Building Environment 1: Acoustics (conclusion)

David Coley (6E2.22, d.a.coley@bath.ac.uk)

Topics
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

How loud is a dB?

Adding dBs
Accounting for the sensitivity of the ear
Sound outdoors
Sound indoors
Keeping sound out

1. How loud is a dB?

Sound pressure levels of common noises

THRESHOLD OF PAIN
Disco noise
Full orchestra, loud passage
Working environment without ear defenders (8-hour day)
Busy city road traffic noise
Loud speech at 1 m
Conversational speech at 1 m
Attentive theatre audience
Faint whisper at 1 m
Rustle of theatre programme at 8 m
THRESHOLD OF HEARING (at 1 kHz)

dBA
120
105
95
<90
75
70
50
40
30
15
0dB

The decibel can be used as an absolute measure of how loud sound is,
with values between 0 and 120 dB
It can also be used as a relative measure, say for a car silencer

Silencer
Acoustic efficiency
15 dB
Note: a doubling of intensity (energy) = +3 dB

How loud is a decibel?

Minimum audible change

1 3 dB

Minimum change worth spending money on

5 dB

Subjective doubling of loudness

~ 10 dB

2 twice

Threshold of hearing and frequency

Music and speech: frequency and level

Loudness measurement using the dBA

Our ears are less sensitive to low frequencies
We need a number which represents how loud we judge a sound to be

We do this by introducing a filter which means the sensitivity to low frequencies is less
(the filter is similar to a filter used to convert a tungsten-light image for a daylight film)

2. Adding dB

=
Procedure for combining two sound levels

Add to the higher level dB

+3

+2

+1

0
0

Difference between the two levels in dB

Example: (60 dB) + (62 dB) = 64.1 dB

10

3. Accounting for the sensitivity of the ear the dBA

Octave
band
frequencies

dBA

Linear (unfiltered)

Frequency (Hz):

63

125

250

500

1000

2000

4000Hz

True spectrum

78

69

59

58

59

55

48

dBA correction

-26

-16

-9

-3

+1

+1

dBA spectrum

52

53

50

55

59

56

49

Decibel addition of last row gives 63 dBA

Calculating dBA value

1. Apply dBA corrections to octave spectrum
2. Add octave levels together to get dBA value, use graph for decibel addition of
pairs of dB values. Start with smallest numbers first.
3. 50 and 49 are the smallest, difference = 1 dB, from graph add 2.5 dB to largest
giving 52.5 dB.
4. Repeat process until you arrive at a single value, the dBA.
Frequency (Hz):
63
Level
78.
dBA correction
-26
A-weighted level
52
Building
Combining pairs
52

dBA value:

125
69
-16
53

250
59
-9
50
Environment
1:
52.5
53
55.3
57.3
59.3
61.0
63.1

500
58
-3
55

1000
59
0
59

2000
55
+1
56

Acoustics (conclusion)
55
56
59

4000
48
+1
49

4.1 Sound outdoors: sound power

Situation and sound source
Rocket engine
Turbojet engine
Siren
Heavy truck engine or
loudspeaker rock concert
Machine gun
Jackhammer
Excavator, trumpet
Chain saw
Helicopter
Loud speech,
vivid children
Usual talking,
Typewriter
Refrigerator

sound power
Pac
watts
1,000,000 W
10,000 W
1,000 W

sound power
level Lw
dB re 1012 W
180 dB
160 dB
150 dB

100 W

140 dB

10 W
1W
0.3 W
0.1 W
0.01 W

130 dB
120 dB
115 dB
110 dB
100 dB

0.001 W

90 dB

105 W

70 dB

107 W

50 dB

4.1 Sound outdoors: sound pressure

Sound in free space
Many sound sources can be considered as point sources. A good
example is a human speaker.
If you think of a short burst of sound, the energy will spread out
from the source at the speed of sound. The energy will be
concentrated on a spherical shell whose surface area is 4r2.
This leads directly to the inverse square law, which is also
relevant to lighting, heat radiation etc.
In decibels, we get L2 = L1 20.log ( r2/r1) dB, where r1 and r2 are
distances from the point source. L1 is the sound level in dB at
radius r1.
If r2 is twice r1, then we have a 6 dB reduction per doubling of
distance

r1
r2

NOTE: log10 2 = 0.3, so 10.log 2 = 3 dB

10.log 4 = 10.log 22 = 20.log 2 = 6 dB

Learn the two equations in red

Free field:
SPL2=SPL1 20log10(R2/R1)
For a sound with a given sound power (SWL) at
distance R:
SPL=SWL-20log10(R)-11
On a reflecting surface, e.g. concrete:
SPL=SWL-20log10(R)-8
Line source, such as a road:
SPL=SWL-20log10(R)-5

What happens to sound in here?

Durham Cathedral

Borrow one of these

5. Sound indoors
In a space like a cathedral, sound persists but
gradually gets quieter over perhaps 6 7 seconds.
The behaviour is known as reverberation and the
reverberation time in Durham Cathedral is
about 7 seconds.
Sound travels 2.4 km in 7 seconds, where has
it been?

Simple experiments show that stone reflects

sound, so sound must have been bouncing
between surfaces in the cathedral, most of
which are of stone.

Reverberation occurs in all rooms, but in smaller

rooms which include porous, sound absorbing
materials, reverberation is much less obvious
Bath Abbey

Many, many rays of sound leave a source, so the

picture of sound in a room quickly becomes complicated.

Sound reflection from a smooth surface obeys the law of

reflection which also applies to light.

The energy in a ray diminishes as it travels due to

spherical radiation (inverse square law) and absorption
at room boundaries.
Very quickly there are so many reflections that hit us that we
can not consider them individual echoes but a reverberant
field.
The reverberation time of a space is defined as the time
taken for a loud sound to become almost inaudible (more
precisely to drop by 60dB). This can be measured, or
calculated easily.

Behaviour of one ray

of sound
Source

Sound absorbing materials

Most sound absorbing materials are porous, that is they have pores.
Typical examples are fabrics: curtains
carpets
clothing and people
acoustic ceiling tiles

The most efficient sound absorbers are:

mineral wool
fibreglass
open cell foam

BEWARE: these last three materials also have thermal properties, they are
thermal insulators as well as being acoustic absorbers. Insulation and absorption
are different things !

A sound absorbing material

A cheap and cheerful sound absorbing panel!

Perforated finishes are also acceptable

Others use holes with a void behind

The effects of adding absorbing material

Adding sound absorbing material reduces the persistence of sound, in
technical terms it reduces the reverberation time
Reverberation time (Tr) is proportional to the volume/amount of absorbing material.
A cathedral has a large volume and little sound absorbing material.
A domestic living room has a small volume, a relatively large amount of
absorbing material and so has a short reverberation time (about 0.5 seconds).
We need a short reverberation time for speech, about 0.8 seconds for a lecture
theatre or classroom. We may need to add absorbing material in this case.
Acoustic ceiling tiles are a common solution.

Tr (seconds) = (0.16 x room volume) / (sum of (area

of surfaces x mean absorption of surfaces))
0.16
=

The effects of adding absorbing material

A space which includes absorbing material is quieter.

The larger the amount of absorbing material, the lower is the sound level in a room,
except that there is always sound coming directly from the source of sound.
Thus, absorbing material is often useful in
large public spaces, like atria.

Absorbing
material

Terminal at
Bristol Airport

The effects of adding absorbing material (3)

Adding absorbing material suppresses sound reflections.

Adding sound absorbing material in rooms has two effects:
Reduces reverberation time
Reduces sound level

In some circumstances, these effects can conflict. For instance, in a large volume
to be used for speech, we need to add absorbing material to bring down the
reverberation time but can end up having too quiet a speech level

 The absorption coefficent () is a number from 0 to 1

and supplied by the manufacturer.

Change in background noise = 10log10 (Safter/Sbefore)

Where S is the absorption of the space = A.

This means that twice the absorption will reduce the

background noise of 3dB. If the space had little
absorption initially, the results of adding absorbing
material will be dramatic.

Reverberation is only part of the story:

Echoes to watch out for
Early reflections
70 ms
at 340 m/s
= 23.8 metres
Solution: a acoustically soft
back wall.

Flutter echoes
If no scattering sound
can bounce back and
forth and miss being
absorbed
Solution: either
acoustically soft wall,
or add some scattering

Reverberation is only part

of the story: Noise
Is an issue if:

Noise is excessive; or
Communication is unclear.
Solution:
Remove source
Enclose source
Tackle reverberation
Improve speech
loudspeakers).

intelligibility

(possibly

via

6. Keeping sound out

A major misunderstanding
To use absorption and insulation interchangeably
Sound absorption and sound insulation are not the same

Absorption

Transmission

Incident

Incident

Transmitted

Reflected
Porous
material

Absorption = NOT reflection

Effect of absorption is seen on same
side as the incident sound

Poor transmission = Good insulation

Effect of insulation is seen on the other
side to the incident sound

Intelligibility and
concentration
Place/activity

Qualification

Sound pressure level (dB(A)) (measured over a

suitable period)

Optimal

Maximum

Factory

Very low

75

80

Cleaning

Low

65

75

Reception

Moderate

55

65

Laboratory

Reasonable

45

55

Teaching/study

High

35

45

Sound insulation
Mineral wool or fibreglass are good sound absorbers but
not good sound insulators.
A massive partition is a good sound insulator
Mineral wool will be a good insulator if the sound passes
through it many, many times: how can we do this?
create a cavity

Sound insulation: just subtract the dBs

Sound insulation is measured in decibels:

Transmission Loss (TL)

Sound Reduction Index (SRI)

70 dB

30 dB

Busy road

Bedroom

Transmission Loss = 40 dB
30 dBA is reckoned to be acceptable for a good nights sleep
If you open a window, the transmission loss falls to about 15 dB

Sound insulation: the mass law

Sound reduction index (dB)

For single partitions (without holes) the mass per unit area
determines transmission loss

The Mass Law for insulation by single partitions

Approximately 5 dB increase per doubling of mass

Sound insulation: examples

Examples of sound reduction index/transmission loss
Width (mm)

Mass per unit area

kg/m2

Transmission
loss (dB)

Window 10% open

10

Single glazing

10

20

Double glazing

108

20

30

125 (25)

17

40

280

350

50

Independent stud partition

Cavity brick

Transmission loss figures have been rounded

Sound insulation
Glazing
10%
opened

10%

1
10

of incident

energy passes through

= -10 dB

Acoustic
100mm

double
glazing

Single

1
of incident
100
energy passes through

glazing
= -20 dB

1
of incident
1000
energy passes through
= -30 dB

Acoustic impedance

Sound insulation: example

Plasterboard with
100mm spacing on
independent timber

studding

2 x 115mm brick

1
of incident
10,000
energy passes through
= -40 dB

1
100,000

of incident

energy passes through

with 50mm cavity

= -50 dB

Sound transmission class: 1 set the

requirement
STC

What can be heard

25

Normal speech can be understood quite easily and distinctly through wall

30

Loud speech can be understood fairly well, normal speech heard but not understood

35

Loud speech audible but not intelligible

40

Onset of "privacy"

42

Loud speech audible as a murmur

45

Loud speech not audible; 90% of statistical population not annoyed

50

Very loud sounds such as musical instruments or a stereo can be faintly heard; 99% of
population not annoyed.

60+

Superior soundproofing; most sounds inaudible

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_tra
nsmission_class)

2. Find a construction that meets the requirement

STC
33

Partition type
Single layer of 1/2" drywall on each side, wood studs, no insulation (typical interior wall)

39
44
45
45
46

Single layer of 1/2" drywall on each side, wood studs, fiberglass insulation
4" Hollow CMU (Concrete Masonry Unit) [2]
Roxul Safe'n'Sound Insulation installed between wood 2 x 4 studs on 16" centers and 5/8" drywall (type x ) on
each side with resilient channels at 16" on one side
Double layer of 1/2" drywall on each side, wood studs, batt insulation in wall
Single layer of 1/2" drywall, glued to 6" lightweight concrete block wall, painted both sides

46
48
50
52

6" Hollow CMU (Concrete Masonry Unit)

8" Hollow CMU (Concrete Masonry Unit)
10" Hollow CMU (Concrete Masonry Unit)
8" Hollow CMU (Concrete Masonry Unit) with 2" Z-Bars and 1/2" Drywall on each side

52

Roxul Safe'n'Sound Insulation installed between steel 2 x 4 studs on 24" centres and 5/8" drywall (type x) on
each side
Single layer of 1/2" drywall, glued to 8" dense concrete block wall, painted both sides

54
54
55

8" Hollow CMU (Concrete Masonry Unit) with 1 1/2" Wood Furring, 1 1/2" Fiberglass Insulation and 1/2"
Drywall on each side
Double layer of 1/2" drywall on each side, on staggered wood stud wall, batt insulation in wall

59

Double layer of 1/2" drywall on each side, on wood stud wall, resilient channels on one side, batt insulation

63

Double layer of 1/2" drywall on each side, on double wood/metal stud walls (spaced 1" apart), double batt
insulation
8" Hollow CMU (Concrete Masonry Unit) with 3" Steel Studs, Fiberglass Insulation and 1/2" Drywall on each
side
8" concrete block wall, painted, with 1/2" drywall on independent steel stud walls, each side, insulation in
cavities

64
72

Attenuation of common wall constructions (STC). (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_transmission_class)

There may be more than one transmission

path: Flanking

The role of holes

Rtotal=-10log[(1/Stotal)(S1 10-R1/10 + S2 10-R2/10)]

where Stotal = S1 + S2, i.e. the sum of the two areas.
So if the wall area is 20m2 with R1 = 40 and the hole 0.01m2 with R
= 0, then
Rtotal=32 dB.
But now spend a lot of money on making the wall have an R of 60,
but dont repair the hole
Now Rtotal=33dB wall i.e. all that extra money only added 1 dB.

School acoustics (all photos from CEE,

University of Exeter)
Plywood used in place of
mineral wool in a plasterboard
partition cavity. This will reduce
the Rw of the partition by not
providing the sound absorption
necessary for this multi-pass
system to be effective.

FirstName LastName
(Affiliation)

Name of topic

 Here we see a gap which

is ~ 2 cm in width
between the two sheets
of plasterboard, and
which needs to be sealed
to reduce possible noise
ingress.

FirstName LastName
(Affiliation)

Name of topic

 Plasterboard
partitions in high
transit areas on
construction sites
can easily get
damaged in this
way, creating weak
spots for noise
transmission in the
final partition.

FirstName LastName
(Affiliation)

Name of topic

 Multi-storey buildings
often have penetrations
through party floor slabs
around laboratories and
WCs for gas, water and
waste pipes. These need
to be sealed to prevent
their becoming a route for
excessive noise ingress.

FirstName LastName
(Affiliation)

Name of topic

Conclusions

Acoustic absorption and insulation must not be confused

Most acoustic absorbers rely on porous materials or multiple holes
For good insulation, we need massive partitions or cavities
Sound insulation is considerably undermined by weak links (holes)

J.E. Moore Design for good acoustics and noise control