heat transfer Q
Solution:
Case (i): Local heat transfer coefficient at L = 1m
Film temperature Tf
Tw T
2
400 300
350 K
2
Tf 77C
Properties of air at 77C 80C:
= 1 Kg/m3
= 21.09 10-6 m2 / s
Pr = 0.692
K = 30.47 10 -3 W/mK
We know
UL
v
2.5 1
21.09 10 6
Re 118539.45 5 10 5
Since Re < 5 105 ,flow is laminar.

Local Nusselt number} NUx = 0.332 (Re)0.5 (Pr)0.333
87
= 0.332 (118539.5)0.5 (0.692)0.333

NUx = 101.18
We know,
hL
Local nusselt number} NUx x
K
hx 1
101.18 =
30.47 10 3
hx = 3.0832 W/m2K
Local heat transfer coefficient} hx = 3.08 W/m2K
Case (ii): Average heat transfer coefficient at L = 2m
UL
v
2.5 2
Re
21.09 10 6
Re 237079.18 < 5 10 5
Since Re < 5 105 ,flow is laminar.
NUx = 0.332 (Re)0.5 (Pr)0.333
= 0.332 (237079.18)0.5 (0.692)0.333
NUx = 143
h L
We know that, NUx x
K
hx 2
143 =
30.47 103
We know that,
Average heat transfer coefficient} h = 2 hx
h = 2 2.17
h = 4.35 W/m2K
Average heat transfer coefficient} h = 4.35 W/m2K
Case (iii) : Heat transfer Q = h A (Tw - T)
= 4.35 2 1 (400 300)
Q L = 2m; W= 1m
Q = 870 W.
11. For a particular engine, the underside of the crank case can be idealized as a flat plat
88
measuring 80 cm 20 cm. The engine runs at 80 km/hr and the crank case is cooled by
air flowing past it at the same speed. Calculate the loss of heat from the crank case
surface of temperature 75C to the ambient air temperature 25C. Assume the
boundary layer becomes turbulent from the loading edge itself.
Given : Area A = 80 cm 20 cm
= 1600 cm2 = 0.16m2
Velocity U = 80 Km/hr
80 103 m
3600s
22.22 m/s
Surface temperature Tw 75C
Ambient air temperature T 25 C
Flow is turbulent from the leading edge, i.e,. flow is fully turbulent.
To find:
1. Heat loss
Film temperature Tf
Tw T 75 25
2
2
Tf 50C
= 1.093 Kg/m3
= 17.95 10-6 m 2 / s
Pr 0.698
K 28.26 10 3 W/mK
We know
Re ynolds number Re =
UL
v
22.22 0.8
17.95 10 6
Re = 9 105
[ Q L = 0.8m]
Re 9 105 5 105
Since Re>5 105, Flow is turbulent
For flat plate, turbulent flow,
[Fully turbulent from leading edge given]
Local Nusselt number} NUx = 0.0296 (Re)0.8 (Pt)0.333
= 0.0296 [9 105]0.8 (0.698)0.33
89
NUx = 1524.6
We know that, NUx
h xL
K
hx 0.8
28.26 10 3
hx 53.85 W/m2K
1524.6
[ Q L = 0.8m]

For turbulent flow, flat plate
Average heat transfer coefficient} h = 1.24 hx
h = 1.24 53.85
h = 66.78 W/m2K
We know,
Heat loss Q = h A (Tw - T)
= 66.78 0.16 (75 25)
Q = 534.2 W
Formula used for Flow over cylinders and spheres
TW T
2
Where T - Fluid temperature C
Tw Plate surface temperature C
1. Film temperature Tf
2. Reynolds number NUx
UD
v
Where U Velocity, m/s

D - Diameter, m
- Kinematic viscosity, m2/s
3. Nusselt number NU = C (Re)m (Pr)0.333
4. Nusselt number NU =
hD
K
5. Heat transfer Q = h A (Tw - T)

Where A = DL
For sphere:
Nusselt number NU = 0.37 (Re)0.6
90
Where A 4r2
12. Air at 15C, 30 km/h flows over a cylinder of 400 mm diameter and 1500 mm height
with surface temperature of 45C. Calculate the heat loss.
Velocity
U = 30 Km/h
3
30 10 m
3600 s
U 8.33 m/s
Diameter D = 400 mm = 0.4 m
Length L = 1500 mm = 1.5 m
To find: Heat loss.
Solution: We know
Film temperature Tf
45 15
2
Tf 30C
Tw T
2
Properties of air at 30C : [From HMT data book, Page No.22]

Kinematic viscosity v = 16 10-6 m2/s
Prandtl Number Pr = 0.701
Thermal conductivity K = 26.75 10-3 W/mK
We know
Reynolds Number Re =
8.33 0.4
16 10 6
UD
v
ReD 2.08 105
We know
Nusselt Number Nu = C (Re)m (Pr)0.333
[From HMT data book, Page No.105]
91
ReD value is 2.08 105, so C value is 0.0266 and m value is 0.805.

NU = 0.0266 (2.08 105)0.805 (0.701)0.333
NU 451.3
We know that,
Nusselt Number NU =
hD
K
h 0.4
26.75 10-3
h = 30.18 W/m2K
451.3 =
Heat transfer coefficient h = 30.18 W/m 2K

Heat transfer Q = hA (Tw T )
= h D L (Tw T )
[ Q A = DL]
= 30.18 0.4 1.5 (45 -15)
Q = 1706.6 W
13. Air at 30C, 0.2 m/s flows across a 120W electric bulb at 130C. Find heat transfer
and power lost due to convection if bulb diameter is 70 mm.
Velocity
U = 0.2 m/s
Heat energy Q1 = 120 W
Surface temperature Tw = 130C
Diameter
D = 70 mm = 0.070 m
To find:
1. Heat Transfer
2. Power lost due to convection
Solution:
Tw T
2
92
130 30
2
Tf 80C
= 1 Kg/m3
= 21.09 10 -6 m2 / s
Pr = 0.692
K = 30.47 10 -3 W/mK
We know
0.2 0.070
663.82
21.09 10 3
Re 663.82
We know
UD
Nusselt Number Nu = 0.37 (Re)0.6

= 0.37 (663.82)0.6
Nu = 18.25
We know
hD
Nusselt number Nu
K
h 0.070
18.25 =
30.47 10-3
h = 7.94 W/m2K
Heat transfer coefficient h = 7.94 W/m2K
We know
Heat transfer Q2 = h A (Tw - T)
h 4 r 2 [Tw T ] [ Q A = 4 r 2 ]
2
0.070
7.94 4
(130 30)
2
Heat transfer Q 2 12.22 W
2. % of heat lost =
Q2
100
Q1
12.22
100
120
10.18%
93
14. Air at 40C flows over a tube with a velocity of 30 m/s. The tube surface temperature
is 120C. Calculate the heat transfer for the following cases.
1. Tube could be square with a side of 6 cm.
2. Tube is circular cylinder of diameter 6 cm
Velocity
U = 30 m/s
Tube surface temperature Tw = 120C
To find: Heat transfer coefficient (h)
Solution: We know
Film temperature Tf
Tw T
2
120 40
2
Tf 80C
= 1 Kg/m3
= 21.09 10-6 m2 / s
Pr 0.692
K = 30.47 10 -3 W/mK
Case (i): Tube is considered as square of side 6 cm
i.e., L = 6cm = 0.06m
UL
v
30 0.06
21.09 106
Re 0.853 105
Nusselt Number Nu = C (Re)n (Pr)0.333

For square, n = 0.675
C = 0.092
Nu = 0.092 (0.853 105 )0.675 (0.692)0.333
Nu = 173.3
We know that, NU =
hL
K
94
h 0.06
30.47 10 3
Heat transfer coefficient h = 88 W/m 2K
173.3
Case (ii)
Tube diameter D = 6cm = 0.06 m
30 0.06
21.09 10 6
Re 0.853 105
UD
Nusselt number Nu = C (ReD )m (Pr)0.333
Re value is 0.853 10 5 , so corresponding C and m values are 0.0266

respectively.
Nu = 0.0266 (0.853 105 )0.805 (0.692)0.333
Nu = 219.3
We know Nu =
hD
K
h 0.06
30.47 10-3
h = 111.3 W/m2K
219.3

Formulae Used for Flow Over Bank of Tubes
Sn
Sn D
Where Sn Transverse pitch, m.
1. Maximum velocity Umax = U
2. Reynolds Number Re =
Umax D
3. Nusselt Number, NU = 1.13 (Pr)0.33 [C Ren]

95
and 0.805
15. In a surface condenser, water flows through staggered tubes while the air is passed
in cross flow over the tubes. The temperature and velocity of air are 30C and 8 m/s
respectively. The longitudinal and transverse pitches are 22 mm and 20 mm
respectively. The tube outside diameter is 18 mm and tube surface temperature is 90C.
Calculate the heat transfer coefficient.
Given: Fluid temperature
T = 30C
Velocity
U = 8 m/s
Longitudinal pitch, Sp = 22mm = 0.022 m
Transverse pitch, Sn = 20mm = 0.020 m
Diameter D
= 18mm = 0.018 m
Tube surface temperature Tw = 90C
Solution:
Film temperature Tf
Tw T
2
90 30
2
Tf 60C
= 1.060 Kg/m3
= 18.97 10-6 m2 / s
Pr 0.696
K = 28.96 10 -3 W / mK
We know
Maximum velocity Umax = U
Sn
Sn D
0.020
0.020 0.018
= 80 m/s
Umax 8
Umax
We know
96
80 0.018
18.97 10 6
Re 7.5 10 4
Sn 0.020
1.11
D 0.018
Sn
1.11
D
Sp 0.022
1.22
D 0.018
Sp
1.22
D
Umax D
S
Sn
1.11. p 1.22, corresponding C, n values are 0.518 and 0.556 respectively.
D
D
C = 0.518
n = 0.556
We know,
Nusselt Number Nu = 1.13 (Pr) 0.333[C (Re)n]
Nu = 1.13 (0.696)0.333 [0.518 (7.5 10 4 )0.556 ]
Nu = 266.3
We know
hD
K
h 0.018
266.3 =
28.96 10-3
Nusselt Number Nu
Heat transfer coefficient h = 428.6 W/m2K.

Formulae used for flow through Cylinders (Internal flow)
1. Bulk mean temperature
T Tmo
Tm mi
2
Tmi = Inlet temperature C,
Where
Tmo = Outlet temperature C.
97
UD
If Reynolds number value is less than 2300, flow is laminar. If Reynolds number values is
greater than 2300, flow is turbulent.
2. Reynolds Number Re
3. Laminar Flow:
Nusselt Number NU 3.66
4. Turbulent Flow (General Equation)
Nusselt Number Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)n
n = 0.4 Heating process
n = 0.3 Cooling process
This equation is valid for
0.6 < Pr < 160,
Re < 10000
L
60
D
For turbulent flow,
Nu 0.036 (Re) (Pr)

0.8
0.33
D
L

0.055
This equation is valid for

L
10 400
D
5. Equivalent diameter for rectangular section,
Dh (or) Dc
4A 4(L W )
P
2(L W )
Where A Area, m2,

P Perimeter, m
L Length, m,
W Width, m.
6. Equivalent diameter for hollow cylinder
4A
Dh (or) Dc =
P
4 D02 Di2
4
=
D0 Di
98
Where D0 Outer diameter

Di - Inner diameter
7. Heat transfer
Q = h A (Tw Tm) where A = D L
(or)
Q = m Cp (Tmo Tmi)
Where Tw Tube wall temperature C,
Tm Mean temperature C.
Tmi Inlet temperature C
Tmo Outlet temperature C.
8. Mass flow rate
m - A U Kg/s
Where - Density, Kg/m3
2 2
A Area, D , m
4
U Velocity, m/s
16. When 0.6 Kg of water per minute is passed through a tube of 2 cm diameter, it is
found to be heated from 20C to 60C. The heating is achieved by condensing steam on
the surface of the tube and subsequently the surface temperature of the tube is
maintained at 90C. Determine the length of the tube required for fully developed flow.
0.6
kg / s
Given : Mass m = 0.6 Kg/min =
60
= 0.01 Kg/s
Diameter D = 2 cm = 0.02 m
Inlet temperature Tmi 20C
Outlet temperature Tmo 60 C
Tube surface temperature Tw 90 C
To find: length of the tube (L)
Solution:
Bulk mean temperature Tm
Tmi Tmo
2
99
20 60
2
Tm 40C
Properties of water at 40C:
= 995 Kg/m3
= 0.657 10-6m2 / s
Pr = 4.340
K = 628 10 -3 W/mK
CP 4.178 KJ/KgK = 4178 J/KgK
Mass flow rate m = A U
m
U=
A
0.01
=
995 (0.02)2
4
Velocity U = 0.031 m/s
Let us first determine the type of flow
UD
Re
0.031 0.02
Re
0.657 10 6
Re 943.6
Since Re < 2300, flow is laminar
For laminar flow,
Nusselt number NU = 3.66
We know
NU
hD
K
h 0.02
628 10-3
h = 114.9 W/m2K
Heat transfer Q = mCP t
3.66 =
= mCP (Tmo Tmi )

= 0.01 4178 (60-20)
Q = 1671.2 W
100
We know that Q = h A
= h D L (Tw Tm )
= 1671.2 =114.9 0.02 L (90-40)
L = 4.62m
17. Water at 50C enters 50 mm diameter and 4 m long tube with a velocity of 0.8 m/s.
The tube wall is maintained at a constant temperature of 90C. Determine the heat
transfer coefficient and the total amount of heat transferred if exist water temperature
is 70C.
Given:
Inner temperature of water Tmi = 50C
Diameter
D = 50mm = 0.05 m
Length
L =4m
Velocity
U = 0.8 m/s
Total wall temperature
Tw = 90C
Exit temperature of water Tmo = 70C
To find:
1. Heat transfer coefficient (h)
2. Heat transfer (Q)
Solution:
50 70
2
Tm 60C
Tmi Tmo
2
Properties of water at 60C:
= 985 Kg/m3
= 0.478 10 -6m2 / s
Pr 3.020
K = 651.3 10 -3 W/mK
101
Let us first determine the type of flow:

UD
Re
0.8 0.05
=
0.478 10-6
Re 8.36 10 4
Since Re > 2300, flow is turbulent
L
4
80
D 0.05
L
80 > 60
D
Re = 8.36 10 4 10,000
Pr 3.020 0.6 < Pr < 160
L
ratio is greater than 60. Re value is greater than 10,000 and Pr value is in between 0.6 and
D
160 so,
Nusselt number NU = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)n
[Inlet temperature 50C, Exit temperature 70C
Heating Process, So n = 0.4]
Nu = 0.023 (8.36 10 4 )0.8 (3.020)0.4
Nu = 310
hD
We know that Nu=
K
h 0.05
310
651.3 103
Heat transfer Q = h A (Tw Tm)
= h D L (Tw Tm )
= 4093.3 0.05 4 (90 - 60)
Q = 76139 W
18. What flows through 0.8 cm diameter, 3m long tube at an average temperature of
40C. The flow velocity is 0.65 m/s and tube wall temperature is 140C. Calculate the
average heat transfer coefficient.
Given : Diameter of tube D = 0.8 cm = 0.008 m
Length
L
=3m
102
Average temperature Tm = 40C

Velocity U
= 0.65 m/s
Tube wall temperature Tw = 140C
= 995 Kg/m3
= 0.657 10 -6 m2 / s
Pr 4.340
K 628 103 W/mK
UD
We know Re =
0.65 0.008
0.657 10 6
Re 7914.76
Since Re > 2300, flow is turbulent.

L
3
375
D 0.008
L
10 < 400
D
L
ratio is in between 10 and 400, Re < 10000, so Nusselt Number Nu = 0.036 (Re) 0.8 (Pr)0.33
D
D
L

0.055
Nu = 0.036 (7914.76)
0.8
(4.340)
0.33
0.008
0.055
Nu = 55.44
We know
Nusselt number NU=
hD
K
h 0.008
628 103
55.44
19. Air at 15C, 35 m/s, flows through a hollow cylinder of 4 cm inner diameter and 6
cm outer diameter and leaves at 45C. Tube wall is maintained at 60C. Calculate the
heat transfer coefficient between the air and the inner tube.
Given: Inner temperature of air Tmi = 15C
103
Velocity U
= 35 m/s
Inner diameter Di
= 4 cm = 0.04m
Outer diameter Do
= 6 cm = 0.06m
Exit temperature of air Tmo = 45C
Solution: We know
Mean temperature Tm
Tmi Tmo
2
15 45
2
Tm 30C
= 1.165 Kg/m3
= 16 10 -6 m2 / s
Pr = 0.701
K = 26.75 10 -3 W/mK
Hydraulic of Equivalent diameter
4A
De
P
=
=
2
D Di2
4
Do Di
D2 Di2
Do Di
(Do Di ) (Do Di )
(Do Di )
= Do Di
= 0.06 - 0.04
De = 0.02 m
Reynolds Number Re=

35 0.02
16 10-6
Re 43750
UDc

For turbulent flow, general equation is (Re > 10000)
104
Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)n

This is heating process so, n = 0.4
Nu = 0.023 (43750)0.8 (0.701)0.4
Nu = 102.9
hDe
K
h 0.02
102.9
26.75 10 3
h = 137.7 W/m2K.
We know Nu =
20. Air at 30C, 6 m/s flows over a rectangular section of size 300 800 mm. Calculate
the heat leakage per meter length per unit temperature difference.
Given : Air temperature Tm = 30
C
Velocity U = 6 m/s
Area A
= 300 800 mm2
2
A = 0.24 m
To find:
1. Heat leakage per metre length per unit temperature difference.
Solution:
= 1.165 Kg/m3
= 16 10 -4 m2 / s
Pr = 0.701
K = 26.75 10 -3 W / mK
Equivalent diameter for 300 800 mm2 cross section is given by
4A 4 (0.3 0.8)
P
2 (0.3 0.8)
Where P - Perimeter = 2 (L+W)
De 0.436 m
De
We know
105
UDe
6 0.436
16 10 6
Re = 16.3 10 4
Since Re > 2300, flow is turbulent.
For turbulent flow general equation is (Re > 10000)

Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)n
Assuming the pipe wall temperature to be higher than a temperature. So heating
process n = 0.4
Nu = 0.023 (16.3 10 4 )0.8 (0.701)0.4
Nu 294.96
We know
hDe
K
h 0.436
294.96 =
26.75 10 -3
Heat leakage per unit per length per unit temperature difference
Q=hP
= 18.09 2 (0.3 + 0.8
Q = 39.79 W
Nusselt Number Nu =
21. Air at 333K, 1.5 bar pressure, flow through 12 cm diameter tube. The surface
temperature of the tube is maintained at 400K and mass flow rate is 75 kg/hr.
Calculate the heat transfer rate for 1.5 m length of the tube.
Given : Air temperature Tm = 333 K = 60C
Diameter D
= 12 cm = 0.12 m
Surface temperature Tw
= 400 K = 127C
75 Kg
Mass flow rate m
= 75 kg/hr =
3600 s
m = 0.020 Kg/s
Length L = 1.5 m
To find:
1. Heat transfer rate (Q)
106
Solution:
Since the pressure is not much above atmospheric, physical properties of air may be taken at
atmospheric condition
= 1.060 Kg/m3
= 18.97 10 -6 m2 / s
Pr = 0.696
K = 28.96 10 -3 W/mK
We know
UD
Mass flow rate m p U
0.020 = 1.060 D 2 U
4
0.020 = 1.060 (0.12)2 U

4
U = 1.668 m/s
UD
1.668 0.12
18.97 10 -6
Re = 10551.3
(1) Re =
Since Re > 2300, so flow is turbulent

For turbulent flow, general equation is (Re>10000)
Nu 0.023 (Re)0.8 (0.696)0.4
Nu = 32.9
hD
We know Nu =
K
h 0.12
32.9 =
28.96 10 -3
h = 7.94 W/m 2K
Heat transfer rate Q = h A (Tw Tm )
h ( D L) (Tw Tm )
7.94 ( 0.12 1.5) (127 60)
Q 300.82 W
22. 250 Kg/hr of air are cooled from 100C to 30C by flowing through a 3.5 cm inner
107
diameter pipe coil bent in to a helix of 0.6 m diameter. Calculate the value of air side
heat transfer coefficient if the properties of air at 65C are
K = 0.0298 W/mK
= 0.003 Kg/hr m
Pr = 0.7
= 1.044 Kg/m3
Given : Mass flow rate in = 205 kg/hr
205
Kg / s in = 0.056 Kg/s
3600
Inlet temperature of air Tmi = 100C
Outlet temperature of air Tmo = 30C
Diameter D = 3.5 cm = 0.035 m
T Tmo
65C
Mean temperature Tm mi
2
Solution:
UD
Kinematic viscosity
0.003
Kg / s m
3600
1.044 Kg/m3
v 7.98 10 7 m2 / s
Mass flow rate in = A U
D2 U
4
0.056 1.044 (0.035)2 U

4
0.056 1.044
U = 55.7 m/s
UD
(1) Re =
55.7 0.035
=
7.98 10-7
Re = 2.44 106
108

Nu 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)0.3
This is cooling process, so n = 0.3
Nu = 0.023 (2.44 10 6 )0.8 (0.7)0.3
Nu 2661.7
We know that, Nu
2661.7
h 0.035
0.0298
hD
K

23. In a long annulus (3.125 cm ID and 5 cm OD) the air is heated by maintaining the
temperature of the outer surface of inner tube at 50C. The air enters at 16C and
leaves at 32C. Its flow rate is 30 m/s. Estimate the heat transfer coefficient between air
and the inner tube.
Given : Inner diameter Di = 3.125 cm = 0.03125 m
Outer diameter Do = 5 cm = 0.05 m
Inner temperature of air Tmi = 16C
Outer temperature of air tmo = 32C
Flow rate U = 30 m/s
Solution:
Mean temperature Tm =
16 32
2
Tm 24C
Tmi Tmo
2
= 1.614 Kg/m3
= 15.9 10 -6 m2 / s
Pr = 0.707
K = 26.3 10 -3 W / mK
We know,
109
Hydraulic or equivalent diameter
4 D2 Di2
4A
4
Dh
P
Do Di
Do Di Do Di
(Do Di )
Do Di
= 0.05 0.03125
Dh = 0.01875 m
30 0.01875
15.9 106
Re = 35.3 10-6
UDh

Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)n
This is heating process. So n = 0.4
Nu = 0.023 (35.3 103 )0.8 (0.707)0.4
Nu 87.19
hDh
We know Nu =
K
h 0.01875
87.19=
26.3 10-3
h = 122.3 W/m2K
24. Engine oil flows through a 50 mm diameter tube at an average temperature of
147C. The flow velocity is 80 cm/s. Calculate the average heat transfer coefficient if the
tube wall is maintained at a temperature of 200C and it is 2 m long.
Given : Diameter D = 50 mm
= 0.050 m
Average temperature Tm
= 147C
Velocity
U
= 80 cm/s = 0.80 m/s
Length
L
= 2m
To find: Average heat transfer coefficient (h)
Solution : Properties of engine oil at 147C
110
= 816 Kg/m3
= 7 10 -6 m2 / s
Pr = 116
K = 133.8 10 -3 W/mK
We know
0.8 0.05
7 10 6
Re = 5714.2
UD
Since Re < 2300 flow is turbulent

L
2
40
D 0.050
L
10 400
D
For turbulent flow, (Re < 10000)
0.8
Nusselt number Nu = 0.036 (Re) (Pr)

Nu 0.036 (5714.2)
0.8
(116)
0.33
0.33
D
L

0.050
0.055
0.055
Nu 142.8
hD
K
h 0.050
142.8 =
133.8 10 -3
h = 382.3 W/m2K
We know Nu =
25. A system for heating water from an inlet temperature of 20C to an outlet
temperature of 40C involves passing the water through a 2.5cm diameter steel pipe.
The pipe surface temperature is maintained at 110C by condensing steam on its
surface. For a water mass flow rate of 0.5 kg/min, find the length of the tube desired.
Given : Inlet temperature Tmi = 20C
Outlet temperature Tmo = 40C
111
Diameter D = 2.5 cm = 0.025 m

Piper surface temperature Tw = 110C
Mass flow rate m = 0.5 Kg/min = 8.33 10-3 Kg/s
To find: Length of the tube (L)
Solution: We know
Tmi Tmo
2
20 40
2
Tm 30C
Properties of water at 30C
= 997 Kg/m3
= 0.857 10-6 m2 / s
Pr = 5.5
K = 610 10 -3 W/mK
CP 4.178 KJ/Kg K = 4178 J/Kg K
We know
UD
Reynolds number Nu =
We know that,
Mass flow rate in = AU
8.33 10-3 D 2 U
4
8.33 10 3 997 (0.025)2 U

4
U = 0.017 m/s
UD
(1) Re =
0.017 0.025
0.857 106
Re 495
Since Re < 2300, flow is laminar
For laminar flow,
Nusselt number Nu = 3.66
112
We know that, Nu =
3.66
hD
K
h 0.025
610 103

Heat transfer Q = m CP T
m CP (Tmo Tmi )
8.33 103 4178 (40 20)
Q 696.05 W
Heat transfer Q = h A (Tw Tm )
h D L (Tw Tm )
696.05 89.3 0.025 L (110 30)
L = 1.24 m
Formulae used for free convection
Tw T
2
where Tw Surface temperature in C
T - Fluid temperature in C
2. Coefficient of thermal expansion

1
Tf in K
3. Nusselt Number Nu =
hL
K
Where h Heat transfer coefficient W/m2K

L Length, m
K Thermal conductivity, W/mK
4. Grashof number for vertical plate
g L3 T
Gr
v2
Where L - Length of the plate,
T - Tw T
- Kinematic viscosity, m 2 / s,
- Coefficient of thermal expansion.
113
5. If GrPr value is less than 109, flow is laminar. If GrPr value is greater than 10 9, flow is
turbulent.
i.e., GrPr > 109, Laminar flow
GrPr > 109, Turbulent flow
6. For laminar flow (Vertical plate):
Nusselt number Nu = 0.59 (GrPr)0.25
This expression is valid for,
104 < Gr Pr < 109
7. For turbulent flow (Vertical plate):
Nusselt Number Nu = 0.10 [Gr Pr]0.333
8. Heat transfer (vertical plate):
Q = h A (Tw - T)
9. Grashof number for horizontal plate:
g Lc 3 T
Gr
v2
W
Where Lc Characteristic length =
2
W Width of the plate.
10. For horizontal plate, upper surface heated,
Nusselt number Nu = 0.54 [Gr Pr]0.25
This expression is valid for
2 10 4 Gr Pr < 8 10 6
This expression is valid for 8 10 6 Gr Pr <1011
11. For horizontal plate, lower surface heated
Nusselt Number Nu = 0.27 [Gr Pr]0.25
This expression is valid for 105 < Gr Pr < 1011
12. Heat transfer (Horizontal plate)
Q = (hu + hj) A (Tw - T)
Where hu Upper surface heated, heat transfer coefficient W/m2 K
Hi Lower surface heated, heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K
114
13. For horizontal cylinder

Nusselt number Nu = C [Gr Pr]m
14. For horizontal cylinder,
Where A - DL
15.For sphere,
Nusselt number Nu = 2 + 0.43 [Gr Pr]0.25
Where A - 4r2
16. Boundary layer thickness
x [3.93 (Pr)0.5 (0.952+Pr)0.25 (Gr)0.25 ] x

26. A vertical plate of 0.75 m height is at 170 C and is exposed to air at a temperature
of 105C and one atmosphere calculate:
1. Mean heat transfer coefficient,
2. Rate of heat transfer per unit width of the plate
Given :
Length L
= 0.75 m
Wall temperature Tw
= 170C
Fluid temperature T = 105C
To find:
1. Heat transfer coefficient (h)
2. Heat transfer (Q) per unit width
Solution: Velocity (U) is not given. So this is natural convection type problem.
115
Film temperature Tf
Tw T
2
170 105
2
Tf 137.5C
Pr operties of air at Tf = 137.5C = 140C

Kinematic viscosity = 27.80 10 -6 m 2 / s
Prandtl number Pr = 0.684
Thermal conductivity K = 34.89 103 W / mK
We know that
1
Coefficient of thermal expansion} =
Tf in K
=
1
137.5+273
1
410.5
2.4 10 3 K 1
We know
g L3 T
v2
9.81 2.4 10 -3 (0.75)3 (170 105)
Gr =
(27.80 10 6 )2
Grahsof number Gr =
Gr = 8.35 108
Gr Pr = 8.35 10 8 0.684
Gr Pr = 5.71 10 8
Since Gr Pr < 109, flow is laminar
Gr Pr value is in between 104 and 109 i.e., 104 < Gr Pr < 109
So, Nusselt Number
Nu = 0.59 (Gr Pr)0.25
= 0.59 (5.71 108 )0.25
Nu 91.21
We know
Nusselt number Nu =
hL
K
116
h 0.75
34.89 10-3
h = 4.24 W/m2K
91.21 =

We know
Heat transfer Q = h A (Tw T )
= 4.24 1 0.75 (170-105)
[ Q W = 1m]
Q = 206.8 W
27. A large vertical plate 4 m height is maintained at 606C and exposed to atmospheric
air at 106C. Calculate the heat transfer is the plate is 10 m wide.
Given :
Vertical plate length (or) Height L = 4 m
Wall temperature Tw = 606C
Air temperature T = 106C
Wide W
= 10 m
To find: Heat transfer (Q)
Solution:
Film temperature Tf
Tw T
2
606 106
2
Tf 356C
Properties of air at 356C = 350C
= 0.566 Kg/m3
55.46 10-6 m2 / s
Pr = 0.676
K = 49.08 10 -3 W/mK
1
Tf in K
117
1
1
356 273 629

= 1.58 10-3K 1
g L3 T
Grashof number Gr =
v2
9.81 2.4 10 -3 (4)3 (606 106)
Gr =
(55.46 10 6 )2
Gr = 1.61 1011
Gr Pr = 1.61 1011 0.676
Gr Pr = 1.08 1011
Since Gr Pr > 109, flow is turbulent
For turbulent flow,
Nu = 0.10 [1.08 1011]0.333
Nu = 471.20
We know that,
hL
K
h 4
472.20 =
49.08 10-3
Nusselt number Nu
Heat transfer Q = h A T
h W L (Tw T )
5.78 10 4 (606 106)
Q 115600 W
Q = 115.6 103 W
28. A thin 100 cm long and 10 cm wide horizontal plate is maintained at a uniform
temperature of 150C in a large tank full of water at 75C. Estimate the rate of heat to
be supplied to the plate to maintain constant plate temperature as heat is dissipated
from either side of plate.
Given :
Length of horizontal plate L = 100 cm = 1m
Wide W
= 10 cm = 0.10 m
Plate temperature Tw = 150C
Fluid temperature T = 75C
To find: Heat loss (Q) from either side of plate
118
Solution:
Film temperature Tf
Tw T
2
150 75
2
Tf 112.5C
Properties of water at 112.5C
= 951 Kg/m3
= 0.264 10-6 m2 / s
Pr = 1.55
K = 683 10 3 W/mK
1
T in K
f
1
112.5 273
2.59 10 3 K 1
Grashof Number Gr =
g L3 T
v2
For horizontal plate,

Characteristic length L c
W 0.10
2
2
Lc = 0.05 m
(1) Gr =
9.81 2.59 10 -3 (0.05)3 (150 75)

(0.264 10 6 )2
Gr = 3.41 109
Gr Pr = 3.41 109 1.55
Gr Pr = 5.29 109
Gr Pr value is in between 8 106 and 1011
i.e., 8 106 < Gr Pr < 1011
For horizontal plate, upper surface heated:
Nusselt number Nu = 0.15 (Gr Pr)0.333
Nu = 0.15 [5.29 109 ]0.333
Nu = 259.41
We know that,
119
Nusselt number Nu =
huL c
K
hu 0.05
683 10 3
hu = 3543.6 W/m 2K
259.41
Upper surface heated, heat transfer coefficient hu = 3543.6 W/m2K

For horizontal plate, lower surface heated:
Nu = 0.27 [5.29 109 ]0.25
Nu = 72.8
We know that,
Nusselt number Nu =
h1Lc
K
h1Lc
K
h 0.05
72.8 1
683 10 3
h1 994.6 W/m2K
72.8
Lower surface heated, heat transfer coefficient h1 = 994.6 W/m2K

Total heat transfer Q = (hu + h1) A T
= (hu + h1) W L (Tw - T)
= (3543.6 + 994.6) 0.10 (150 75)
Q = 34036.5 W
29. A hot plate 20 cm in height and 60 cm wide is exposed to the ambient air at 30C.
Assuming the temperature of the plate is maintained at 110C. Find the beat loss from
both surface of the plate. Assume horizontal plate.
Given:
Height (or) Length of the Plate L
= 20 cm = 0.20 m
Wide W
= 60 cm = 0.60 m
Fluid temperature T
= 30C
To find:
120
Heat loss from both the surface of the plate (Q)

Solution:
Film temperature Tf
Tw T
2
110 30
2
Tf 70C
= 1.029 Kg/m3
= 20.02 10-6 m2 / s
Pr = 0.694
K = 29.66 10 -3 W/mK
We know
1
1
Tf in K 70 273
1
343
2.91 10 3 K 1
= 2.91 103K 1
We know
g L3 T
Grashof number Gr =
v2
Where L c Characteristic length =
W
2
0.60
0.30 m
2
Lc 0.30 m
Lc
(1) Gr =
9.81 2.91 10 -3 (0.30)3 (110 30)

(20.02 10 6 )2
Gr = 1.5384 10 8
Gr Pr = 1.5384 10 8 0.694
Gr Pr = 1.0676 10 8
Gr Pr value is in between 8 106 and 1011
i.e., 8 106 < Gr Pr < 1011
121
For horizontal plate, Upper surface heated,

0.333
Nu = 0.15 1.0676 108

Nu = 70.72
We know that,
hL
Nusselt number Nu = u c
K
hu 0.30
70.72
29.66 10 3
hu 6.99 W/m2K
Upper surface heated, heat transfer coefficient hu = 6.99 W/m2K
For horizontal plate, lower surface heated:
= 0.277 [1.06 108]0.25
Nu = 28.15
We know that,
hL
Nusselt number Nu = 1 c
K
h1 0.30
28.15
29.66 10 3
h1 = 2.78 W/m2K
Lower surface heated, heat transfer coefficient h = 2.78 W/m2K
Total heat transfer Q = (hu h1 ) A T
(hu h1 ) W L (Tw T )
Q = (6.99+2.78) 0.60 0.20 (110-30)
Q = 93.82 W
30. A vertical pipe 80 mm diameter and 2 m height is maintained at a consent
temperature of 120C. The pipe is surrounded by still atmospheric air at 30C. Find
heat loss by natural convection.
Given :
Vertical pipe diameter D
Height (or) Length L
Surface temperature Tw
Air temperature T
= 80 mm = 0.080 m
=2m
= 120 C
= 30C
122
To find: Heat loss (Q)

Solution: We know
Film temperature Tf
Tw T
2
120 + 30
2
Tf 75C
= 1.0145 Kg/m3
= 20.55 10-6 m2 / s
Pr = 0.693
K = 30.06 10 -3 W/mK
We know =
1
Tf in K
1
2.87 10 3 K 1
75 + 273
= 2.87 10-3K 1
We know
g L3 T
Gr =
v2
Gr =
9.81 2.87 10-3 (2)3 (120 30)

(20.55 10 6 )2
Gr = 4.80 1010
Gr Pr = 4.80 1010 0.693
Gr Pr = 3.32 1010
Since Gr Pr > 10 9 , flow is turbulent
For turbulent flow,
Nu = 0.10 [Gr Pr]0.333
= 0.10 [3.32 1010]0.333
Nu = 318.8
We know that,
123
Nusselt Number Nu =
hL
K
h2
30.06 10 3
Heat transfer coefficient, h = 4.79 W/m 2K
Heat loss Q = h A T
= h D L (Tw T )
318.8
4.79 0.080 2 (120 30)

Q 216.7 W
124
UNIT III
Introduction to Physical mechanism

Radiation properties
Radiation shape factors
Heat exchange between non- black bodies
Radiation shields.
125
RADIATION
PART A
1. Define Radiation.
The heat transfer from one body to another without any transmitting medium is
known as radiation. It is an electromagnetic wave phenomenon.
2. Define emissive power [E]
The emissive power is defined as the total amount of radiation emitted by a body per
unit time and unit area. It is expressed in W/m2.
3. Define monochromatic emissive power. [Eb]
The energy emitted by the surface at a given length per unit time per unit area in all
directions is known as monochromatic emissive power.
4. What is meant by absorptivity?
Absorptivity is defined as the ratio between radiation absorbed and incident radiation.
Radiation absorbed
Absorptivity
Incident radiation
5. What is meant by reflectivity?
Reflectivity is defined as the ratio of radiation reflected to the incident radiation.
Reflectivity
Radiation reflected
Incident radiation
Absorptivity
Radiation absorbed
Incident radiation
6. What is meant by transmissivity?

Transmissivity is defined as the ratio of radiation transmitted to the incident radiation.
Transmissivity
Radiation transmitted
Incident radiation
7. What is black body?

Black body is an ideal surface having the following properties.
126
1. A black body absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wave length and direction.
2. For a prescribed temperature and wave length, no surface can emit more energy than
black body.
8. State Plancks distribution law.
The relationship between the monochromatic emissive power of a black body and
wave length of a radiation at a particular temperature is given by the following expression, by
Planck.
Eb
C1 5
C2
e T 1
Where Eb = Monochromatic emissive power W/m2

= Wave length m
c1 = 0.374 10-15 W m2
c2 = 14.4 10-3 mK
9. State Wiens displacement law.
The Wiens law gives the relationship between temperature and wave length
corresponding to the maximum spectral emissive power of the black body at that temperature.
mas T = c 3
Where c3 = 2.9 10-3
mas
[Radiation constant]
T = 2.9 10 -3 mK
10. State Stefan Boltzmann law.

The emissive power of a black body is proportional to the fourth power of absolute
temperature.
Eb T 4
Where
Eb
T4
Eb
Emissive power, w/m2
Stefan. Boltzmann constant
=
=
5.67 10-8 W/m2 K 4

Temperature, K
127
11. Define Emissivity.

It is defined as the ability of the surface of a body to radiate heat. It is also defined as
the ratio of emissive power of any body to the emissive power of a black body of equal
temperature.
Emissivity
E
Eb
12. What is meant by gray body?

If a body absorbs a definite percentage of incident radiation irrespective of their wave
length, the body is known as gray body. The emissive power of a gray body is always less
than that of the black body.
13. State Kirchoffs law of radiation.
This law states that the ratio of total emissive power to the absorbtivity is constant for
all surfaces which are in thermal equilibrium with the surroundings. This can be written as
E1 E2 E3
1 2 3
It also states that the emissivity of the body is always equal to its absorptivity when
the body remains in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings.
1 = E1; 2 = E2 and so on.
14. Define intensity of radiation (Ib).
It is defined as the rate of energy leaving a space in a given direction per unit solid
angle per unit area of the emitting surface normal to the mean direction in space.
E
In b
15. State Lamberts cosine law.

It states that the total emissive power E b from a radiating plane surface in any
direction proportional to the cosine of the angle of emission
Eb
cos
16. What is the purpose of radiation shield?
128
Radiation shields constructed from low emissivity (high reflective) materials. It is

used to reduce the net radiation transfer between two surfaces.
17. Define irradiation (G)
It is defined as the total radiation incident upon a surface per unit time per unit area. It
is expressed in W/m2.
18. What is radiosity (J)
It is used to indicate the total radiation leaving a surface per unit time per unit area. It
is expressed in W/m2.
19. What are the assumptions made to calculate radiation exchange between the
surfaces?
1. All surfaces are considered to be either black or gray
2. Radiation and reflection process are assumed to be diffuse.
3. The absorptivity of a surface is taken equal to its emissivity and independent of
temperature of the source of the incident radiation.
20. What is meant by shape factor?
The shape factor is defined as the fraction of the radiative energy that is diffused from
on surface element and strikes the other surface directly with no intervening reflections. It is
represented by Fij. Other names for radiation shape factor are view factor, angle factor and
configuration factor.
PART B
1. A black body at 3000 K emits radiation. Calculate the following:
Monochromatic emissive power at 7 m wave length.
Wave length at which emission is maximum.
Maximum emissive power.
Total emissive power,
Calculate the total emissive of the furnace if it is assumed as a real surface
having emissivity equal to 0.85.
Given: Surface temperature T = 3000K
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
129
Solution:
1. Monochromatic Emissive Power :
From Plancks distribution law, we know
C1 5
Eb
C2
e T 1
Where
c1 = 0.374 10-15 W m2
c2 = 14.4 10-3 mK
= 1 10-6 m
[Given]
E b
0.374 1015 [1 10 6 ]5
144 10 3
1 10 6 3000
Eb 3.10 1012 W/m 2

2. Maximum wave length ( max)
From Wiens law, we know
maxT 2.9 10 3 mK
2.9 10 3
3000
= 0.966 10 -6m
max =
max
3. Maximum emissive power (Eb) max:

Maximum emissive power
(Eb)max = 1.307 10-5 T5
= 1.307 10-5 (3000)5
(Eb)max = 3.17 1012 W/m2
4. Total emissive power (Eb):
From Stefan Boltzmann law, we know that
Eb
= T4
Where
= Stefan Boltzmann constant

= 5.67 10-8 W/m2K4
130
Eb
Eb
= (5.67 10-8) (3000)4

= 4.59 106 W/m2
5. Total emissive power of a real surface:

(Eb)real = T4
Where =
Emissivity = 0.85
(Eb)real = 0.85 5.67 10 8 (3000)4
(Eb )real 3.90 10 6 W / m 2
2. A black body of 1200 cm2 emits radiation at 1000 K. Calculate the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Total rate of energy emission

Intensity of normal radiation
Wave length of maximum monochromatic emissive power.
Intensity of radiation along a direction at 60 to the normal.
Solution:
From Stefan Boltzmann law.
1. Energy emission Eb = T4
Eb = 5.67 10 8 (1000)4
Eb = 5.67 103 W/m2
Area
= 1200 10-4 m2,
Eb = 5.67103 1200 10-4
Eb = 6804 W
Here
2. Intensity of normal radiation

Eb
56.7 103 W / m2
=
In = 18,048 W/m2
In
3. From Wiens law, we know that
max T = 2.9 10-3 mK
131
max
max
2.9 10-3
=
3000
= 2.9 10 -6 m
max = 2.9
[ Q 1 = 10 -6 m]
3. Assuming sun to be black body emitting radiation at 6000 K at a mean distance of 12

1010 m from the earth. The diameter of the sun is 1.5 109 m and that of the earth is
13.2 106 m. Calculation the following.
1. Total energy emitted by the sun.
2. The emission received per m2 just outside the earths atmosphere.
3. The total energy received by the earth if no radiation is blocked by the earths
atmosphere.
4. The energy received by a 2 2 m solar collector whose normal is inclined at 45 to
the sun. The energy loss through the atmosphere is 50% and the diffuse radiation is
20% of direct radiation.
Given: Surface temperature T = 6000 K
Distance between earth and sun R = 12 1010 m
Diameter on the sun D1 = 1.5 109 m
Diameter of the earth D2 = 13.2 106 m
Solution:
1. Energy emitted by sun Eb
= T4
Eb = 5.67 10 -8 (6000)4
[ Q = Stefan - Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 10 -8 W / m 2 K 4 ]
Eb
= 73.4 10 6 W/m2
Area of sun A1 4 R12

1.5 109
= 4
A 1 7 1018 m2
Energy emitted by the sun

Eb
= 73.4 10 6 7 1018
Eb 5.14 10 26 W
132
2. The emission received per m2 just outside the earths atmosphere:

The distance between earth and sun
R = 12 1010 m
Area, A = 4 R 2
= 4 (12 1010 )2
A = 1.80 10 23 m 2
The radiation received outside the earth atmosphere per
m2
Eb
A
5.14 1026
=
1.80 1023
= 2855.5 W/m2
=
3. Energy received by the earth:
(D 2 )2
4
= [13.2 10 6 ] 2
4
Earth area =
Earth area = 1.36 10 4m2

Energy received by the earth
2855.5 1.36 10 4
3.88 1017 W
4. The energy received by a 2 2 m solar collector;
Energy loss through the atmosphere is 50%. So energy reaching the earth.
100 - 50 = 50%
= 0.50
Energy received by the earth
0.50 2855.5
1427.7 W/m2
......(1)
Diffuse radiation is 20%
133
0.20 1427.7 = 285.5 W/m 2

Diffuse radiation = 285.5 W/m 2
.........(2)
Total radiation reaching the collection

142.7 285.5
Plate area
1713.2 W/m2
= A cos
= 2 2 cos 45
= 2.82 m 2
Energy received by the collector

2.82 1713.2
4831.2 W
4. A large enclosure is maintained at a uniform temperature of 3000 K. Calculate the
following:
1. Emissive power
2. The wave length 1 below which 20 percent of the emission is concentrated and the
wave length 2 above which 20 percent of the emission is concentrated.
3. The maximum wave length.
4. Spectral emissive power.
5. The irradiation incident.
Given : Surface temperature T = 3000 K
1. Emissive power Eb = T4
5.67 10 8 (3000)4
Eb 4.59 10 6 W/m2
2. The wave length 1 corresponds to the upper limit, containing 20% of emitted radiation.
Eb(0-1T )
0.20 , corresponding
T4
1T = 2666 K
1T 2666 K
1 =
2666
3000
1 0.88
134
The wave length 2 corresponds to the lower limit, containing 20% of emitted
radiation.
Eb(0-1T)
T4
Eb(0-1T)
(1 0.20)
0.80, corresponding
T4
2T 6888 K
6888
2 =
3000
2 2.2
3. Maximum wave length ( max):

max T = 2.9 10-3 mK
2.9 10-3
3000
= 9.6 10 -7m
max =
max 0.96 10 6 m
4. Spectral Emissive Power:
From Plancks distribution law, we know
Eb
C1max 5
C2
e T 1
C1 0.374 10 15 W m2
where
C2 14.4 10 3 mK
0.374 10 0.96 10
15
E b
Eb = 3.1 1012 W/m2
14.4 10 3
0.96 10 6 3000 1
e
5. Irradiation:
The irradiation incident on a small object placed within the enclosure may be treated
as equal to emission from a black body at the enclosure surface temperature.
135
So, G = Eb = 4.59 10 6 W/m2 .

5. The sun emits maximum radiation at = 0.52. Assuming the sun to be a black body,
calculate the surface temperature of the sun. Also calculate the monochromatic emissive
power of the suns surface.
6
Given : max 0.52 0.52 10 m
To find : 1. Surface temperature T.
2. Monochromatic emissive power Eb.
Solution:
1. From Wiens law, we know
max T = 2.9 10 3 mK
T=
2.9 10-3
0.52 10 6
T = 5576 K
2. Monochromatic emissive power (Eb):

From Plancks law, we know
c1 5
Eb
C2
e T 1
where
C1 0.374 10 15 W m 2
C 2 14.4 10 3 mK
= 0.52 10 -6 m
E b
0.374 10 15 (0.52 10 6 )5
14.4 10 3
0.52 10 6 5576 1
e
Eb 6.9 1013 W / m2
6. A furnace wall emits radiation at 2000 K. Treating it as black body radiation,

calculate
1. Monochromatic radiant flux density at 1m wave length.
2. Wave length at which emission is maximum and the corresponding emissive
power.
136
3. Total emissive power

Given: Temperature T = 2000 K; = 1 m = 1 10-6
Solution:
1. Monochromatic emissive power (Eb):
Eb
c1 5
C2
e T 1
C1 0.374 10 15 W m 2
where
C 2 14.4 10 3 mK
= 1 m = 1 10 -6 m
Eb
[Given]
0.374 10 15 (1 10 6 )5
14.4 10 3
1 10 6 2000 1
e
Eb 2.79 1011 W / m2
2. Maximum Wave Length ( max):
From Wiens Law, we know that
max T = 2.9 10 3 mK
2.9 103
max
T
2.9 103
=
1.45 10 6 m
2000
max 1.45
Corresponding emissive power
c1max 5
Eb
C2
max T 1
e
137
0.374 10 15 1.45 10 6
14.4 10 3
1.45 10 6 2000 1
e
4.09 1011 W / m2
3. Total emissive power (Eb):
From Stefan Boltzmann law, we know
Eb = T4
Where - Stefan Boltzmann constant
5.67 10 8 W / m2 K 4
Eb = 5.67 10-8 (2000)4
Eb 907.2 103 W/m2
7. The temperature of a black surface 0.25 m2 of area is 650C. Calculate,

1. The total rate of energy emission
2. The intensity of normal radiation.
The wavelength of maximum monochromatic emissive power.
Given :
A = 0.25 m2
T = 650 + 273 = 923 K
To find : 1. Eb ; 2. In ; 3. max
Solution:
1. We know
Emissive power Eb = T4
= 5.67 10 8 (923)4
Eb = 41151.8 W/m2
Here
Area = 0.25 m2
Eb = 41151.8 W/m 2 0.25 m 2
Eb 10.28 103 Watts
2. We know
138
Eb
10.28 103
=
In = 3274.7 W
Intensity In
3. From Wiens law,
max T = 2.9 10 3 m
max
2.9 10 -3
=
923
max 3.13 10 6 m
8. Calculate the heat exchange by radiation between the surfaces of two long cylinders
having radii 120mm and 60mm respectively. The axis of the cylinder are parallel to each
other. The inner cylinder is maintained at a temperature of 130C and emissivity of 0.6.
Outer cylinder is maintained at a temperature of 30C and emissivity of 0.5.
Given : r1 = 60 mm
= 0.060 m
r2 = 120 mm
= 0.12
T1 = 130C + 273
= 403
1 = 0.6
T2 = 30C + 273 = 303 K
2 = 0.5
To find : Heat exchange (Q)
Solution: Heat exchange between two large concentric cylinder is given by
139
Q A T14 T2 4
.....(1)
[From equation No.27]

1
where
1 A1 1
1 A 2 2
1
[Q A DL]
1 D1L 2 1
1
0.6 D2L 2 0.5
1
[ Q L1 L 2 1]
1 0.12 1
1
0.6 0.24 0.5
0.46
(1)
Q12 0.46 5.67 10 8 D1 L (403)4 (303) 4
= 0.46 5.67 10 8 0.12 1 (403) 4 (303) 4
Q12 176.47 W
9. Two concentric spheres 30 cm and 40 cm in diameter with the space between them
evacuated are used to store liquid air at - 130C in a room at 25C. The surfaces of the
spheres are flushed with aluminium of emissivity = 0.05. Calculate the rate of
evaporation of liquid air if the latent heat of vaporization of liquid air is 220 kJ/kg.
Given: Inner diameter D1 = 30 cm
= 0.30 m
Inner radius
r1 = 0.15 m
Outer diameter
D2 = 40 cm
= 0.40 m
Outer radius
r2 = 0.20 m
T1 = - 130C + 273
= 143 K
T2 = 25C + 273
= 298 K
= 0.05
Latent heat of vapourisation = 220kJ /kg
= 220 103 J / kg
To find: Rate of evaporation
Solution: This is heat exchange between large concentric sphere problem.
Heat transfer Q12 A1 [T14 T2 4 ] ......(1)
140
1
1 A1 1
Where
1 A 2 2
1
4 r12 1
1
1
2
0.05 4 r2 0.05
[ Q 1 2 0.05; A 4 r 2 ]
=
1
1
(0.15)2 1
1
2
0.05 (0.20) 0.05
0.032
10. A pipe of outside diameter 30 cm having emissivity 0.6 and at a temperature of 600
K runs centrally in a brick of 40 cm side square section having emissivity 0.8 and at a
temperature of 300K. Calculate the following:
1. Heat exchange per metre length.
2. Convective heat transfer coefficient when surrounding of duct is 280 K.
Given:
Pipe diameter
Surface area
D1 = 30 cm
D1 = 0.30 m
A1 = D1L
= 0.30 1
A1 = 0.942 m2
1 = 0.6
T1 = 600 K
[Q L 1 m]
Brick duct side = 40 cm = 0.40 m

Surface area A2 = (0.4 1) 4
[length L = 1m; No. of sides = 4]
A 2 1.6 m2
2 0.8
T2 300 K
To find: 1. Heat exchange (Q)
2. Convective heat transfer coefficient (h) when
T = 280 K
Solution:
141
Case 1: We know that

4
4
Heat exchange Q12 A1 T1 T2 ....(1)
where
1
1 A1 1
1 A 2 2
1
=
1 0.942 1
1
0.6
1.6 0.8
0.55
(1) Q12 0.55 A 1 [T14 T2 4 ]
= 0.55 5.67 10 8 0.942 (600) 4 (300)4
Heat exchange Q12 3569.2 W / m
......(2)
Case (ii) :
Heat transfer by convection Q = hA (T - T)
Q12 = h A (T2 - T)
Q12 = h 1 (300 280)
Q12 20h
.....(3)
Equating (2) and (3),
3569.2 = 20h
Heat transfer coefficient = 178.46 W/m2 K

11. Emissivities of two large parallel plates maintained at 800C and 300C are 0.5
respectively. Find net radiant hat exchange per square metre for these plates. Find the
percentage reduction in heat transfer when a polished aluminium radiation shield of
emissivity 0.06 is placed between them. Also find the temperature of the shield.
Given :
T1 = 800C + 273
= 1073 K
T2 = 300C + 273
= 573 K
1 = 0.3
2 = 0.5
Shield emissivity 3 = 0.06
To find:
1. Net radiant heat exchange per square metre. (Q/A)
2. Percentage reduction in heat loss due to radiation shield.
142
3. Temperature of the shield (T3).

Solution: Heat exchange between two large parallel plates without radiation shield is given
by
Q12 A T14 T2 4
1
1 1
1
1 2
1
1
1
1
0.3 0.5
0.230
(1) Q12 0.230 A [T14 T2 4 ]
= 0.230 5.67 10 8 A (1073) 4 (573)4
Q12
15,879.9 W/m2
A
Heat transfer square metre without radiation shield
Q12
15.87 k W/m2
A
......(1)
Heat exchange between plate 1 and radiation shield 3 is given by

(1)
Q13 A [T14 T2 4 ]
Q13
1
1 1
1
1 3
A [T14 T3 4 ]
.....(A)
1 1
1
1 3
Heat exchange between radiation shield 3 and plate 2 is given by
143
Q32 A [T3 4 T2 4 ]
Where
1
1 1
1
3 2
A T3 4 T2 4
Q32
.....(B)
1 1
1
3 2
We know
Q13 = Q32
A [T14 T3 4 ] A [T3 4 T2 4 ]
1 1
1 1
1
1
1 3
3 2
[T14 T3 4 ]
[T3 4 T2 4 ]
1
1
1
1
1
0.3 0.06
0.06 0.5
(1073)4 (T3 4 ) (T3 4 ) (573)4
19
17.6
4
4
17.6 (1073) (T3 )
=
+ (573)4
19
= 0.926 (1073)4 (T3 )4 (573)4
T3 4
T3 4
T3 4 = 0.926 (1073)4 0.926 (T3 )4 (573)4

(T3 )4 0.926 (T3 4 ) 1.33 1012
(1.926) (T3 )4 = 1.33 1012

(T3 )4 = 6.90 1011
T3 911.5 K
Radiation shield temperature T3 911.5 K

Substituting T3 value in equation (A) (or) equation (B), Heat transfer with radiation shield
5.67 10 8 A (1073)4 (911.5)4
Q13
1
1
1
0.3 0.06
Q13
1895.76 W/m2
A
Heat transfer with radiation shield
144
Q13
1.89kW / m2 ......(2)
A
Reduction in heat loss due to radiation shield
Q without shield Qwith shield Q12 Q13
Q without shield
Q12
15.87 - 1.89
15.87
= 0.88 = 88%
=
12. A pipe of diameter 30 cm, carrying steam runs in a large room and is exposed to air
at a temperature of 25C. The surface temperature of the pipe is 300C. Calculate the
loss of heat of surrounding per meter length of pipe due to thermal radiation. The
emissivity of the pipe surface is 0.8.
What would be the loss of heat due to radiation of the pipe is enclosed in a 55 cm
diameter brick of emissivity 0.91?
Given :
Case 1: Diameter of pipe D1 = 30 cm = 0.30 m
Surface temperature T1 = 300C + 273
= 573 K
Air temperature
T2 = 25C + 273
= 298 K
Emissivity of the pipe
1 = 0.8
Case 2: Outer diameter
D2 = 55 cm = 0.55m
Emissivity
2 = 0.91
To find: 1. Loss of heat per metre length (Q/L).
2. Reduction in heat loss.
Solution:
Case 1:
4
4
Heat transfer Q 1 A T1 T2
1 DL T14 T2 4
[ Q A = DL
Q = 0.8 5.67 10 -8 0.30 L (573)4 (298) 4
Q/L = 4271.3 W/m
145
Heat loss per metre length = 4271.3 W/m

Case 2: When the 30 cm dia pipe is enclosed in a 55 cm diameter pipe, heat exchange
between two large concentric cylinder is given by
Q A1 T14 T2 4
1
1 A1 1
1 A 2 2
1
=
1 D1L 2 1
0.8 D2L 2 0.91
where
1
D 1
1
1
1
0.8 D2 0.91
1
1 0.30 1
0.8 0.55 0.91
0.76
Substituting emissivity value in equation (A),
(A) Q 0.76 5.67 10 8 D1 L1 (573)4 (298)4
Q
= 0.76 5.67 10 8 0.30 (573)4 (298)4
L
Q
4057.8 W / m
L
Reduction in heat loss
= 4271.3 4057.8
= 21.3.4
13. Emissivities of two large parallel plates maintained at T 1 K and T2 K are 0.6 and 0.6
respectively. Heat transfer is reduced 75 times when a polished aluminium radiation
shields of emissivity 0.04 are placed in between them. Calculate the number of shields
required.
Given: 1 = 0.6
2 = 0.6
Heat transfer reduced = 75 times
Emissivity of radiation shield, s = 3 = 0.04
146
To find: Number of screens require.

Solution: Heat transfer with n shield is given by
A [T14 T2 4 ]
Qin =
.......(1)
1 1 2n
(n 1)
1 2 s
Heat transfer without shield, i.e., n=0

(1)
Q12 =
A [T14 T2 4 ]
1 1
1
1 2
.......(2)
Heat transfer is reduced 75 times
Q without shield
75
Q with shield
Q12
75
Q13
A [T14 T2 4 ]
1 1
1
1 2
(2)
75
A [T14 T2 4 ]
(1)
1 1 2n
(n 1)
1 2 s
1 1 2n
(n 1)
1 2 s
75
1 1
1
1 2
1
1
2n
(n 1)
0.6 0.6 0.04
= 75
1
1
1
0.6 0.6
3.33 50n (n 1)
75
2.33
50n n-1 = 171.67
49n - 1 = 171.67
49n
= 172.67
n
= 3.52 4
n=4
147
14. Find the relative heat transfer between two large plane at temperature 1000 K and
500 K when they are
1. Black bodies
2. Gray bodies with emissivities of each surface is 0.7.
Given: T1 = 1000 K
T2 = 500 K
1 = 0.7
2 = 0.7
Solution :
Case 1: Heat exchange between two large parallel plate is given by
Q A T14 T2 4
For black bodies, 1
Q = A T14 T2 4
Q
5.67 108 (1000)4 (500)4
A
Q
53.15 103 W / m2
A
4
4
Case 2: Q A T1 T2
1
1 1
1
1 2
1
1
1
1
0.7 0.7
0.538
Q 0.538 A 5.67 10 8 (1000)4 (500)4
Q
28.6 103 W / m2
A
15. The inner sphere of liquid oxygen container is 40 cm diameter and outer sphere is 50
cm diameter. Both have emissivities 0.05. Determine the rate at which the liquid oxygen
would evaporate at -183C when the outer sphere at 20C. Latent heat of oxygen is 210
kJ/kg.
Given : Inner diameter
D1 = 40 cm = 0.40 m
148
Inner radius
r1 = 0.20 m
Outer diameter
D2 = 50 cm = 0.50 m
Outer radius r2 = 0.25 m
Emissivity
1 = 0.05
2 = 0.05
Inner temperature T1 = -183C + 273 = 90K
Outer temperature T2 = 20C + 273
= 293 K
Latent heat of oxygen = 210 kJ / kg
= 210 103 J/kg
To find : Rate of evaporation
Solution :
This is heat exchange between two large concentric spheres problem.
4
4
......(1)
Heat transfer Q A1 T1 T2
[From equation No.27]
where
1
1 A1 1
1 A 2 2
1
4 r 1
1
0.05 4 r 0.05
1
=
2
r 1
1
12
1
0.05 r2 0.05
2
1
2
2
[ Q A = 4 r 2 ]
1
1
(0.20)2 1
1
2
0.05 (0.25) 0.05
0.031
(1) Q12 0.031 5.67 10 8 4 (90)4 (293)4
Q12 6.45 W
[Negative sign indicates heat is transferred from outer surface to inner surface.]
Rate of evaporation =
Heat transfer
Latent heat
149
6.45 W
210 103 J/kg
6.45 J/s
210 103 J / kg
Rate of evaporation = 3.07 10 -5kg / s
16. Emissivities of two large parallel plates maintained at 800C are 0.3 and 0.5
respectively. Find the net radiant heat exchange per square metre of the plates. If a
polished aluminium shield ( = 0.05) is placed between them. Find the percentage of
reduction in heat transfer.
Given : T1 = 800C + 273 = 1073 K
T2 = 300C + 273 = 573 K
1 = 0.3
2 = 0.5
Radiation shield emissivity 3 = 0.05
To find:
Q
1. Net radiant heat exchange per square metre 12
A
2. Percentage of reduction in heat loss due to radiation shield.
Solution:
Case 1 : Heat transfer without radiation shield:
Heat exchange between two large parallel plats without radiation shield is given by
Q12 A T14 T2 4
1
1 1
1
1 2
1
1
1
1
0.3 0.5
0.230
150
Q12 0.230 5.67 10 8 A (1073)4 (573)4

Q12
15.8 103 W / m 2
A
Heat transfer
Case 2: Heat transfer with radiation shield:

Heat exchange between plate 1 and radiation shield 3 is given by
Q13 A [T14 T2 4 ]
where
Q13
1
1 1
1
1 3
A [T14 T3 4 ]
.....(A)
1 1
1
1 3
Heat exchange between radiation shield 3 and plate 2 is given by

Q32 A [T3 4 T2 4 ]
Where
1
1 1
1
3 2
A T3 4 T2 4
Q32
.....(B)
1 1
1
3 2
We know
Q13 = Q32
A [T14 T3 4 ] A [T3 4 T2 4 ]
=
1 1
1 1
1
1
1 3
3 2
(1073)4 - (T3 4 ) (T3 4 ) (573)4 ]
1
1
1
1
1
0.3 0.05
0.3 0.05
(1073)4 (T3 4 ) (T3 4 ) (573)4
22.3
21
13
4
2.78 10 21T3 22.3T3 4 2. 4 1013
3.02 1013 43.3T3 4
Shield temperature T3 913.8 K

Substitute T3 value in equation (A) or (B).
151
Substituting T3 value in equation (A) (or) equation (B),
Heat transfer with
Q13
5.67 10
4
4
A (1073) (913.8)
radiation shield
0.3
Q13
1594.6 W / m 2
A
1
0.05
......(2)
Re duction in heat loss

Qwithout shield Qwith shield

due to radiation shield
Q without shield
Q12 Q13
Q12
15.8 103 - 1594.6

=
15.8 103
= 0.899 = 89.9%
17. The amount of radiant energy falling on a 50 cm 50 cm horizontal thin metal plate
insulated to the bottom is 3600kJ /m 2 hr. If the emissivity of the plate surface is 0.8 and
the ambient air temperature is 30C, find the equilibrium temperature of the plate.
Given :
Area A = 50 cm 50 cm
= 0.5 0.5 m
A 0.25 m2
Radiant energy Q = 3600 kJ / m 2 hr
3600 103 J
3600 m2 s
= 10 3J / s m 2
=
= 1000
Here Area
W
m2
Q s W
= 0.25 m 2
Q = 1000
W
0.25m 2
2
m
Q = 250 W
Emissivity = 0.8
152
Ambient air temperature T2 = 30C + 273

= 303 K
To find : Plate temperature T1
Solution : We know
4
4
Heat transfer Q A T1 T2
250 0.8 5.67 10 8 0.25 T14 (303) 4
250 1.13 10 8 T14 (303) 4

T14 (303)4 = 2.2 1010
T1 417.8 K
18. Calculate the shape factors for the configuration shown in fig.
1. A black body inside a black enclosure.
2. A tube with cross section of an equilateral triangle.
3. Hemispherical surface and a plane surface
Solution:
Case 1:
[All radiation emitted from the black surface 2 is absorbed by the enclosing surface
1.]
We know
F1-1 + F1 2 = 1
.(1)
By reciprocity theorem
A1F12 = A2F21
AF
F12 2 21
A1
(1) F1-1 1 F1 2
F11 1
A2
F21
A1
153
F11 1
A2
A1
F11 1
A2
A1
[ Q F21 1]
F21 1
Re sult : F1-1 1
A2
A
, F1-2 2 , F21 1
A1
A1
Case 2 : We know
F1-1 F12 F13 1
F1-1 0
[For Flat surface shape factor (F1-1 ) 0]....(2)
F1 - 2 F1 3 1
F12 F13 [Since symmetry triangle]
(2)
F1 - 2 0.5
F1 - 3 0.5
Now considering radiation from surface 2,

F21 F2 2 F23 1
F2 - 2 0
F21 F2 3 1
F23 1 F21
.....(3)
By reciprocity theorem, we know

A1F12 = A2F21
A
F21 1 F12
A2
F21 F12
(3)
[ Q A1 A 2 ]
F23 1 F21
1 F12 [ Q F21 F12 ]
1 0.5 [ Q F12 0.5]
F23 0.5
Result: F1 1 = 0,
F21 = F12 = 0.5

F22 = 0
154
F1 2 = 0.5,
F1 3 = 0.5
F2 3 = 0.5
Case 3: We know
F1 1 + F1 2 = 1
By reciprocity theorem,
A1 F1 2 = A2 F2 1
A
F12 2 F21
...... (4)
A1
F2 - 1 1
[Since all radiation emitting from the black surface 2 are absorbed by the enclosing surface 1]
A
F1 - 2 2
[ Q F2 - 1 1]
A1
(4)
F1 - 2
r2
1
0.5
2
2 r
2
F1 - 2 0.5
We know F1 - 1 F12 1
F1 - 1 0.5 1
F1 - 1 0.5
19. Two black square plates of size 2 by 2 m are placed parallel to each other at a
distance of 0.5 m. One plate is maintained at a temperature of 1000C and the other at
500C. Find the heat exchange between the plates.
Given: Area A = 2 2 = 4 m2
T1 = 1000C + 273
= 1273 K
T2 = 500C + 273
= 773 K
Distance = 0.5 m
To find : Heat transfer (Q)
Solution : We know
Heat transfer general equation is
155
T14 T2 4
Q
where 12 1 1
1 2
1
A11 A1F12 A1 2
For black body
1 2 1
Q12 [T14 T2 4 ] A 1F12
= 5.67 10 8 (1273)4 (773) 4 4 F12
Q12 5.14 105 F12
......(1)
Where F12 Shape factor for square plates

In order to find shape factor F12, refer HMT data book, Page No.76.
Smaller side
X axis =
Distance between planes
2
=
0.5
X axis = 4
Curve 2
[Since given is square plates]
X axis value is 4, curve is 2. So corresponding Y axis value is 0.62.

i.e., F12 0.62
(1) Q12 5.14 10 5 0.62
Q12 3.18 10 5 W
20. Two circular discs of diameter 0.3 m each are placed parallel to each other at a
distance of 0.2 m. one is disc is maintained at a temperature of 750C and the other at
350C and their corresponding emissivities are 0.3 and 0.6. Calculate heat exchange
between the discs.
Given : D1 = 0.3 m
D2 = 0.3 m
156
2
D
4
= (0.3) 2
4
A1 A 2
A1 A 2 0.070 m2
T1 = 750C + 273 = 1023 K
T2 = 350C + 273 = 623 K
1 = 0.3
2 = 0.6
Distance between discs = 0.2 m.
To find : Heat exchange between discs (Q),
Solution:
Heat transfer by radiation general equation is
T14 T2 4
Q12
[From equation (6)]
1 1
1 2
1
A11 A1F12 A1 2
5.67 10 8 (1023)4 (623)4
1 0.3
1
1 0.6
0.070 0.3 0.070F12 0.070 0.6

5.35 10 4
Q12
........(1)
1
42.85
0.070 F12
Where F12 Shape factor for disc
Diameter
Distance between discs
0.3
=
0.2
X axis =
X axis = 1.5
Curve 1
[Since given is disc]
X axis value is 1.5, curve is 1. So, corresponding Y axis value is 0.28.
157

(1)
F12 0.28
Q12
5.35 10 4
1
42.85
0.070 0.28
Q12 569.9 W
21. Two parallel rectangular surfaces 1 m 2m are opposite to each other at a distance
of 4m. The surfaces are black and at 300C and 200C. Calculate the heat exchange by
radiation between two surfaces.
Distance = 4 m
T1 = 300C + 273
= 573 K
T2 = 200C + 273
= 473 K
To find: Heat exchange (Q12)
Solution : We know, Heat transfer general equation is
T14 T2 4
Q12
1 1
1 2
1
A11 A1F12 A1 2
For Black surface,
1 2 1
Q12 T14 T2 4 A1F12
......(1)
Where F12 Shape factor for parallel rectangles

In order to find shape factor refer HMT data book, Page No.77 and 78.
b Longer side
c
Dis tance
2
= 0.5
4
a 1
Y
0.25
c 4
X
From graph, we know,
158
F12 0.04
(1) Q12 5.67 10 8 (573) 4 (473) 4 2 0.04
Q12 261.9 W
22. Two parallel plates of size 3 m 2 m are placed parallel to each other at a distance of
1 m. One plate is maintained at a temperature of 550C and the other at 250C and the
emissivities are 0.35 and 0.55 respectively. The plates are located in a large room whose
walls are at 35C. If the plates located exchange heat with each other and with the room,
calculate.
1. Heat lost by the plates.
2. Heat received by the room.
Given:
Size of the plates = 3 m 2 m

Distance between plates
=1m
First plate temperature

T1
= 550C + 273 = 823 K
Second plate temperature
T2
= 250C + 273 = 523 K
Emissivity of first plate
1
= 0.35
Emissivity of second plate 2
= 0.55
Room temperature
T3 = 35C + 273 = 308 K
To find: 1. Heat lost by the plates
2. Heat received by the room.
Solution: In this problem, heat exchange take place between two plates and the room. So this
is three surface problem and the corresponding radiation network is given below.
Area A1 = 3 2 = 6 m2
A1 A 2 6m2
Since the room is large A 3

From electrical network diagram.
159
1 1 1 0.35
0.309
1A1 0.35 6
1 2 1 0.55
0.136
2 A 2 0.55 6
1 3
0
3 A3
Apply
[ Q A 3 ]
1 3
1-1
1 2
0,
0.309,
0.136
3 A3
1A1
2A2
diagram.
To find shape factor F12 refer HMT data book, Page No.78.
b 3
3
c 1
a 2
Y
2
c 1
X
X value is 3, Y value is 2, corresponding shape factor

[From table]
F12 = 0.47
F12 0.47
We know that,
F11 + F12 + F13 = 1
But,
F11 = 0
F13 1 F12
F13 1 0.47
F13 0.53
Similarly, F21 + F22 + F23 = 1

We know
F22 = 0
F23 1 F21
F23 1 F12
F13 = 1 - 0.47
F23 0.53
From electrical network diagram,
160
values in electrical network
1
1
0.314
A1F13 6 0.53
....(1)
1
1
0.314
A 2F23 6 0.53
....(2)
1
1
0.354
A1F12 6 0.47
....(3)
From Stefan Boltzmann law, we know

Eb T 4
Eb1 T14
= 5.67 10 -8 823
Eb1 26.01 103 W / m2
.....(4)
Eb2 T2 4
= 5.67 10 -8 823
Eb2 4.24 103 W / m2
.....(5)
Eb3 T3 4
= 5.67 10 -8 308
Eb3 J3 510.25 W / m2
.....(6)
[From diagram]
The radiosities, J1 and J2 can be calculated by using Kirchoffs law.
The sum of current entering the node J1 is zero.

At Node J1:
Eb1 J1 J2 J1 Eb3 J1
0
1
1
0.309
A1F12
A1F13
[From diagram]
26.01 103 J1 J2 J1 510.25 J1
0
0.309
0.354
0.314
J1
J2
J1
J1
84.17 103
1625
0
0.309 0.354 0.354
0.354
-9.24J1 2.82J2 85.79 10 3

.....(7)
At node j2
161
J1 J2 Eb3 J2 Eb2 J2
0
1
1
-+*
0.136
A1F12
A 2F23
J1 J2 510.25 J2 4.24 103 J2
0
0.354
0.314
0.136
J1
J2
J2
J2
510.25
4.24 103
0
0.354 0.354 0.314 0.314
0.136
0.136
2.82J1 13.3J2 32.8 103

....(8)
Solving equation (7) and (8),
-9.24J1 2.82J2 85.79 10 3 .....(7)
2.82J1 13.3J2 32.8 103
.....(8)
J2 4.73 103 W / m2
J1 10.73 103 W / m2
Heat lost by plate (1) is given by
Q1
Q1
Eb1 J1
1 1
1A1
26.01 103 10.73 103

1 0.35
0.35 6
Q1 49.36 103 W
Heat lost by plate 2 is given by
E J
Q2 b2 2
1 2
2 A 2
Q2
4.24 103 4.73 103

1 0.55
6 0.55
Q2 3.59 103 W
162
Total heat lost by the plates

Q = Q1 + Q2
= 49.36 103 3.59 103
Q 45.76 103 W
......(9)
Heat received by the room

Q
J1 J3 J2 J3
1
1
A1F13
A 1F12
10.73 103 510.25 4.24 10 3 510.25
0.314
0.314
[ Q E b1 J1 512.9]
Q = 45.9 10 3 W
.....(10)
From equation (9), (10), we came to know heat lost by the plates is equal to heat
received by the room.
23. Two black square plates of size 1 by 1 m are placed parallel to each other at a
distance of 0.4 m. One plate is maintained at a temperature of 900C and the other at
400. Find the net heat exchange of energy due to radiation between the two plates.
Distance = 0.4 m
T1 = 900C + 273
= 1173 K
T2 = 400C + 273
= 673 K
To find: Heat exchange (Q)
Solution: Heat transfer by radiation general equation is
163
T14 T2 4
Q12
1 1
1 2
1
A11 A1F12 A1 2
For black body,
1 2 1
Q12 T14 T2 4 A 1F12

= 5.67 10 -8 (1173) 4 (673) 4 F12
Q12 = 95.7 10 3F12
.......(1)
Where F12 shape factor for square plates.

Smaller side
X axis =
Distance between planes
1
=
0.4
X axis = 2.5
Curve 2 [since given is square plate]
X axis value is 2.5, curve is 2, so corresponding Y axis value is 0.42.
i.e., F12 = 0.42
(1) Q12 95.7 10 3 0.42

Q12 40 103 W
24. Two circular discs of diameter 20 cm each are placed 2 m apart. Calculate the
radiant heat exchange for these discs if there are maintained at 800C and 300C
respectively and the corresponding emissivities are 0.3 and 0.5.
Given :
D1 = 20 cm = 0.2 m
D2 = 0.2 m
T1 = 800C + 273
= 1073 K
T2 = 300C + 273
= 573 K
1 = 0.3
2 = 0.5
To find: Heat exchange (Q)
164
A1
D12
(0.2)2 0.031 m2
4
A1 = 0.031 m2
A
2
Q D1 D2
2 = 0.031 m
Heat transfer by radiation generation equation is
Solution: Area =
T14 T2 4
Q12
1 1
1 2
1
A11 A1F12 A 2 2
5.67 10 8 (1073)4 (573)4
1 0.3
1
1 0.5
0.031 0.3 0.31 F12 0.031 0.5

Q12
69 103
1
107.45
0.031 F12
.......(1)
Where F12 = Shape factor for disc.

In order to find shape factor, F12 refer HMT data book, Page No.76.
Diameter
X axis =
Distance between disc
0.2
=
2
X axis = 0.1
Curve 1 [since given is disc]
X axis value is 0.1, curve is 1, so corresponding Y axis value is 0.01.
F12 = 0.01
F12 = 0.01
(1)
Q12
69 103
1
0.031 0.01
Q12 = 20.7 Watts.
107.45
165
25. A long cylindrical heater 30 in diameter is maintained at 700C. It has surface

emissivity of 0.8. The heater is located in a large room whose wall are 35C. Find the
radiant heat transfer. Find the percentage of reduction in heat transfer if the heater is
completely covered by radiation shield ( = 0.05) and diameter 40 mm.
Given : Diameter of cylinder D1=30mm=0.030 mm
Temperature
T1=700C + 273 = 973 K
Emissivity
1 = 0.8
Room temperature T2 = 35C + 273 = 308 K
Radiation Shield :
Emissivity 3 = 0.05
Diameter D3 = 40 mm = 0.040 m
Solution:
Case 1 : Heat transfer without shield:
Heat transfer by radiation general equation is
T14 T2 4
1 1
1 2
1
A11 A1F12 A 2 2
Where A 1 DL 0.030 1 0.094 m
Q12
A 1 0.094 m 2
Since room is large A 2
F12 = Shape factor
Small body enclosed by large body F12 = 1
(1) Q12
[Refer HMT data book, Page No.73]

5.67 10 8 (973)4 (308)4
1 0.8
1 0.5
0
0.094 0.8 0.094 1
1 2
Since A 12 , A 0
2 2
Heat transfer without shield

Q12 3783.2 W
........(2)
166
Case 2: Heat transfer with shield:

Heat transfer between heater (1) and radiation shield (3) is given by
T14 T3 4
Q13
1 3
1 1
1
A11 A1F13 A 3 3
T14 T24
Q12
1 1
1 2
1
A11 A1F12 A 2 2
Where A 3 D3L 0.040 1
A 3 0.094 m 2
Shape factor for concentric long cylinder F13 = 1
[Refer HMT data book, Page No. 73]
(1) Q13
5.67 108 (973)4 T3 4
1 0.8
1
1 0.5
+
0.094 0.8 0.094 1 0.125 0.05
Q13 3.43 1010 (973)4 T3 4
........(3)
Heat exchange between radiation shield (3) and Room (2) is given by
T3 4 T2 4
Q32
1 3
1 2
1
A 3 3 A 3F32 A 2 2
Since room is large, A2 =
1 2
0
A 2 2
Shape factor for small body enclosed by large body
F32 = 1
[Refer HMT data book, Page No.73]
167
Q32
5.67 10 8 T3 4 (308)4
1 0.05
1
+0
0.125 0.5 0.125 1
Q32 3.54 1010 T3 4 (308)4
........(4)
T3 4 (308)
4
3.43 10-10 (973)4 T3 4 3.54 10 10
307.4 - 3.43 10 10 T3 4 3.54 10 10 T3 4 3.18
310.58= 6.97 10-10 T3 4
T3 817 K
Substitute T3 value in (3) or (4).

Heat transfer with radiation shield
Q13 3.43 10 10 (973)4 (817)4
Q13 154.6 W
Re duction heat
Q without shield Q with shield
loss due to

Q without shield
radiation shield
Q12 Q13
Q12
3783.2 154.6
95.9%
3783.2
26. A gas is enclosed in a body at a temperature of 727C. The mean beam length of the
gas body is 3 m. The partial pressure of water vapour is 0.2 atm and the total pressure is
2 atm. Calculate the emissivity of water vapour.
Given : Temperature T = 727C + 273 = 1000K
Mean beam length Lm = 3m
Partial pressure of water vapour PH20 0.2 atm.
Total pressure P = 2 atm.
To find : Emissivity of water vapour ( H2o )
Solution: PH2o Lm 0.2 3
PH2oLm 0.6 m atm
From HMT data book, Page No.92, we can find emissivity of H2o.
168
From graph,
Emissivity of H2o = 0.3
H2o 0.3
To find correction factor for H20:
PH2 0 P 0.2 2
1.1
2
2
PH2 0 P
1.1, PH2 0 Lm 0.6
2
From HMT data book, Page No.94, we can find correction factor for H2o
PH2O P
2
From graph,
Correction factor for H2o = 1.36
C H2o 1.36 ...........(2)
So, Emissivity of H2o, H2 0 0.3 1.36
H2 0 0.408
27. A gas mixture contains 20% CO 2 and 10% H2o by volume. The total pressure is 2
atm. The temperature of the gas is 927C. The mean beam length is 0.3 m. Calculate the
emissivity of the mixture.
Given : Partial pressure of CO2, PCO2 = 20% = 0.20 atm
Partial pressure of H2o, PH2 0 = 10% = 0.10 atm.
Total pressure P
= 2 atm
Temperature T = 927C + 273
= 1200 K
Mean beam length Lm = 0.3 m
To find: Emissivity of mixture (mix).
Solution : To find emissivity of CO2
PCO2 Lm 0.2 0.3
PCO2 Lm 0.06 m - atm

From HMT data book, Page No.90, we can find emissivity of CO2.
169
From graph, Emissivity of CO2 = 0.09
CO2 0.09
To find correction factor for CO2
Total pressure, P = 2 atm
PCO2 L m = 0.06 m - atm.
From HMT data book, Page No.91, we can find correction factor for CO2
From graph, correction factor for CO2 is 1.25
CCO2 1.25
CO2 CCO2 0.09 1.25

CO2 CCO2 0.1125
To find emissivity of H2o :
PH2o Lm 0.1 0.3
PH2oLm 0.03 m - atm
From HMT data book, Page No.92, we can find emissivity of H2o.
From graph Emissivity of H2o = 0.048
H2o 0.048
To find correction factor for H2o :
PH2o P
2
PH2o P
0.1 2
1.05
2
1.05,
2
PH2o Lm 0.03 m - atm
From HMT data book, Page No.92 we can find emission of H20
From graph,
170
Correction factor for H2o = 1.39

CH2O 1.39
H2O CH2O 0.048 1.39

H2O CH2O 0.066
Correction factor for mixture of CO2 and H2O:
PH2o
PH2o PCO2
PH2o
PH2o PCO2
0.1
1.05
0.1 0.2
0.333
PCO2 Lm PH2O L m 0.06 0.03

PCO2 Lm PH2O Lm 0.09
From HMT data book, Page No.95, we can find correction factor for mixture of CO 2 and
H2o.
From graph,
0.002
Total emissivity of gascous mixture

max co2 CCO2 H2O CH2O V
max 0.1125 0.066 0.002

[From equation (1), (2) and (3)]
max 0.1765
28. A furnace of 25 m2 area and 12 m2 volume is maintained at a temperature of 925C

over is entire volume. The total pressure of the combustion gases is 3 atm, the partial
pressure of water vapour is 0.1 atm and that of CO2 is 0.25 atm.
Calculate the emissivity of the gaseous mixture.
Given :
Area A
Volume V
Temperature T
Total pressure P
= 25 m2
= 12 m3
= 925 + 273
= 1198 K
= 3 atm
Partial pressure of water vapour, PH2O = 0.1 atm.
171
Partial pressure of CO2 PCO2 0.25 atm.

To find: Emissivity of mixture ( mix ).
Solution : We know Mean beam length for gaseous mixture.
V
Lm 3.6
A
12
= 3.6
25
Lm 1.72 m
To find emissivity of CO2
PCO2 Lm 0.25 1.72
PCO2 L m 0.43 m-atm.

From HMT data book, Page No.90, we can find emissivity of CO2.
CO2 CCO2 0.18

From graph,
Emissivity of CO2 = 0.15
CO2 0.15
To find correction factor for CO2:
Total pressure P = 3 atm.
PCO2 L m 0.43 m-atm
From HMT data book, Page No.91, we can find correction factor for CO2.
From graph, we find CCO2 1.2
CCO2 1.2
CO2 CCO2 0.15 1.72
.....(1)
To find emissivity of H2O:

PH2O Lm 0.1 1.72
PH2O Lm 0.172
From HMT data book, Page No.92, we can find emissivity of H2O.
172
From graph,
Emissivity of H2O = 0.15
H2O 0.15
To find correction factor for H2O:
PH2O P
2
PH2O P
2
PCO2
0.1 3
1.55
2
1.55,PH2O L m 0.172.
From HMT data book, Page No.94, we can find correction factor for H2O.
Lm PH2O Lm 0.602
From graph, we find

CH2O 1.58
CH2O 1.58
H2O CH2O 0.15 1.58
H2O CH2O 0.237 ........(2)

Correction Factor for mixture of CO2 and H2O:
PH2O
PH2O PCO2
PH2O
PH2O PCO2
0.1
0.285
0.1 0.25
0.285
PCO2 L m PH2O L m 0.25 1.72 0.1 1.72

= 0.602.
From HMT data book, Page No.95 we can find correction factor for mixture of CO 2
and H O
2
From graph, we find = 0.045.

0.045
..........(3)
173
Total emissivity of the gaseous mixture is

mix CO2 CCO2 H2O CH2O V
mix 0.18 0.237 0.045

[From equation (1), (2) and (3)]
mix 0.372
UNIT IV
Classification
Temperature Distribution
Overall heat transfer coefficient
Heat Exchange Analysis LMTD Method and E-NTU Method,
problems using LMTD and E-NTUmethds
174
Heat Exchangers
PART A
1. What is heat exchanger?
A heat exchanger is defined as an equipment which transfers the heat from a hot fluid
to a cold fluid.
2. What are the types of heat exchangers?
The types of heat exchangers are as follows
1. Direct contact heat exchangers
2. Indirect contact heat exchangers
175
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Surface heat exchangers

Parallel flow heat exchangers
Counter flow heat exchangers
Cross flow heat exchangers
Shell and tube heat exchangers
Compact heat exchangers.
3. What is meant by Direct heat exchanger (or) open heat exchanger?

In direct contact heat exchanger, the heat exchange takes place by direct mixing of hot
and cold fluids.
4. What is meant by Indirect contact heat exchanger?
In this type of heat exchangers, the transfer of heat between two fluids could be
carried out by transmission through a wall which separates the two fluids.
5. What is meant by Regenerators?
In this type of heat exchangers, hot and cold fluids flow alternately through the same
space.
Examples: IC engines, gas turbines.
6. What is meant by Recupcradors (or) surface heat exchangers?
This is the most common type of heat exchangers in which the hot and cold fluid do
not come into direct contact with each other but are separated by a tube wall or a surface.
7. What is meant by parallel flow heat exchanger?
In this type of heat exchanger, hot and cold fluids move in the same direction.
8. What is meant by counter flow heat exchanger?
In this type of heat exchanger hot and cold fluids move in parallel but opposite
directions.
9. What is meant by cross flow heat exchanger?
In this type of heat exchanger, hot and cold fluids move at right angles to each other.
10. What is meant by shell and tube heat exchanger?
In this type of heat exchanger, one of the fluids move through a bundle of tubes
enclosed by a shell. The other fluid is forced through the shell and it moves over the outside
surface of the tubes.
11. What is meant by compact heat exchangers? [Nov 1996 MU]
176
There are many special purpose heat exchangers called compact heat exchangers.
They are generally employed when convective heat transfer coefficient associated with one of
the fluids is much smaller than that associated with the other fluid.
12. What is meant by LMTD?
We know that the temperature difference between the hot and cold fluids in the heat
exchanger varies from point in addition various modes of heat transfer are involved.
Therefore based on concept of appropriate mean temperature difference, also called
logarithmic mean temperature difference, also called logarithmic mean temperature
difference, the total heat transfer rate in the heat exchanger is expressed as
Q = U A (T)m
Where
U Overall heat transfer coefficient W/m2K
A Area m2
(T)m Logarithmic mean temperature difference.
13. What is meant by Fouling factor?
We know the surfaces of a heat exchangers do not remain clean after it has been in use
for some time. The surfaces become fouled with scaling or deposits. The effect of these
deposits the value of overall heat transfer coefficient. This effect is taken care of by
introducing an additional thermal resistance called the fouling resistance.
14. What is meant by effectiveness?
The heat exchanger effectiveness is defined as the ratio of actual heat transfer to the
maximum possible heat transfer.
Effectiveness
Actual heat transfer

Maximum possible heat transfer
Q
=
Qmax
PART B
1. A condenser is to designed to condense 600 kg/h of dry saturated steam at a pressure
of 0.12 bar. A square array of 400 tubes, each of 8 mm diameter is to be used. The tube
surface is maintained at 30C. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient and the length of
each tube.
Given :
m 600 kg/h =
600
kg / s 0.166 kg/s
3600
m = 0.166 kg/s
Pressure P 0.12 bar
177
No. of tubes = 400

Diameter D = 8mm = 8 10 -3m
Surface temperature Tw 30 C
Solution
Properties of steam at 0.12 bar
From R.S. Khurmi steam table Page No.7
Tsat 49.45C
hfg 2384.3 kj/kg
hfg = 2384.9 103 j / kg
We know
Film temperature Tf
Tw Tsat
2
30 49.45
2
Tf 39.72C 40C
Properties of saturated water at 40C

- 995 kg/m3
= .657 10 -6 m2 / s
k 628.7 10 3 W/mk
= = 995 0.657 10 -6
= 653.7 10 -6 Ns/m2
with 400 tubes a 20 20 tube of square array could be formed
i.e.
N 400 20
N 20
For horizontal bank of tubes heat transfer coefficient.
K 3 2g hfg
h = 0.728
D (Tsat Tw )
0.25
178
(628 10-3 )3 (995)2 9.81 2384.3 103

h = 0.728
6
3
653.7 10 20 8 10 (49.45 30)
0.25
h = 5304.75 W/m2K
We know
Heat transfer
Q hA(Tsat Tw )
No. of tubes = 400
Q = 400 h D L (Tsat Tw )
Q 400 5304.75 8 10 3 1 (49.45-30)
Q = 1.05 10 6 L........1
We know
Q m hfg
= 0.166 2384.3 103
Q = 0.3957 10 6 W
= 0.3957 10 6 1.05 10 6 L
L 0.37 m
Problems on Parallel flow and Counter flow heat exchangers
Formulae used
1. Heat transfer Q = UA (T)m
Where
U Overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K
A Area, m2
(T)m Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference. LMTD
For parallel flow
( T)m
(T1 t1 ) (T2 t 2 )
T t
In 1 1
T2 t 2
In Counter flow
179
( T)m
(T1 t1 ) (T2 t 2 )
T t
In 1 1
T2 t 2
Where
T1 Entry temperature of hot fluid C
T2 Exit temperature of hot fluid C
T1 Entry temperature of cold fluid C
T2 Exit temperature of cold fluid C
2. Heat lost by hot fluid = Heat gained by cold fluid
Qh = Qc
mhCph (T1 T2 ) mcCpc (t 2 t1)
Mh Mass flow rate of hot fluid, kg/s

Mc Mass flow rate of cold fluid kg/s
Cph Specific heat of hot fluid J/kg K
Cpc Specific heat of cold fluid J/kg L
3. Surface area of tube
A = D1 L
Where D1 Inner din
4. Q = m hfg
Where hfg Enthalpy of evaporation j/kg K
5. Mass flow rate
m = AC
2. In a counter flow double pipe heat exchanger, oil is cooled from 85C to 55C by
water entering at 25C. The mass flow rate of oil is 9,800 kg/h and specific heat of oil is
2000 j/kg K. the mass flow rate of water is 8,000 kg/h and specific heat of water is 4180
j/kg K. Determine the heat exchanger area and heat transfer rate for an overall heat
transfer coefficient of 280 W/m2 K.
Given:
Hot fluid oil
T1,T2
Cold fluid water

t1, t2
Entry temperature of oil T1 = 85C

Exit temperature of oil T2 = 55C
Entry temperature of water t1 = 25C
Mass flow rate of oil (Hot fluid) mh = 9,800 kg/h
180
9,800
kg / s
3600
mh 2.72 kg/s
Specific heat of oil Cph = 2000 j/kg K
Mass flow of water (Cold fluid mc = 8,000 kg/h)
8,000
kg / s
3600
me 2.22 kg / s
Specific heat of water Cpc 4180 j/kg K
Overall heat transfer coefficient U = 280 W/m2K
To find
1. Heat exchanger area (A)
Solution
We know that
Heat lost by oil Hot fluid = Heat gained by water cold fluid
Qh = Qc
mhCph (T1 T2 ) mcCpc (t 2 t1 )
2.72 2000 (85-55)=2.22 4180 (t 2 25)
163.2 103 9279.6 t 2 231.9 103
t 2 42.5C
Exit temperature of water t 2 42.5C
Heat transfer Q =mcCpc (t 2 t1) (or) mhCph (T1 T2 )

Q 2.22 4180 (42.5 25)
Q 162 103 W
Q UA (T)m ........1
For counter flow
181
( T)m
(T1 t1 ) - (T2 t 2 )
T t
In 1 1
T2 t 2

(85 42.5) - (55 25)
( T)m
85 42.5
In
55 25
( T)m 35.8C
Substitute (T)m U and Q values in Equation (1)
(1) Q = UA (T)m
162 103 280 A 35.8
A = 16.16 m2
3. Water flows at the rate of 65 kg/min through a double pipe counter flow heat
exchanger. Water is heated from 50C to 75C by an oil flowing through the tube. The
specific heat of the oil is 1.780 kj/kg K. The oil enters at 115C and leaves at 70C. The
overall heat transfer coefficient is 340 W/m2 K. Calculate the following
1. Heat exchanger area
2. Rate of heat transfer
Given :
Hot fluid oil
T1, T2
Cold fluid water

t1, t2
Mass flow rate of water cold fluid mc = 65 kg/min

65
kg / s
60
mc 1.08 kg/s
Exit temperature of water t2 = 75C
Specific heat of oil (Hot fluid) Cph = 1.780 kj/kg K
= 1.780 103 j/kg K
Exit temperature of oil T2
= 70C
Overall heat transfer coefficient U = 340 W/m2/K
To find
182
1. Heat exchanger area (A)

Solution
We know
Heat transfer Q = mcCpc (t 2 t 1) (or)
mhCph (T1 T2 )
Q mc Cpc (t 2 t1 )
Q 1.08 4186 (75 50)
Q Specific heat of water Cph 4186 j/kg K
Q = 113 103 W
We know
Heat transfer Q = U A (T)m
From HMT data book Page No., 154
Where
(T)m Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference. LMTD
For Counter flow
(T t ) (T2 t 2 )
( T)m 1 1
T t
In 1 1
T2 t 2
(115 75) (70 50)
(T)m
115 75
In
70 50
( T)m 28.8C
Substitute (T)m Q and U values in Equation (1)
(1) Q =UA (T)m
113 103 340 A 28.8
A = 11.54 m2
183
4. In a double pipe heat exchanger hot fluid with a specific heat of 2300 j/kg K enters at
380C and leaves at 300C. cold fluid enters at 25C and leaves at 210C. Calculate the
heat exchanger area required for
1. Parallel flow
2. Counter flow
Take overall heat transfer coefficient is 750 w/m2 K and mass flow rate of hot fluid is 1
kg/s.
Given :
Specific heat of hot fluid Cph = 2300 j/kg K
Entry temperature of hot fluid T1 = 380C
Exit temperature of hot fluid T2 = 300C
Entry temperature of cold fluid t1 = 25C
Exit temperature of cold fluid t2 = 210C
Mass flow rate of fluid mh = 1 kg/s
Solution
Case (i)
For parallel flow
( T)m
(T1 t1 ) (T2 t 2 )
T t
In 1 1
T2 t 2

(380 25) (300 210)
(T)m
380 25
In
300 210
( T)m 193.1C
Heat transfer Q = mcCpc (t 2 t1 ) (or)

mhCph (T1 T2 )
Q mc Cpc (t 2 t1 )
= 1 2300 380 300
Q = 184 10 3 W
We know that
Q U A ( T)m
184
Heat transfer 184 103 750 A 193.1

Area for parallel flow A = 1.27 m2
Case (ii)
For counter flow
( T)m
(T1 t 2 ) (T2 t1 )
T t
In 1 2
T2 t1

(380 210) (300 25)
(T)m
380 210
In
300 25
( T)m 218.3C
We know that,
Heat transfer Q = UA (T)m
184 103 750 A 218.3
Area for counter flow A = 1.12 m 2

5. In a counter flow single pass heat exchanger is used to cool the engine oil from 150C
with water available at 23c as the cooling medium. The specific heat of oil is 2125 J/kg
K. The flow rate of cooling water through the inner tube of 0.4 m diameter is 2.2 Kg/s.
the flow rate of oil through the outer tube of 0.75m diameter is 2.4 kg/s. If the value of
the overall heat transfer coefficient is 240 W/m 2 how long must the heat exchanger be to
meet its cooling requirement?
Given :
Hot fluid oil
T1, T2
Cold fluid water

(t1, t2)

= 55
Specific heat of oil hot fluid Cph
= 2125 J/Kg K
Inner Diameter D1
= 0.4 m
Flow rate of water cooling fluid mc = 2.2 kg/s
Outer diameter D2
= 0.75 m
Flow rate of oil Hot fluid mh
= 2.4 kg/s
Over all heat transfer coefficient U= 240 W/m2K
Solution
185
We know
Heat lost by oil Hot fluid = Heat gained by water (cold fluid)
Qh Q c
mhCph (T1 T2 ) mcCpc (t 2 t1)
2.4 2125 (150 - 55) = 2.2 4186 (t 2 23)

[Specific heat of water Cpc = 4186 J/Kg K]
434.5 103 = 9209.2 t 2 - 211 103
t 2 75.6C
Exit temperature of water t 2 75.6C
We know
Heat transfer Q = mc Cpc (t2 t1) (or)
MhCph (T1 T2)
Q = 2.2 4186 (75.6 - 53)

Q = 484.4 10 3 W
We know
Heat transfer Q = UA (T)m (1)
where
(T)m Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD).
For Counter flow,
(T t ) (T2 t1 )
( T)m 1 2
T t
In 1 2
T2 t1
186
( T)m
(150 75.6) (55 23)

150 75.6
In
55 23
( T)m 50C
Substitute (T)m U and Q values in equation 1
Q = U A (T)m
484.4 103 240 A 50.2
A 40.20 m2
We know
Area A = D1 L
40.20 0.4 L
L 31.9 m
6. Saturated steam at 126C is condensing on the outer tube surface of a single pass heat
exchanger. The heat exchanger heats 1050 kg/h of water from 20C to 95C. The overall
heat transfer coefficient is 1800 W/m2K. Calculate the following.
1. Area of heat exchanger
2. Rate of condensation of steam
Take hfg = 2185 kj/kg
Given :
Hot fluid steam
T1, T2
Cold fluid water

t1, t2
Saturated steam temperature T1 = T2 = 126C

Mass flow rate of water mc = 1050 kg/h
1050 kg
3600 s
mc 0.29 kg/s
Exit temperature of water t2 = 95C
Over all transfer coefficient U = 1800 W/m2K
Enthalpy of evaporation hfg = 2185 kg/jg
= 2185 103 j/kg
Solution
We know
Heat transfer
187
Q mc Cpc (t 2 t1 )
Q 0.29 4186 (95 20)
[ Q Specific heat of water Cpc 4186 J/kg K]
Q = 91 103 W
We know
Heat transfer
Q mh hfg
91 103 mh 2185 10 3
Rate of condensation of steam mh = 0.0416 kg/s

We know that
Heat transfer Q = UA (T)m .1
Where
( T)m Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference LMTD
For parallel flow
(T)m
(T1 t1 ) (T2 t 2 )
T1 t1
T2 t 2
In
=
(126 - 20) - (126-95)

126-20
In
126-95
(T)m 61C
Substitute (T)m Q, U values in equation (1)

(1) q = UA (T)m
91 103 1800 A 61
Area A = 0.828 m2
7. An oil cooler of the form of tubular heat exchanger cools oil from a temperature of
90C to 35C by a large pool of stagnant water assumed constant temperature of 28C.
The tube length is 32 m and diameter is 28 mm. The specific heat and specific gravity of
the oil are 2.45 kj/kg K and 0.8 respectively. The velocity of the oil is 62 cm/s. Calculate
the over all heat transfer coefficient.
Given :
Hot fluid Oil
T1, T2
Cold fluid Water

t1, t2
188

= 35C
Entry and Exit temperature of water t1=t2=28C
Tube length L = 32 m
Diameter D = 28 mm = 0.028 m
Specific heat of oil Cph = 2.45 kj/kg/K
Cph = 2.45 103 j/kg K
Specific gravity of oil = 0.8
Velocity of oil C = 62 cm/s = 0.62 m/s.
To find
We know
Density of oil
Density of water
= Q
w
Specific gravity of oil =
0.8 =
0
1000
Density of oil 0 = 800 kg/m3

Mass flow rate of oil
mh 0 A C
800
2
(D ) 0.62
4
(0.028)2 0.62
4
mh 0.305 kg/s
800
We know
Heat transfer
Q mc Cpc (t 2 t1 )
0.305 2.45 103 90 35

Q = 41 103 W
We know
Heat transfer Q = U A (T)m ..1
(From HMT data book Page No.154)
Where
(T)m Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference LMTD.
189
For parallel flow

( T)m
(T1 t1 ) (T2 t 2 )
T1 t1
T2 t 2
In

=
(90-28)-(35 -28)
90-28
In
35-28
(T)m 25.2C
Substitute (T)m Q value in equation 1

(1) q = U A (T)m
41 103 U DL ( T)m
41 103 U 0.028 32 25.2
U = 577.9
Overall heat transfer coefficient U = 577.9 W/m2K
Result
U = 577.9 W/m2K
Problems on cross flow heat exchangers (or) shell and tube heat exchangers.
Formulae used
1. Q = FU A (T)m
Where
(Counter Flow)
F Correction factor From data book

U Overall heat transfer coefficient W/m2K
(T)m Logarithmic mean temperature difference
For counter flow
(T t ) (T2 t1 )
( T)m 1 2
T t
In 1 2
T2 t1
where
T1 Entry temperature of hot fluid C
T2 Exit temperature of hot fluid C
190
T1 Entry temperature of cold fluid C

T2 Exit temperature of cold fluid C
2. Heat lost by hot fluid = Heat gained by cold fluid
Qh = Qc
mhCph T1 T2 mc Cph (t 2 t1 )
8. In a cross heat exchangers both fluids unmixed hot fluid with a specific heat of 2300
J/kg K enters at 380C and leaves at 300C cold fluids enters at 25C and leaves at
210C. Calculate the required surface of heat exchanger. Take overall heat transfer
coefficient is 750 W/m2 K. Mass flow rate of hot fluid is 1 kg/s
Given :
Specific heat of hot fluid Cph = 23000 J/kg K
Entry temperature of hot fluid T1
= 380C
Exit temperature of heat fluid T2
= 300C
Entry temperature of cold fluid t1
= 25C
Exit temperature of cold fluid t2
= 210C
Mass flow rate of hot fluid mh
= 1 kg/s
To find
Heat exchanger area (A)
Solution:
This is cross flow both fluids unmixed type heat exchanger. For cross flow heat exchanger.
Q = FU A (T)m (Counter flow).1
Where
F correction factor
(T)m Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference for Counter Flow
For Counter flow
( T)m
(T1 t 2 ) (T2 t1 )
T1 t 2
T2 t1
In
191
(380-210)-(300 -25)
380-210
In
300-25
(T)m 218.3C
We know
Heat transfer
Q = mhCph (T1 T2 )
Q 1 1200 (380-300)
Q = 184 103 W
To find correction factor E refer HMT data book Page No.164.

Single pass cross flow heat exchanger Both fluids unmixed.
From graph
Xaxis Value P =
t 2 t1 210 25
0.52
T1 t1 380 25
Curve value = R=
T1 T2 380 300
0.432
t 2 t1
210 25
Xaxis Value is 0.52 curve

Value is 0.432 corresponding Yaxis value is 0.97
i.e. F = 0.07
Substitute Q, F (T)m and U value in Equation (1)
(1) Q = FU A (T)m
184 103 0.97 750 A 218.3
A 1.15 m2
9. In a refrigerating plant water is cooled from 20C to 7C by brine solution entering at
-2C and leaving at 3C. The design heat load is 5500 W and the overall heat transfer
coefficient is 800 W/m2 K. What area required when using a shell and tube heat
exchanger with the water making one shell pass and the brine making two tube passes.
Given:
Hot fluid Water
Cold fluid brine solution
192
(T1, T2)
(t1, t2)
Entry temperature of water T1 = 20C

Exit temperature of water T2 = 7C
Entry temperature of brine solution t1 = -2C
Exit temperature of brine solution t2 = 3C
Heat load Q = 5500 W
Overall heat transfer coefficient U = 8000 W/m2 K
To find
Area required A
Solution
Shell and tube heat exchanger one shell pass and two tube passes
For shell and tube heat exchanger or cross heat exchanger.
Q = F U A (T)m (Counter flow)
(From HMT data book Page No.154)
Where
F Correction factor
(T)m Logarithmic mean temperature difference for counter flow
For counter flow
(T t ) (T2 t1 )
( T)m 1 2
T t
In 1 2
T2 t1
(20-3)-(7 +2)
=
20-3
In
7+2
(T)m 12.57C
To find correction factor F refer HMT data book Page No.161

One shell pass and two tube passes
From graph
Xaxis Value P =
t 2 t1
32
5
T1 t1 20 2 22
P 0.22
Curve value = R=
T1 T2 20 7 13
t 2 t1
32
5
R = 2.6
Xaxis value is 0.22 curve value is 2.6 corresponding Yaxis value is 0.94
Substitute (T)m Q, U and F value is Equation (1)
193
1 Q F U A (T)m
5500 0.94 800 A 12.57
A 0.58 m2
10. Saturated steam at 120C is condensing in shell and tube heat exchanger. The
cooling water enters the tuber at 25C and leaves at 80C. Calculate the logarithmic
meant temperature difference if the arrangement is
(a) Counter Flow (b) Parallel Flow (c) Cross Flow
Given :
Hot fluid steam
(T1, T2)
Cold fluid water

(t1, t2)
Saturated steam temperature T1

Entry temperature of water t1
Exit temperature of water t2
= T2 = 120C
= 25C
= 80C
To find
(T)m for parallel flow counter flow and cross flow
Solution:
Case (i)
For parallel flow
( T)m
(T1 t1 ) (T2 t 2 )
T t
In 1 1
T2 t 2
(120-25)-(120-80)
120-25
In
120-80
(T)m for parallel flow = 63.5C

Case (ii)
For Counter Flow
194
( T)m
(T1 t 2 ) (T2 t1 )
T t
In 1 2
T2 t1
(120-80)-(120-25)
120-80
In
120-25
(T)m for Counter flow = 63.5C

Case (iii)
For cross flow
(T)m = F (T)m for Counter flow
( T)m F 63.5 ...........2
Where
F = Correction factor
Refer HMT data book Page No.163
Correction factor for single pass cross flow heat exchanger one fluid mixed other unmixed.
Xaxis Value P =
t 2 t1
80 25
T1 t1 120 25
P 0.578
Curve value = R=
T1 T2 120 120
t 2 t1
80 25
R=0
Xaxis value is 0.578 curve value is 0
So corresponding Yaxis value is 1
Correction Faction F = 1
(3) ( T)m F 63.5C 1 63.5
(T)m for cross flow = 63.5 .........3

From (1) (2) and (4) we came to know when one of the fluids in a heat exchanger changes
phase, the logarithmic mean temperature difference and rate of heat transfer will remain same
for parallel flow counter flow and cross flow.
Solved problems NTU method
Note NTU method is used to determine the inlet or exit temperatures of heat exchanger.
11. A parallel flow heat exchanger is used to cool. 4.2 kg/min of hot liquid of specific heat
195
3.5 kj/kg K at 130C. A cooling water of specific heat 4.18 kj/kg K is used for cooling
purpose at a temperature of 15C. The mass flow rate of cooling water is 17 kg/min
calculate the following.
1. Outlet temperature of liquid
2. Outlet temperature of water
3. Effectiveness of heat exchanger
Take care,
Overall heat transfer coefficient is 1100 W/m2 K.
Heat exchanger area is 0.30 m2
Given :
Mass flow rate of hot liquid mh
= 4.2 kg/min
mh = 0.07 kg/s
specific heat of hot liquid Cph = 3.5 kj/kg K
Cph 3.5 103 j / kg K
Inlet temperature of hot liquid T1

= 130C
Specific heat of water Cph
= 4.18 kj/kg K
Cph
= 4.18 103 j/kg K
Inlet temperature of cooling water t1 = 15C
Mass flow rate of cooling water mc = 17 kg/min
mc 0.28 kg/s
Overall heat transfer coefficient U = 1100 w/m2K
Area A = 030 m2
To find
1. Outlet temperature of liquid (T2)
2. Outlet temperature of water (t2)
3. Effectiveness of heat exchanger ()
Solution:
Capacity rate of hot liquid C mh Cph
0.07 3.5 10 3
C 245 W/K .......1
196
Capacity rate of liquid C = mh Cph

= 0.28 4.18 10 3
C = 1170.4 W/K ..........2
From (1) and (2)
Cmin = 245 w/k
Cmax 1170.4 w/k
Cmin
245
0.209
Cmax 1170.4
Cmin
0.209..........3
Cmax
UA
Cmin
Number of transfer units NTU =
1100 0.30
245
NTU 1.34 .........4
NTU
To find effectiveness refer HMT data book Page No.165

Parallel Flow heat exchanger
From graph
Xaxis NTU 1.34
Curve
Cmin
0.209
Cmax
Corresponding Yaxis value is 64%

i.e. = 0.64
We know
Qmax Cmin (T1 t1)
= 245 (130-15)
Qmax 28,175 W
Actual heat transfer rate

Q Qmax
= 0.64 28.175
Q = 18,032 W
197
We know that
Heat transfer
Q mc Cpc (t 2 t1 )
18,032 = 0.28 4.18 103 t 2 15
18,032 = 1170.4 t 2 17556
t 2 30.40C
Outlet temperature of water t 2 30.40C
We know that
Heat transfer
Q mc Cpc (T1 T2 )
18,032 = 0.07 3.5 103 130 T2

18,032 = 31850 245 T2
T2 56.4C
Outlet temperature of liquid T2 56.4C
12. In a counter flow heat exchanger water at 20C flowing at the rate of 1200 kg/h it is
heated by oil of specific heat 2100 J/kg K flowing at the rate of 520 kg/h at inlet
temperature of 95C. Determine the following.
1. Total heat transfer
2. Outlet temperature of water
3. Outlet temperature of oil
Take
Overall heat transfer coefficient is 1000 W/m2 K. Heat exchanger area is 1m2
Given:
Cold fluid Water
Hot fluid Oil
Inlet temperature of water t1 = 20C
Mass flow rate of water mc = 1200 kg/h
mc = 0.33 kg/s
Specific heat of oil
Cph = 2100 J/kg K
Mass flow rate of oil = mh = 520 kg/h
520
kg / s
3600
mh 0.144 kg / s
198
Inter temperature of oil T1 = 95C

Heat exchanger area A = 1m2
To find
1. Total heat transfer (Q)
2. Outlet temperature of water (T2)
3. Outlet temperature of oil (t2)
Solution
Capacity rate of oil C mh Cph
0.144 2100
C = 302.4 W/K .......1
Capacity rate of water
C mh Cph
= 0.33 4186
C = 1381.3 W/K ........2
Specific heat of water Cpc = 4186 J/kg K
From Equation (1) and (2)
Cmin 302.4 W/K
Cmax = 1381.3 W/K
Cmin
302.4
=
0.218
Cmax
1381.3
Cmin
0.218 ......3
Cmax
UA
Cmin
100 1
302.4
NTU -3.3 ........4

To find effectiveness refer HMT data book Page No.166
(Counter Flow heat exchanger)
199
From graph
Xaxis NTU = 3.3
Curve
Cmin
0.218
Cmax
Corresponding Yaxis value is 0.95

i.e. = 0.095
We know
Qmax Cmin T1 t1
= 302.4 (95-20)
Qmax 22,680 W
We know
Q Qmax
= 0.925 22,680
Q = 21,546 W
We know that
Heat transfer
Q mc Cpc t 2 t1
21,546 0.33 4186 (t 2 20)
Q Cpc = 4186 J/kg K
21,546 - 1381.38 t 2 27.627.6
t 2 35.5C
Outlet temperature of water t 2 35.5 C
We know that
Heat transfer
200
Q mc Cpc T1 T2
21,546 0.144 2100 (95 T2 )
21,546 = 28,728 - 3024 t 2
T2 23.75C
Outlet temperature of oil T2 23.75 C
13. In a cross flow both fluids unmixed heat exchanger, water at 6C flowing at the rate
of 1.25 kg/s. It is used to cool 1.2 kg/s of air that is initially at a temperature of 50C.
Calculate the following.
1. Exit temperature of air
2. Exit temperature of water
Assume overall heat transfer coefficient is 130 W/m2K and area is 23 m2.
Given :
Cold fluid water
Hot fluid air
Inlet temperature of water t1 = 6C
Mss flow rate of water mc
= 1.25 kg/s
Mass flow rate of air mh
= 1.2 kg/s
Initial temperature of air T1 = 50C
Overall heat transfer coefficient U = 130 W/m2 K
Surface area A = 23 m2
To find
1. Exit temperature of air (T2)
2. Exit temperature of water (t2)
Solution
We know
Specific heat of water Cpc = 4186 J/kg K
Specific heat of air Cph = 1010 J/kg K (constant)
We know
Capacity rate of water
C mc Cpc
= 1.25 4186
C = 5232.5 W.K ............1
Capacity rate of air
C mh Cpc
= 1.2 1010
C = 1212 W.K ............2
From Equation (1) and (2) we know
201
Cmin 1212 W / K
Cmax = 5232.5 W/K
Cmin
1212
0.23
Cmax 5232.5
Cmin
0.23 .......3
Cmax
=
UA
Cmin
130 23
1212
NTU = 2.46 ...........4
(To find effectiveness refer HMT data book Page No.169)

(cross flow both fluids unmixed)
From graph
Xaxis NTU 2.46
Curve
Cmin
0.23
Cmax
Corresponding Yaxis valueis 0.85

i.e.
= 0.85
Maximum heat transfer

Qmax Cmin (T1 t1 )
= 1212 (50-6)
Qmax 53,328 W

Q Qmax
= 0.85 53,328
Q = 45,328 W
202
We know
Heat transfer
Q mc Cpc (t 2 t1 )
45,328 1.25 4186 (t 2 6)
45,328 5232.5 t 2 31,395
t 2 14.6C
Outlet temperature of water t 2 14.6 C
we know
Heat transfer
Q = mhCph (T1 T2 )
45,328 1.2 1010 (50 T2 )
45,328 60,600 1212 T2
T2 = 12.6C
Outlet transfer of air T2 12.6 C
203
UNIT V
High-Speed flow Heat Transfer,

Heat Transfer problems in gas turbine combustion chambers
Rocket thrust chambers
Aerodynamic heating
Ablative heat transfer
Heat transfer problems in nozzles
204
Heat Transfer Problems In Aerospace Engineering
PART A
1. Define Jet propulsion.
When oxygen is obtained from the surrounding atmosphere for combustion process,
the system is called as Jet propulsion.
2. List out the components of aircraft gas turbine.
The components of aircraft gas turbines are:
i. Compressor
ii. Combustion chamber
iii. Turbine
iv. Tail pipe (or) Nozzle
v. After burner
3. List the different types of jet engines.
i. Turbo jet engine
ii. Turbo prop engine
iii. Ram jet engine
iv. Pulse jet engine
v. Turbo fan engine.
4. Define Thrust.
The force which propels the aircraft forward at a given speed is called thrust (or) propulsive
force.
5. Define specific Impulse.
Specific impulse is defined as the thrust developed per unit weight flow rate through
propulsive device.
F
Isp = _____
W
6. Define thrust power (or) propulsive power.
It is define as the power developed by the thrust of the engine is called thrust power
which is the thrust force times the distance moved by air craft per unit time.
Pth = F . U
205
Pth = m (Cj U ) x u
Where
M flow rate of air fuel mix
Cj Jet velocity
U flight velocity
7. Define specific fuel consumption (SFC).
Specific fuel consumption is defined as the fuel consumption rate per unit thrust.
mf
TSFC = ____
F
8. Define propulsive efficiency.
It is the ratio of propulsive or thrust power to power output of the engine.
Propulsive power (or) thrust power
p =
____________________________________________
Power output of the engine
9. Define thermal efficiency.

It is the ratio of power output of the engine to power input to the engine through the
fuel.
th =

___________________________________
Power input to the engine

m (Cj2 u2)
th = ___________________
m f . Qf
where, m mass flow rate of air fuel on mixture
Cj Jet velocity
u flight velocity
mf mass rate of fuel
Qf calorific value of fuel
10. Define overall efficiency.
It is defined as the ratio of propulsive power to power input to the engine through
fuel.
Propulsive Power
206
0 = ________________________________ __________________
Power input to the engine through fuel
0 =
m (Cj u) . u
_________________
m f Qf
0 = p x nth
11. Give an expression that relatives overall efficiency and TSFC.
u
0 = ________________
TSFC x Qf
12. Define propulsive efficiency as applied to jet propulsion system.
Thrust power
Propulsive efficiency = _______________________________
Thrust Power + K.E losses
13. Define air standard efficiency of ideal cycle.
Air standard efficiency is defined as the ratio of work to the heat supplied
Qr
j = 1 - _____
Qs
1
1
j = 1 - ____ = 1 - _________
t
(r-1)/r
14. Define Ram effect.
The pressure rise takes place due to the conversion of kinetic energy of incoming air
into pressure energy by the diffuser. This type of compression is called as Ram effect.
15. Give the expression for ideal efficiency of ram jet engine.
1
ideal = 1 -
_____
t
where r pressure ratio
1
=1-
___________
r (r-1/r)
207
PART B
1. A turboprop engine operates at an altitude of 3000 meters above mean sea level and
an aircraft speed of 525 kmph. The data for the engine is given below:
Inlet diffuser efficiency
= 0.875
Compressor efficiency
= 0.790
Velocity of air at compressor entry
= 90 m/s
Temperature rise through the compressor= 2300C
Properties of air: = 1.4, cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K
From the above data calculate (a) pressure rise through the inlet diffuser (b) pressure
ratio developed by the compressor (c) power required by the compressor per unit flow rate of
air and (d) the air standard efficiency of the engine.
Solution. At Z = 3000 m
Ti = 268.65K, pi = 0.701, pi = 0.909 kg/m3
ai = 328.7 m/s
u = 525/3.6 = 145.833 m/s
Mi = u/ai = 145.833/328.7 = 0.4436
Toi
-1
--- =1+ ---- Mi2 = 1+ 0.2 x 0.44362= 1.03936
Ti
2
Toi = To1 = 1.03936 x 268.65 = 279.244 K
T1 = T01 c12/2cp = 279.244-8100/2x1005 = 275.194 K
For the inlet diffuser,
T1s Ti = D(T1 Ti)
T1s
T1
p1s (-1)/ p1 ( -1)/
----- = 1 +D --- -1 = -----= ---Ti
Ti
pi
pi
( 1) /
p1
275.194
1 1.0213
= ! + 0.875

268.65
pi
p1/pi = (1.0213)3.5 = 1.0766
p1 = 1.0766 0.701 = 0.7547 bar.
(a)
(b)
Pressure rise through the inlet diffuser

P1-Pi= 0.7547-0.7010=0.0537bar Ans
Compressor efficiency is given by
208
c T01 roc 1 / 1 T02 T01

r0 c 1 /
roc
c
T02 T01 1
T01
0.79 230
1 1.6507
279.224
P02
3.5
1.6507 5.779 Ans
P01
( c) power required by the compressor is

ma c p T02 T01 1 1.005 230
231.15kw / kg / s . Ans
(d) Air standard efficiency of the engine for the pressure ratio of 5.779 is
j 1
1
1
1
0.286
r0c 1 /
5.770
j 0.3942 Ans.
2. The diameter of the propeller of an aircraft is 2.5m; It flies at a speed of 500 kmph at
an altitude of 8000m. For a flight to jet speed ratio of 0.75 determine (a) the flow rate of
air through the propeller, (b) thrust produced, ( c) Specific thrust, (d) specific impulse
and (e) the thrust power.
Solution: Area of cross-section of the propeller disc
A d 2 2.52 4.908m 2
4
4
Air density at Z= 8000m is
=0.525kg/m3
Flight speed u =500 138.89m/s
=u/cj=0.75
c j =138.89/0.75=185.18m/s
(a) velocity of air flow at the propeller disc is
209
1
u cj
2
c 0.5 138.89 185.18 162.35m / s
c
Theoretical value of the flow rate is given by

ma Ac 0.525 4.908 162.035
ma 417.516kg / s Ans
(b) F=m a c j u
F 417.516 185.18 138.89 103

F 19.3268kN Ans
F 19326.8
(c) Fs
46.29 N kg / s Ans
ma 417.516
(d )
Is
F
F
46.29
4.718 s Ans.
wa ma g
9.81
(e) Thrust power is P=F u

P=19.3268 138.89=2684.3kW Ans
3. An aircraft flies at 960 kmph. One of its turbojet engines takes in 40 kg/s of air and
expands the gases to the ambient pressure. The air fuel ratio is 50 and the lower
calorific value of the fuel is 43 MJ/kg. For maximum thrust power determine (a) jet
velocity (b) thrust (c) specific thrust (d) thrust power (e) propulsive, thermal and
overall efficiencies and (f) TSFC).
Solution: u=960 X 1000/3600=266.7m/s
(a)
For maximum thrust power u / c j 0.5
c j 266.7 / 0.5 533.4m / s
mf
(b)in ma m f ma 1
ma
m 40 1 40.8kg / s
50
F mc j ma u
F 40.8 533.4 40 266.7 103
F 11.094 KN Ans.
( c) specific thrust based on air intake
210
FS F / ma
Fs 11094 / 40 277.35 N kg / s Ans
(d )Thrust power p= F u
p=11.094 266.7=2958.77kw Ans
(e) p
th
1
2
0.666or 66.6% Ans

1 c j /u 1 3
1
m c2 j u2
2
mfQf
mf
th
1
40
ma
0.8kg / s
50
50
0.5 40.8 533.42 266.7 2
0.8 43 106
th 0.1265 or 12.65% Ans

0 p th 0.666 0.1265
0 0.0842 or 8.42% Ans
TSFO=m j 3600 / F
0.8 3600 /11094
0.2596kg / kN Ans
4. A turbojet engine propels an aircraft at a Mach number of 0.8 in level flight at an
altitude of 10 km. The data for the engine is given below.
Stagnation temperature at the turbine inlet= 1200K
Stagnation temperature rise through the compressor =175K
Calorific value of the fuel=43MJ/kg,
Compressor efficiency = 0.75
Combustion chamber efficiency = 0.975
Turbine efficiency = 0.81
Mechanical efficiency of the power transmission between turbine and compressor =0.98
Exhaust nozzle efficiency = 0.97.
Specific impulse =25 seconds.
Assuming the same properties for air and combustion gases calculate:
(a) fuel-air ratio,
(b) Compressor pressure ratio
(c) Turbine pressure ratio
(d) Exhaust nozzle pressure ratio, and
211
(e) Mach number of exhaust jet.

Solution:
Temperature and velocity of sound at the engine entry at Z=10km are.
Ti 223.15 K , ai 299.6m / s
1 2
T01 Toi 1
M i Ti
2
1.4 1
T01 1
0.82 223.15 251.71k
2
T02 T01 175, T02 175 251.71 426.71K

( a) For the combustion chamber,
m f c pT03 ma c pT02 Bm f Q f
1
1 T03 T02 Bm f Q f / cp
f
1
0.975 43 106
1200
426.71
1200
f
1005
f
(b)
mf
ma
0.01908 Ans
For the compressor,
T P
T02 T01 01 02
c P01
1 /
Stagnation pressure ratio across the compressor

= P02 / P01 roc therefore
T T
roc 1 c 02 01
T01
0.75 175
roc 1
251.71
3.5
1.5214
3.5
roc 4.344 Ans
212
( c) Compressor power required = power supplied by the turbine; there fore
m ma m f cp T03 T04 T02 T01

T03 T04 175 / 0.98 1.01908 175.228
1
T03 1
r0T
1 / y
r 175.228
175.228
ToT 1
1200 0.81
Is
/ 1
2.005 Ans
u 1
1
u / ai M i
u M i ai 0.8 299.6 239.68m / s
(d)
25
239.68 1
1
9.81
u / ce 0.4942
ce 239.68 / 0.4942 484.93m / s
For the exhaust or propelling nozzle.
Toe T04 Te c 2 e / 2c p
T04 1200 175.228 1024.772k
Te 1024.772 484.932 / 2 1005
Te 907.778K
1
T04 Te n T04 Tes nT04 1
rn
1
1024.772 907.778 0.97 1024.772 1
rn
p
rn 04 1.55 Ans
Pe
( e) velocity of sound at the nozzle exit
213
ae RTe
1/ 2
1.4 287 907.778
1/ 2
603.94m / s
The exit Mach number is given by

M e ce / ae 484.93 / 603.94
M e 0.803 Ans
The Mach number corresponding to the isentropic flow will be higher than this value.
Using isentropic flow tables for =1.4
M = 0.816 at pe/P04=1.55=0.645
5. A ramjet engine operates at M=1.5 at a altitude of 6500m. The diameter of the inlet
diffuser at entry is 50 cm and the stagnation temperature at the nozzle entry is 1600K.
The calorific value of the fuel used is 40 MJ/kg. the properties of the combustion gases
are same as those of air ( =1.4, R=287 J/Kg K.. The velocity of air at the diffuser exit is
negligible.
Calculate (a) the efficiency of the ideal cycle (b) flight speed (c) air flow rate (d)
nozzle jet Mach number (h) propulsive efficiency (i) and thrust. Assume the following
values: D 0.90,B 0.98, j 0.96 stagnation pressure loss in the combustion
chamber =002p02
Solution:
Refer to Figure
At z=6500m the properties of air are
T1 245.90 K , P1 0.440, a1 314.50m / s
1 0.624kg / m 3
(a)ideal cycle efficiency
2 1
i 1
1 M 21
1
2
1
i 1
2
0.310. Ans
1.4 1 1.5
u
(b) M 1
a1
u 1.5 314.50 471.75m / s
u 1698.3kmph. Ans
( c) Area of cross section of the diffuser inlet
214

0.52 0.1963m 2
4
ma 1uA1
ma 0.624 471.48 0.1963
ma 57.752kg / sAns
A1
(d) For negligible velocity at the diffuser exit p02=p2

1
c p T2 s T1 rD
D
1 2
1 2
c1
M 1
2
2
rD
1 D
rD 1.405
3.5
1 2
1.4 1
M 1 1 0.9
1.52
2
2
3.2875.Ans
p2 p02 rD.P1 3.2875 0.440 1.446

T01
1 2
1
M 1 1 0.2 1.52 1.45
T1
2
T02 T01 1.45 245.90 356.55K
M a c p T03 T02 Bm f Q f
(e)
mf
ma
c p T03 T02 B.Qf
f 1.005 1600 356.55 / 0.98 40000

f 0.03188 Ans
(f)
P03 P02 0.02 p02 0.98 p02

P03 0.98 1.446 1.417bar
Nozzle pressure ratio
p
1.417
rj 03
3.22 Ans
p4 0.440
(g)The mach number at the nozzle exit for a pressure ratio of 3.22 in an isentropic expansion
would be M4s =1.41; however on account of irreversible expansion ( j =0.96) the exit
velocity and mach number will be slightly lower.
215
T04
1 2
1
M 4 S 1 0.2 1.412 1.3976
T4 s
2
T4 s 1600 /1.3976 1144.82 K
T04 T4 j T04 T4 s 0.96 1600 1144.82

T4 1600 4363973 1163.027 K
T04 T4 c 2 4 / 2c p
C 2 4 2c p T04 T4 2 1005 436.973
c4 937.185m / s
a4 1.4 287 1163.027
M4
1/ 2
683.59m / s
c4 937.185
1.371Ans
a4 683.596
h) u / c4 471.48 / 937.185 0.503
2
2 0.503
0.6693 Ans
1 1 0.503
(i) m f 57.752 0.03188 1.841kg / s

m ma m f 57.752 1.841 59.593Kg / s
F mc4 ma u
f 59.593 937.185 57.752 471.75 10 3
F 28.614kN Ans.
6. A turbo jet engine takes in 50 kg/sec of air and propels an aircraft with uniform flight
speed 880 km/hr. Isentrophic enthalphy change for nozzle is 188 kj/kg and its velocity
co-efficient is 0.96. the fuel air ratio is 1.2%. combustion efficiency is 95%, calorific
value of fuel is 44000 kj/kg. find out,
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Thermal efficiency of the engine

Fuel flow in kg/hr
Propulsive efficiency
Overall efficiency
Given data :
216
ma 50 kgs; u=
880
244.444m / s
3.6
n 188.10 j / kh; Cu 0.96;
mf
0.012
ma
nCB 0.95; C.V=44000 kj/kg

mf
0.012 50 = 0.6 kg/s
ma
Ce Cv 2h
0.96 2 188 1000 = 588.66 m/s
Fuel flow in kg/hr = 0.6 X 3600
= 2160 kg/hr
Since the expansion in the nozzle I isentropic,
CiCc 588.66 m/s
np=
2u
58.6827%
cj u
m ma mf 50.6 kg/s
Therefore the velocity of jet.
Thrust power = [mcj-mau]u
= 50.6 X 588.66 50 X 244.444) 244.444
= 4293.4134 kw
Overall efficiency
Thrust power
Heat supplied
4293.4134 103
= no 17.1188%
0.6 44000 103 0.95
Thermal efficiency of the engine nth
no
29.1719%
np
Result :
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Thermal efficiency of the engine nth = 29.1719%

Fuel flow in kg/hr =
m1 = 2160 kg/hr
=
np = 58.6827%
Overall efficiency =
n0 = 17.1188%
7. A turbo jet has a speed of 750 km/hr while flying at an altitude of 10000m. the
217
propulsive efficiency of the jet is 50% and the overall efficiency of the turbine plant is
16%. The density of the air at 10000m altitude is 0.173 kg/m 3. the drag on the plane is
6250 N. calorific value of the fuel is 48000 kj/kg. Calculate,
i.
Absolute velocity of the jet
ii.
Diameter of the jet and
iii.
Power output of the unit in kw.
Given data :
u
750
208.333 m/s
3.6
Z=10000m; np 0.5; n0 0.16

P 0.173 kg/m3 ; F=D=6250N
C.V =48000 kj/kg
2u
2 208.3333
np
cj u
= 833.3333 m/s
cj u
0.5
C j 625m / s
n0
Thrust power
Heatsupplied
n0
F u
mf c.v
mf
6250 208.3333
= 0.1695421 kg/s
0.16 48000 1000
abolute velocity of the jet = C j u 416.66667 m/s
F (ma mf )C j mau = maC j mau mf C j

ma
F (mf C j )
(C j u )
6250 (0.165421 625)

= 14.745686 kg/s
416.66667
m=ma mf = 14.915228 kg/s
218
Volume of gas / sec =
m 14.915228
86.21519m 3 / s
P
0.173
But volume Q=Area of the jet C1

Aj
Q
0.1379443m3
Cj
Diameter of the jet di 0.419 m
Propulsive efficiency =
Power output of the engine =
Thrust power
6250 208.33333
0.5
= 2604.16666kw
Result :
i.
ii.
iii.
Absolute velocity of the jet

c = 416.66667 m/s
Diameter of the jet
dj = 0.419 m
Power output of the engine Pout = 2604.1666 kw
8. For a turbo jet with a flight velocity of 800 km/h at an ambient of 60 kPa, the
properties of gas entering the nozzle are 300 kPa and 200C. The mass flow rate of air is
20kg/sec. assuming air (Y=1.4 and R=287 J/kg) as working fluid, find a) thrust
developed, b) thrust power and c) propulsive efficiency.
Given Data :
u
800
22.2222 m/s; Pa 60 kPa
3.6
P4 300 kPa; T4 200 273 473k

ma 20kg / s; y=1.4
R=287J/kgk
Assuming that, the expansion of gases in the nozzle is isentropic.
219
Te P
T4 P4
j
e
y 1
y
0.4
Te
60 1.4
473 298.645 k asume Pe Pa
300
Ce 2Cp (T4 Te )
2 1004.5(473 298.645)
= 591.84389 m/s
Since m is not given = m m a

ma (C j u )
Thrust developed = 20(591.84389 222.2222)
F = 7392.4334 N
=FXu
Thrust power = 1642.763 kw
Propulsive efficiency = np
2u
54.595%
Cj u
9. The diameter of the propeller of an aircraft is 2.5 m. it flies at a speed of 500 kmph at
an altitude of 8000 m for flight to jet speed ratio = 0.75. determine i) The flow of air
through the propeller, ii) Thrust produced, iii) Specific thrust, iv) Specific impulse, v)
Thrust power.
Given data :
d 2.5m ; u=
500
138.8889m / s
3.6
0.75; Z=8000 m
=
u
u
; C j 185.1851m / s
cj
velocity of air flow at the propeller disc,

c j+u
162.037 m/s
2
From gas Table Z = 8000 m, p = 0.525 m3.
From continuity equation, ma = pAc kg
c=
220
0.525
(2.5)2 162.037 = 417.5835 kg/s

4
Thrust produced F=ma (C j u ) = 19332.5292 N

Thrust power = F U = 2685.0737 kW
Specific thrust Fsp
Isp
F
46.2962 N(kg/s)
ma
F
F
sp
Wa
g
Specific impulse = 4.71928 sec

Result :
i.
Flow of air through the propeller ma = 417.5835 kg/s
ii.
Thrust produced F = 19.3325 KN
iii.
Specific thrust Fsp = 46.296n N/(kg/s)
iv.
Specific impulse Isp = 4.71928 sec.
v.
Thrust power P = 2685.0737 kw.
10. A turbo jet engine is traveling at a speed of 236.11 m/sec under conditions 288K and
1.013 bar. The ram efficiency is 85%. Calculate the total pressure and total temperature
of air after inlet diffuser. Take Cpa = 1.005, Ya=1.4.
For the above engine, the total temperature and total pressure at the inlet to the
nozzle is 806k and 2.124 bar. The flow through nozzle is adiabatic with jet efficiency
(total-to-static) 95%. Calculate the net specific thrust and thrust specific fuel
consumption (TSFC) if fuel air ratio is 0.0122. take Cpg=1.16 and yg 1.33.
Given data :
U = 236.11 m/s
Ti = 288 K; Pi = 1.013 bar.
nR = 0.85; Cpa = 1.005; ya = 1.4
t04=806k; P04=2.124 bar
m
(nt s )f f 0.0122; Cpg 1.16 y Yg 1.33
ma
Cpa (T01 Ta )
u2
2
From the figure, T01
(236.11)2
288 = 315.7352 k
2 1005
a-1 isentroic Diffusion
221
T01 P01

Ta Pa
y 1
y
T
P01 01
Ta
y
y 1Pa
315.7352
=
K
288
1.4
1.4
P01 1.397546 bar

P01 Pa
P01 Pa
Ram efficiency P01 = 1.33986 bar
4-e
nR
Isentropic expansion
P
Te
e
04
T
P04
y 1
y
0.33
1.013 1.33
Te
806
2.124
Te=670.7384 K
T Te
n j 04
T04 Te
806 Te
Te 677.5015 k
806 670.7384
C2
Cpg (T04 Te ) j
2
From the figure
0.95
C j Cpg (T04 Te ) = 546 m/s
The specific gross thrust is given by,

Fg = Fnet + u
Fnet = 552.6616 236.11
=
316.5516 N(kg/s) of air flow
Total specific fuel consumption

TSFC
f 3600
= 0.138745 kg of fuel / N-hr
Fnet
Result :
222
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Pressure after the inlet diffuser P01=1.33986 bar.

Temperature after the inlet diffuser T01=315.7352 K
Net specific thrust Fnet=316.5516 N(kg/s) of air.
TSFC = 0.138745 kg fuel N-hr.
11. A rocket flies at 10,080 kmph with an effective exhaust jet velocity of 1400 m/s and
propellant flow rate of 5.0 kg/s. If the heat of reaction of the propellants is 6500 kJ/kg of
the propellant mixture determine:
a) Propulsion efficiency and propulsion power,
b) engine output and thermal efficiency, and
c) overall efficiency.
Solution: (a) cj = 1400 m/s
u = 10,080 1000/3600 = 2800 m/s
= u/ cj = 2800/1400 = 2.0
2
22
p = ---------- = -------- = 0.80
1 + 2
1+4
F = mp cj = 5 1400 = 7000 N
Propulsive power = F u
Pp = 7000 2800 10-6
Pp = 19.6 MW
Ans.
PEn = Pp / p
(b)
PEn = 19.6 / 0.8 = 24.5 MW Ans.

1
Alternatively, PEn = --- mp (c2j + u2)
2
= 0.5 5 (1.42 + 2.82) 106 watts
= 2.5 9.8 = 24.5 MW
th
Ans.
PEn
= -------mp QR
mp QR = 5 6500 1000 watts

mp QR = 32.5 MW
th = 24.5 / 32.5 = 0.7538
Ans.
223
Ans.
= p th = 0.8 0.7538 = 0.603 Ans.
12. Determine the maximum velocity of a rocket and the altitude attained from the
following data:
Mass ratio
= 0.15
Burn out time
= 75 s
Effective jet velocity = 2500 m/s
What are the values of the velocity and altitude losses due to gravity? Ignore drag and
assume vertical trajectory.
Solution: The maximum velocity is given by
1
up = cj ln -------- g tp
MR
up
1
= 2500 ln ------- 9.81 75
0.15
up = 4742.8 735.75 = 4007.05 m/s
Ans.
The altitude gain is given by

Z = Zp + Zc
1
1
1
Zp = cj tp 1 + 1 ---- ln
---
MR
2
---- g tp2
= 1 MR = 1 0.15 = 0.85
1
9.81 752 0.5
---- g tp2 = --------------------- = 27.59 km
2
1000
2500 75
1
Zp = --------------- 1 + 1 -----1000
0.85
1
ln -----0.15
27.59
Zp = 124.72 27.59 = 97.13 km

1 up2
0.5
4007.032
Zc = ---- ----- = ------- -------------- = 818.36 km
2 g
9.81
1000
224
Z = 97.13 + 818.36 = 915.49 km
Ans.
Velocity loss due to gravity is

g tp = 735.75 m/s
Ans.
Altitude loss due to gravity is

1
---- g tp2 = 27.59 km
2
Ans.
13. A missile has a maximum flight speed to jet speed ratio of 0.2105 and specific
impulse equal to 203.88 seconds. Determine for a burn out time of 8 seconds.
(a) effective jet velocity,
(b) mass ratio and propellant mass fraction,
(c) maximum flight speed, and
(d) altitude gain during powered and coasting
flights.
Solution: (a) cj = g Is
cj = 9.81 203.88 = 2000.06 m/s
Ans.
up = cj ln
g tp
MR
____
(b)
u
p
____
= ln
cj
____
g tp / cj
MR
1
0.2105 = ln
____
9.81
MR
8
_________
2000.06
1
ln
____
= 0.2105 + 0.0392 = 0.2497
MR
1
_____
= 1.281, MR = 0.780
Ans.
MR
= 1 MR = 1 0.780 = 0.220 Ans.
(c)
up / cj = 0.2105
up = 0.2105 2000.06 = 2121 m/s
up = 1515.65 kmph
1
Ans.
225
(d)
1 + 1 ___
Zp = cj tp
ln _____
MR
1
1 + 1 ____ _
0.22
Zp = 2000.06 8
____
g tp2
1
1
ln ______ ___ 9.81 82
0.780
2
Zp = 1593.94m = 1.594 km
1
Ans.
up2
Zc = ____ _____
2
g
Zc = 0.5 4212 / 9.81 1000
Zc = 9.0336 km
Ans.
14. A rocket files at 10.080 kmph with an effective jet velocity of 1400 m/s and the
propellant flow rate of 5 kg/s. if the heat of reaction of the propellants is 6500 kj/kg of
the propellent mixture, determine,
a) Propulsion efficiency and propulsion power
b) Engine output and thermal efficiency
c) Overall efficiency
Given Data:
u
10800
2800m / s; C j 1400m / s
3.6
mp 5kg ; C.V=6500 kj/kg
U
2
Cj
Propulsion efficiency np
2 4
0.8 80%
2 15
Propulsion power = mp C j u
5 1400 2800
Pp 19.6MW
nth
C 2j u 2
2 c.v
(1400)2 (2800)2
2 6500 103
From equation, 0.753846

n0=np X nth
226
0.8 0.753846 0.060307

1
mp (c 2j u 2 )
2
1
Engine ouput power = 5 [(1400)2 (2800)2 ] = 24.5 MW
2
Result:
a) Propulsion efficiency = 80%
Propulsion power Pp = 19.6 MW
b) Engine Output power = 24.5 MW
Thermal efficiency nth = 75.3846 %
c) Overall efficiency n0 = 60.307%
15. The following conditions refer to a rocker propellant flow rate = 193 kg/s.
Thrust chamber pressure 27 bar and temperature 3000k.
Nozzle exit diameter = 600 mm.
Nozzle exit pressure = 1.1 bar and ambient pressure = 1.013 bar.
Thrust produced = 380 kN.
a)
b)
c)
Find the effective jet velocity, actual jet velocity, specific impulse and the specific
propellant consumption.
Recalculate the values of thrust and specific impulse for an altitude of 20000 m.
The rocket speed is 2500 Kmph and the heat of reaction of the propellant is 6500
KJ/kg, find for case a) i.e. ambient pressure of 1.013 bar find np, nth, and n0.
Given data :
Propellant flow rate
=
Thrust chamber pressure =
Nozzle exit diameter
=
Ambient pressure
Thrust produced
Rocket Speed
=
Heat of reaction of propellant
193 kg/s
27 bar
1.1 bar
=
1.013 bar
=
380 N
2500 kmph
=
6500 kj/kg
mp = 193kg/s; ds = 0.6m; Pe1.1 bar.

Pa = 1.013 bar; F= 380KN
i) Thrust F = mp x cj
F
c j m 1968.9119m /s.
p
Also
F = mpCe + (Pa - Pa) Ae
227
2
380 x 103 =193 x ce + (1.1-013) x 105x 0.6
ii) ce 1956.1664m/s
iii) Specific impulse I sp
F
380 10 3 1
mp g 193 9.81 ls
iv) Specific propellant consumption
1
Is
4.9824 10 3
1
S
Result :
i) Effective jet velocity cj
= 1968.9119 m/s
ii) Actual jet velocity ce
= 1956.1664 m/s
iii) Specific impulse Isp
= 200.7045 sec s
iv) Specific propellant consumption = 4.9824x10-3 1/secs
b) Z= 20,000m
From gas table Z= 20000 m.
Pa = 0.0548 bar
Thrust F = mp x Ce + (Pe Pa) Ae
2
= 193 x1956.1664+(1.1-0.0548) x105 0.6
= 407.0924 KN
F
407.0924 10 3
mp g
193 9.81
Specific impulse = 215.01397 sec s

Result :
i)
ii)
Thrust F = 407.0294 KN
Specific impulse
Isp = 215.013 sec s

2500
C) Flight speed u 3.6 694.444m /s

Thrust power Pp = Fx u= 380 x103 x 694.444
Power lost in exhaust gases
1
mp c j u
2
= 263888.872KW
1
2
193 1968.9119 694.444
2
156741.9033KN
Engine Out power = Pp + Power lost in exhaust gases

PE = 420630.7753 KN
228
propulsive power
Engine output power
263888.872
0.62736
420630.7753
Engine output power
nth
Energy sup plied by the fuel
420630.7753
193 6500
nth 0.3352975
Overall efficiency n0 = np x n th
= 0.21035
Result :
i)
ii)
iii)
Propulsive efficiency np = 62.736%

Thermal efficiency nth = 33.529%
Overall efficiency no
= 21.035%
16. A rocket has the following data:

Propellant flow rate = 5 kg/s
Nozzle exit diameter =10 cm
Nozzle exit pressure = 1.02 bar
Ambient pressure = 1.013 bar
Thrust chamber pressure = 20 bar
Thrust = 7 KN
Determine the effective jet velocity, actual jet velocity specific impulse and specific
propellant consumption.
Given:
mp = 5kg/s; de = 0 1m; Pe = 1.02bar; chamber pressure
Po = 20 bar and F = 7000N
Solution:
We know that F = mp x Cj
c j
F
1400 m /s
mp
We know that the thrust
229
F mp C e Pe Pa Ae
Ce
F Pe Pa
mp
2
7000 1.02 1.013 105 0.1
4
F
5
7000 5.49778
5
Ce 1398.9 m /s.
Actual jet velocity

We know that
I sp
Specific impulse
F
mp g
7000
5 9.81
I sp 142.7115 sec S
SPC=
I
1
I s 142.71
1
3
Specific propellant consumption 7.0071 10 sec
Result:
i)
ii)
Effective jet velocity Cj = 1400m/s

Actual jet velocity Ca =1398.9 m/s
iii)
Specific propellant consumption SPC = 7.0071x10-3 sec
17. A rocket nozzle has a throat of 18cm 2 and combustor pressure 25 bar. If the specific
impulse is 127.42 and the rate of flow of propellant is 44.145 N/S, determine the thrust
co-efficient, propellant weight flow co-efficient specific propellant consumption and
characteristic velocity.
Given :
A=18 cm2; combustor pressure Po = 25 bar = Pe
Isp = 127.42 sec; wp = 44.145N/S
Specific impulse
230
I sp
F
WP
F I Sp WP
=127.42 44.145
F=5624.9559N
From equation 7.11, the thrust co-efficient

CF
F 5624.9559 10 4
1.25
Po A 25 10 5 18
CW
Wp
Po A
44.145
25 10 5 18 10 4
=9.81 10 -3
1
S
Specific propellant consumption I 127.42

s
7.848 10 3
1
sec
We know that
F mp C j
Cj
W
g
Cj
Fg
W
Thrust F
5624.9559 9.81
44.145
=1250m/s
From equation 7.14 the characteristic velocity

Vchar
Cj
CF
1250
1.25
Vchar 1000m /s
18. A rocket engine has the following data:

Effective jet velocity = 1400 m/s
Flight to jet speed ratio = 0.82
Oxidizer flow rate
= 3.5 kg/s
Fuel flow rate
= 1.2 kg/s
Heat of reaction per kg of the exhaust gas = 2600 KJ/kg. Calculate the thrust, specific
impulse, propulsive efficiency, thermal efficiency and overall efficiency.
Given
231
Cj = 1400m/s; = 0.82;mo
mf = 1.2kg/s; QR = 2600x103 J/kg
Solution:
mp = mo + mf
mp = 4.7kg/s
u
Propellant flow rate

u = x cj = 0.82 x 1400
u = 1148 m/s
Thrust F = mp x Cj
F = 6580 N
Specific impulse
I sp
F
mp g
=142.7115 sec.
Specific impulse = 142.7115 sec

2
1 2
np
2 0.82
2
1 0.82
98.062%
nth
=
C 2j u2
2 QR
2
2
1400 1148
2 2600 10 3
Thermal efficiency nth = 63.036%

Overall efficiency n0 = np x nth
Result:
i) Thrust F
=6580 N
ii) Specific impulsive Isp
=142.7115 secs
iii) Propulsive efficiency np
=98.062%
iv) Thermal efficiency nth
=63.036%
v) Overall efficiency n0
=61.814%
******************
232

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Department of Aeronautical engineering

School of Mechanical engineering

Convective Heat Transfer

Radiative Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer Problems In Aerospace Engineering

Basic Modes of Heat Transfer

One dimensional steady state heat conduction:

1. Define Heat Transfer.

- Temperature gradient in K/m

K Thermal conductivity W/mK.

Thermal conductivity is defined as the ability of a substance to conduct heat.

thermal resistance of slab

- Thermal resistance of hollow sphere.

11. State Newtons law of cooling or convection law.

17. Define overall heat transfer co-efficient.

19. What is critical radius of insulation (or) critical thickness.

Cooling of electronic components

22. Define Fin efficiency.

23. Define Fin effectiveness.

Internal conductive resistance

33. What is the significance of Biot number?

Characteristic body dimension

It signifies the degree of penetration of heating or cooling effect of a solid.

36. Explain the significance of thermal diffusivity.

17 0.28 0.05 2.5 55.4

Overall heat transfer coefficient

5.6 0.66 0.6 0.58

Heat transfer per unit area Q/A = 34.56 W/m2

Overall heat transfer co - efficient U = 1.28 W/m2 K

For unit Area

1 0.20 0.03 0.08 0.012 1

56 0.66 0.6 0.58

Interface temperature between mortar and the limestone T3

Temperature between Mortar and limestone (T3 is 276.5 K)

R3 value is given, R3 = 0.0015 K/W

Heat transfer Q = - 25.2 103 W

Overall heat transfer co - efficient U = 25 W/m2 K

Temperature drop (T3 T4) across the scale is given by

Heat loss per square metre (Q/A)

[From equation (13)] (or)

[HMT Data book page No. 34]

[Convective heat transfer co-efficient ha, hb are not given.

1.2 0.14 0.9

(ii) Interface temperatures (T2 and T3)

Heat lost per square meter area (Q/A)

Thermal conductivity for fire plate

[The term L3 is not given so neglect that term]

The term L 3 is not given so neglect that term]

Outside surface temperature T3

We know that, Interface temperatures relation

[L3, L2 not given so neglect L2 and L3 terms]

8. A composite slab is made of three layers 15 cm, 10 cm and 12 cm thickness

K1a A1a 1.45 0.6

R1a 0.1724 K/W

K1b A1b 2.5 0.4

R1b 0.15 K/W

Substitute R1a and R1b value in (1)

K 2b A2b 18.5 0.5

R2b 0.0108 K/W

(ii) Interface temperatures (T1, T2, T3 and T4)

9. An external wall of a house is made up of 10 cm common brick (K = 0.7 W/mK)

[From HMT data book Page No.34]

[The terms ha , hb is not given so neglect that terms].