On Georg Simmel's Sociology of the Sexes

Author(s): Heinz-Jrgen Dahme

Source: International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society, Vol. 1, No. 3 (Spring, 1988),
pp. 412-430
Published by: Springer
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20006862 .
Accessed: 26/06/2014 05:49
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Springer is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to International Journal of
Politics, Culture, and Society.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 119.15.93.148 on Thu, 26 Jun 2014 05:49:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

On Georg
Heinz-J?rgen

Guy

Oakes

Simmers Sociology

of the Sexes*

Dahme

has

once

again

a very

presented

interesting

and

important translation of Simmel. With this third translation by

Oakes, following The Problems of the Philosophy ofHistory (1977)
on Interpretation
in Social
the Essays
Science
(1980), central
a
to
of
become
accessible
Simmel
writings
larger public.
Georg
not only to the small
The present
should
be of interest
collection
of Simmel
but also to feminist
researchers.
students,
community
It can be assumed,
not
meet
book
will
with
that
the
however,
and

in his lifetime,
Even
of Simmel
universal
the works
gave
approval.
rise to intense
controversies.
In his extensive
Oakes
and informative
introduction,
provides
some first hints for a critical
of the theses
and
discussion
reception
Simmel

advances

by Guy

Oakes

in the essays
under review. The essays
to the late phase
of Simmel's

all belong

and thus form part of his philosophy

collected
thought,1

of culture and metaphysics

ideas Simmel
of life. As Oakes
out, some of the central
puts
points
In any case,
in these writings
derive from his earlier work.
forward
in his
of Simmel's
later works,
it is characteristic
that,
writing
treats
he takes up earlier
them
from
another
perspective,
insights,
in the light
to re-examination,
and defends
them
them
subjects
This
theories
of new arguments.
is not to say that Simmel's
exhibit
or no contradictions.
no breaks
we
of any
should
be
wary
Indeed,
an
to
of
of
overall
Simmel's
psychology
attempt
picture
provide
or his sociology
women
of the relationship
between
the sexes merely
on the basis
1890 and 1918,
of the writings
under review. Between
on these topics,
some of them rather
wrote
fifteen
articles
contexts
in various
and they
These
articles were written
extensive.
a
not
form
to
of
his
do
different
coherent,
work;
they
belong
periods

Simmel

serious
consideration
theoretical
system
1985). Any
(cf. Simmel,
a
a
to provide
must
the
classic
resist
of
temptation
sociological
on
a
an
work
of
the
basis
of
author
uniform
single
interpretation
or single period of work. Nor can the complete
of an author
works
a coherent
of theory.
If we
to constitute
be taken
body
always
as
to
is
classics
this
intellectual
the
apt
heroes,
prevent
stylize
*
A discussion
of the work
of Georg
into English
of On Women,
Sexuality,
1984.
Society
Politics, Culture, and
Volume 1,Number 3, Spring 1988

occasioned
Simmel
translation
by Guy Oakes'
and Love, New Haven,
Yale University
Press,

412 ?

1988

Human

This content downloaded from 119.15.93.148 on Thu, 26 Jun 2014 05:49:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Sciences Press

413

Dahme

Heinz-J?rgen

of sociology
with
them. The
classics
confrontation
any fruitful
but
from a present-day
should not only be interpreted
perspective,
context.
In other words:
also investigated
in their historical
It is
or "recontextualization"
a re-embedding
to undertake
necessary
and theories.
(Luhmann
1981, p. 258) of their assertions
one
a
is always
classical
When
with
faced with
text,
dealing
a hermeneutic
to
One
this
is to
way
problem.
approach
problem
to
context
understand
the
author
from
the
scientific
and
attempt
a
of
social milieu
the time. Merely
classical
author,
interpreting
into a language
that
his work
that
is
is, simply
translating
to the present-day
does not suffice,
since
this
reader,
intelligible
more often than not reduces complexity.
The historical
examination
of a

classical
author
should
the other way
round:
by
proceed
re-contextualization.
This means
through
increasing
complexity
a larger bulk of material.
that the reader must manage
The reader
not only has
to read the original
text, but also the introduction
on the genesis
to the translation,
notes
the editor's
of the text,
on which
sources
and the various
the text builds. Strictly
speaking,
this process
of interpretation
has no definitive
conclusion.
In his
to the book
introduction
under
Oakes
has
review,
to scrutinize
undertaken
Simmel's
On Women,
essays
Sexuality,
in the light of concurrent
and Love
theoretical
of the
approaches
to compare
time and
with
Simmel's
feminism
the liberal
and
of women's
socialist
theories
status
in society. As a result, Simmel's
to grasp.
feminism
is easier
I myself
should
like to continue
along
these lines and add some more
the late
by contrasting
complexity
women
of the relationship
Simmel's
between
and society
theory
or between
women
and culture with his early sociological
analyses
of this problematic.
This will shed some light on a hitherto
neglected
on the topic, namely
of Simmel's
his evolutionary
aspect
writing
approach
I should

for explaining
like the reader

the relations
the sexes.
between
to allow me a brief excursus.

But

first

II
social
theories were all concerned
European
and
economic
of the French
consequences
the industrial
revolution.
One
of the themes
was
the
in
science
social
the
discussion
labor question.
dominating
was
Another
theme
the
the
predominant
question
concerning
women.
woman
of
social
and
The
political,
economic,
equality
was
taken
in early
up and
question
investigated
scientifically
Nineteenth-century
with
the social
Revolution
and

French

socialism,

in particular,

in Charles

Fourier

This content downloaded from 119.15.93.148 on Thu, 26 Jun 2014 05:49:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

(1808);

in

414

Politics, Culture, and Society

Marxism,
especially in Friedrich Engels
(1884), August Bebel
in
and
Karl
and
(1879),
Kautsky (1882);
Liberalism, for instance,
in John Stuart Mill (1869). In German social theory of the mid
the emancipation
nineteenth-century,
antithetical
the
Thus,
viewpoints.

of women
liberal

was

Lorenz

discussed
von Stein

from
(1852,

1875, 1880) held that women

should be accorded equal status in

some

specific

the

Riehl

(1852, 1855), the founder of German

domains,

while

conservative

Heinrich

Wilhelm

folklore, could conceive

of the role of woman

only as that of a housewife.
A strictly
for explaining
sociological
approach
in anthropology
between
the sexes developed
and
about social organization
empirical
knowledge
or among
new
broadened,
primitive
peoples
for sociology.
On the basis
of the material

the

relations

As
ethnology.
in archaic
societies

horizons

up
opened
anthro?
by

collected

a sociological
from
and
interpreted
ethnologists
now
a
was
to
it
universal
develop
theory by
perspective,
possible
was
method.
This
the comparative
theory
mainly
employing
between
of the relationship
the sexes.
concerned
with
the evolution
and
with
its social,
The woman
economic,
political
question,
was of only
of modern
dimensions
that are characteristic
societies,
an object
concern. When
status
of women
became
minor
the social
pologists

and

the framework
of
of discussion,
in general
this took place within
sexes.
an evolutionary
of
This
the
evolutionary
sociology
sociology
a unilinear
to reconstruct
of the sexes
developmental
sought
an evolutionary
of the different
forms of marriage
sequence
process:
of the relations
forms
and
the family
and the specific
held that
scholars
the sexes. Using
schematisms,
binary
and so
had preceded monogamy,
matriarchy
patriarchy,
not until
that
this
the late nineteenth
century
theory
criticism
and was finally
(cf. Westermarck
rejected
thorough
with
the topic, Herbert
the sociologists
dealing
Among
of the relations
between
the sexes, was
with
his theory
In

the most

influential.

Sociology

(1876), he investigated

of women

changes
to industrial
society
connexion
is there

social organization?"
available
material
between
militancy

in the

the

first

course

volume

of his

the question

between
polygamy
on. It was
met

with
1891).

Spencer,
probably
of
Principles

of how the status

from military
"What
asked:
(1876, p. 722)
society.
Spencer
of women
and the type of
the status
between
historical
On the basis of the ethnologicaLand
associations
to him,
"natural
he perceives
and
industrialism
and between
and polygamy
of the

transition

that the social

argues
1876, p. 722). Spencer
monogamy"
(Spencer
course
in
of evolution
the
status
of women
continually
improved
as a result
the
in social
He
of changes
interprets
organization.
women
as
he
conceives
status
of
because
progress,
always
changing
a
as progress.
also contains
social
evolution
sociology
Spencer's

This content downloaded from 119.15.93.148 on Thu, 26 Jun 2014 05:49:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

415

Heinz-J?rgen Dahme

of the sexes"

psychology

"comparative

(Spencer

1873,

p. 369)

that

deals with the physical and psychic differences between men and
women.

to the
in the "adaption
These differences
originate
In
and maternal
duties"
this
context,
1873, p. 369).
(Spencer
also advances
the traditional
phrenological
argument
in size, which
brain
is smaller
female
the more
explains
women.
of
in
abstraction
powers
The psychic
between
differences
the sexes
that Spencer,

paternal
Spencer
that
the
modest

partly
as both anthropological
views
traits
and
contradicting
himself,
of
of
behavior.
products
generate
patterns
evolution,
sex-specific
of these behavior
Some
to please,"
such as "the ability
patterns
"the concomitant
love of approbation"
(1873, p. 371), "the arts of
as well.
to be found
in men
persuasion"
(p. 372) are certainly

in women.
holds
that
However,
they are more marked
Spencer
women
at the stage when
these strategies
of behavior
developed
as the weaker
sex lived
societies
and women
predominated
military
"on the mercy
of men."
On the basis
of his psychology
of women,
also decides
Spencer
the question
of the influence
in shaping
of women
In his
society.

Social Statics
equality

of

(1851, chap. 16), he still vigorously

the

Subsequently,

changes

sexes:

however,

radically.

"Equity
his view

knows
on the

In his Principles

no

defends

difference

emancipation

of Ethics

the

of sex."
of women

he still advocates

in the household
and the economy
but he emphatically
equality
on the ground
the political
of women
that they
rejects
equality
do not take part in military
service.
It is the duty to die for their
that ensures men alone the right to political
country
participation,
(cf. Gray

1984).

Ill
Thus

the

pertaining
sexes was

frame
to the

for

treatment
of questions
sociological
of women
and the relations
between
the
traced out when
Simmel
confronted
this
Georg
time in 1890 as a thirty-two-year-old
in
lecturer

status

already
for the first
A social-structural
philosophy.
of women
is an integral
part
topic

the allegedly
the discussion

explanation
of sociological
of women
psyche

of the

social position
And
argumentation.
a part in
also plays

differential
of the emancipation
of women.
The basic
of Georg
Simmel's
and sociology
concept
philosophy
is 'interaction.'
Thus
the idea of applying
this concept
to the most
form of sociation,
man
the relationship
between
and
elementary
would
to suggest
itself. In fact, Simmel
dealt with
woman,
appear

This content downloaded from 119.15.93.148 on Thu, 26 Jun 2014 05:49:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

416

Politics, Culture, and Society

between
the sexes at an early point in his scholarly
on the subject
were
of his writings
published
never
in
and
he
socialist
anonymously
journals,
subsequently
abandoned
this
Until
his
however,
topic.
recently,
completely
on
a
sexes
and
of
the
had
extensive
sociology
writings
philosophy
of Simmel's
fallen
and even students
work
into oblivion,
virtually
the interaction
some
career;

to them.2
paid only scant attention
to
interest
In addition
the intrinsic
contain

writings,

they

also

multifarious
of Simmel's
range
psychological,
of these
On the basis
interests.
and philosophical
one can trace Simmel's
from folk
intellectual
development

the whole

sociological,
writings,

of these

psychology

through sociology to the philosophy

of culture and the

is hardly
of life. There
any other
topic in Simmel's
metaphysics
over three decades
in such
work
his development
that illustrates
on women
can also be
a condensed
form. Therefore,
his writings
in 'miniature.'
works
read as his complete
of sociation.
is concerned
with
the forms
Simmel's
sociology

Simmel thought that by defining the subject matter of sociology

in this way he would be able to make the field academically
in Germany
often met with
Until
that time, sociology
acceptable.
of
was
with
identified
and
theory
Spencer's
primarily
hostility
is interaction
of Comte.3
Sociation
and the positivism
evolution
in intensity
and exhibit
which
between
social
vary
may
actors,
of society
In
of
the
of
different
concept
formality.
place
degrees
of
the concept
Simmel
chose
in sociology,
that had predominated
a more
account
of the
it provided
because
sociation
satisfactory
of the
of social
life. Irrespective
character
and dynamic
relational
of sociation
of the actors,
all processes
and knowledge
volition
diverse
in form. Thus, within
the most
similarities
certain
display
one
different
social groups,
the most
and within
types of societies
can find
sub?
such as super- and
forms
of sociation,
the same
of labor, or, within
division
domination,
competition,
ordination,
the microsocial

and

'Formal

such

sphere, marriage
is to extract
Sociology'

life and subject them to analysis.

family.
forms

This

The task of Simmel's

from the diversity
of

aim

implies

that the

of his sociology.
element
is a constitutive
perspective
comparative
on
of social
the
focuses
Since
Simmel's
life,
dynamics
sociology
are
forms
of
social
dissolution
and
the emergence,
development,
or
interaction
of
central
systems
Simple
investigation.
objects
serve as a basis
as a whole may
for such investigations,
thus also include an evolutionary
perspective.
Simmel
scientific
such a strictly
from developing
Aside
sociology,
as well.
was
and aesthetic
concerned
with philosophical
problems
as his
as well
in his work
treated
the scope of the themes
Both

society
which

This content downloaded from 119.15.93.148 on Thu, 26 Jun 2014 05:49:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

417

Heinz-J?rgen Dahme

intellectual
philosophical

development
writings

to this.
testify
are concerned
with

Both

his

scientific

the problem

and

of modernity

and the transitory character of the present (cf. Frisby 1985). Such
a

concern

cannot

center

of historical

documentation
valuations.

on the gathering
and
exclusively
and
facts.
It requires
commitments
to
exclude
value
proposed
judgments
as well.
later adopted
by Max Weber

Simmel
However,
of a position
the domain
examines
Simmel
social
always
of a value
the background
against
from

and the societal

present
of how
the question
perspective:
can be maintained
in a society
becomes
that
individuality
For Simmel,
valuation
and science,
what
increasingly
complex.
are two separate
is (Sein) and what
to be (Sollen),
ought
spheres
one another.4
that are incompatible
with
he always
Nevertheless,

moves

within

understanding
as a special

reality

both

The
of modernity,
the
interpretation
spheres.
of the present,
and the establishment
of sociology
are his major
concerns.
science

IV
In the early 1890s, when
to elaborate
Simmel
his program
began
on
of formal
his
interest
focused
of the social
sociology,
questions
status of women
and the relationship
between
the sexes. The family
and the relations
between
the sexes served him as perfect
examples
for testing
his new approach
to sociology.
In his treatment
of the
the influence
of Spencer
could be overlooked.
The problems
subject,
as well
as the evolutionary
are
Spencer
posed
perspective
constitutive
for Simmel's
of
the
of
status
of
the
analysis
problem
women
and the relations
the sexes.
between
also adopts
Simmel
thesis
the connection
between
Spencer's
concerning
military
in a society
tendencies
and the inferior
status
of women
social
Simmel
does not
(cf. Simmel
1894). Unlike
Spencer,
however,
a unilinear
an
toward
of the
perceive
development
improvement
status
social
of women.
he
believes
that
Rather,
evolutionarily
are likely to become
advanced
societies
"highly misogynie"
again

(Simmel 1894, p. 115)when they are faced with military

tendencies.

no longer shares the progressivism

Simmel
that underlies
Spencer's
treatment
of the social
status
of women.
He holds
that there is
no such thing as continuous
and linear progress.5
Within
the limits
of the household
as
became
differentiated
economy,
housekeeping
a domain
of female activity
an
to
in
status
the
leading
improvement
as compared
of women
to archaic
societies.
But
capitalist
development

and

the concomitant

functional

changes

in housework

This content downloaded from 119.15.93.148 on Thu, 26 Jun 2014 05:49:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

418

Politics, Culture, and Society

reversed

the

industrialization
their

progress
hypothesized
the status
debased

Thus
by Spencer.
capitalist
of women
and compromised

social

recognition.
believed
that
all nineteenth-century
evolutionists,
Spencer
and
forms of marriage
like the various
of the sexes,
the relations
a
were
to
law.
and
the family,
subject
Polygamy
developmental
as
were
the
first
form of society
the matrilineal
stages
regarded
in ethnographic
With
of social
evolution.
the increase
knowledge,
had become
of evolutionary
thesis
this central
sociology
however,
was
now
It
held that
nineteenth
the
late
century.
by
questionable
Like

the various
Unlike

forms

of marriage
no
Simmel

and

the family
believed

side by side.6
and
promiscuity

existed
that

longer
of the relations
forms
earliest
the evolutionarily
sexes.
evidence
In
available
the
his
the
view,
empirical
lower
certain
that man,
like
the conclusion
rather suggests
species,
of relationships,
"and fell into looseness
is monogamous
by nature
of particular
and polygyny
into polyandry
only as a consequence
can be found
in all domains
to modify
and
which
circumstances

polygamy
between

Spencer,
were

inclinations"
natural
p. 123). Simmel
1895a,
(Simmel
form of
cannot
be the "typical
out that polygyny
points
an equal
reason
is always
there
that
for the simple
marriage"
cases of polygyny
the known
of the sexes. Moreover,
distribution
over
a
who
wife
that there is in general
show
presides
principal
are
often
who
the subsidiary
and to whom
the household
wives,
that
are subordinate.
From
the fact
work
functions,
assigned
one
can
earlier
at
existed
forms of marriage
different
merely
times,
as a result of specific
infer that these types of marriage
developed
conditions.
under these specific
conditions
and were functional

mislead
further

to the same social circle, despite the

Just as individuals
belonging
behavior
of external
quite different
conditions,
display
identity
a strongly monogamous
some showing
in this respect,
patterns
while others exhibit a strongly polygamous
inclination
predisposi?
tion, it is likely that entire groups, even at the earliest stage in their
and
tendencies
have
shown
may
quite opposite
development,
a misplaced
conditions. Here, as with many other questions,
yielding
leads us to assume that the
for unifying
to our propensity
thinking
from a homogeneity
of
historical
developed
phenomena
heterogeneity
in the prehistoric beginnings.
(Simmel 1895a, p. 125-6)
the predominant
has become
Simmel
why monogamy
explains
on
Marxist
and Darwinist
both
of marriage
form
by drawing
in
the
mother-child
sees
rooted
the
He
family
arguments.
was
than
unknown
that
fact
It
is
the
less
paternity
relationship.
of the early non
to paternity
that is characteristic
the indifference

This content downloaded from 119.15.93.148 on Thu, 26 Jun 2014 05:49:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

419

Heinz-J?rgen Dahme

To explain
forms of the family.
monogamous
of the father in the family, Simmel,
again without
on Lewis Morgan
and Friedrich
draws
Engels:

later

the

citing

in all probability,
is connected with
This development,
of property. When men
of the private
ownership
and
extensive
property
through working
personal
to transmit
it to heirs of their own blood. I
wished
heirs
goods to consanguinous
concept of transmitting
from the concept of inheriting
did
Paternity
goods.
much as long as it was not bound up with considerable
with respect to property. (Simmel 1895a, p. 127)

his

inclusion
sources,

the emergence
had acquired
fighting,
they
think that the
. . . developed
so
not matter
consequences

a functionalist
explanation
provides
has
He
that monogamy
of monogamy.
of the prevalence
argues
it
entailed
because
form
of marriage
the predominant
become
In the same

evolutionary

Simmel

context,

advantages.

The main social purpose of a stable marriage

obviously was the better
also
in the animal kingdom
care of the offspring
it ensured, which
involves
leads to marriage-like
marriage
Monogamous
relationships.
to the benefit
and wife, mainly
a division of labor between husband
of their children. Thus the wife nurses the children and the husband
the wife with food; or the husband
supplies the wife with
provides
foodstuff and the wife prepares it for him and the children. The joint
the next generation
or competing
offspring will inevitably make
than is the case in a group in which
in body and mind
stronger
a group in which
care for the offspring,
there is no joint parental
Thus the group in which
of marriage
is unknown.
the institution
of marriage
does exist gains an immediate advantage
the institution
is not known.
over the group in which
of marriage
the institution
p.
129-30)
(Simmel 1895a,
In connection
Simmel
social status of women,
with
the changing
between
of whether
the emotional
relations
raises the question
are also
to change.
More
he is
the sexes
subject
specifically,
of whether
in exploring
the question
interested
love, as the basis
or
of evolution
is a product
for the relations
the sexes
between

also

an anthropological
he comes
arguments,
could
phenomenon
to marriage
transition
late phenomenon
the perspective

of

his
invariant.
evolutionary
Following
to the conclusion
that love as a psychological
come
into
the
existence
have
only with
Thus
love is an evolutionarily
by purchase.

1895a,
1898). Simmel
(cf. Simmel
of value?which
the psychology

fully deploy in his Philosophy

that

any

purchase
that
presupposes

involves
a price

of Money

sacrifices.
be paid.

The

However,

from
argues
later he will

(1900)?and maintains
of property
acquisition
for which
the object

This content downloaded from 119.15.93.148 on Thu, 26 Jun 2014 05:49:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

420

Politics, Culture, and Society

one has to pay or make

the
sacrifices
the more
appears
valuable,
to be made.
the purchase
of women
the sacrifice
Although
higher
are economic
of value"
women?"women
(Simmel
degrades
objects
cause
for the
views
it as the presumptive
1895, p. 131)?Simmel
woman.
of the highly
individualized
later appreciation
As social
evolution
is, love

love becomes
increasingly
proceeds,
the
is aroused
by
particular.

individualistic;

that

had become the prevalent

form of marriage,
it was
After monogamy
are always
the result of
followed by the subjective
feelings which
and which give evidence of the fact that the
conditions
persisting
individuals
have adapted to these conditions.
(Simmel 1895a, p. 128)
Thus

love as the result

and became

the basis

of monogamous
of marriage.7

marriage

developed

further

V
of modernity,
Simmel
became
and philosopher
As a sociologist
aware
of the importance
of the woman
question
quite early in his
career. He saw it as a result of two processes:
which
modernization,
in
the
the
mid-nineteenth
and
in Germany
century;
changes
began
that occurred
after the foundation
in economic
and social conditions
in
to
also
that
led
of the Empire,
major
changes
developments
did not affect
these changes
of women.
the social position
However,
social strata in the same way. For middle-class
the different
women,
a functional
in the traditional
role of
loss
Simmel
diagnoses
as a consequence
of ongoing
industrialization
and the
housewife
in the availability
of consumer
immense
increase
goods. As a result
use of machines
in the household
and the larger
of the increased
on the market
in the late nineteenth
available
number
of goods
women
to look for activities
and
middle-class
began
century,
were
and
them
denied
law
the
home
that
outside
by
occupations
the current

social

conventions.

of labor has taken so

division
the modern
In the higher
classes,
that for a huge
from women
functions
many
formerly domestic
for
number
of them the home no longer offers the possibility
for
their abilities. This holds for young girls, old maids,
exercising
childless women and for women having only a few or already grown?
to be tied to the
continue
these women
up children. Nevertheless,
to lie
forces are either doomed
valuable
home. Thus
countless
disorders. The
or, striking back, cause all conceivable
undeveloped
the hyper
masculine
the emancipated
foolish old maid,
woman,

This content downloaded from 119.15.93.148 on Thu, 26 Jun 2014 05:49:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Heinz-J?rgen

421

Dahme

are all the victims

aesthetic
sensitive woman verging on perversity
of a culture that limited the traditional
sphere of female activity
in which women could deploy their talents, or even completely
took
it away from them without
offering them other spheres of activity.
(Simmel 1896, pp. 136-7).
the women

For

from
the lower
the modern
classes,
upheavals
of an insufficient
Because
problems.
family
income,
women
were
as
to
forced
work
outside
the
home
working-class
or domestic
servants.
to an extreme
workers
This
leads
factory
for working-class
double
burden
had to labor both
who
women,
at home and at work. As a result of their work
outside
the home,
involved

other

they could not adequately fulfill their duties in the home, especially
in the rearing
and care of children.
The relatively
early entry into
the
and
the
double
burden
had
life,
working
hours,
long working
on the health
a negative
women.
effect
of working-class
The
forced
to pursue
they were
employment
by economic
necessity
removed

from:

them

. . . their natural
The young girl goes into the factory
profession.
at an age when she still needs parental protection. The work in the
woman
the married
from fulfilling
her
factory not only prevents
immediate
duties in relation to her home and her children, but it
to give birth to healthy
also entails
that her ability
is
offspring
Thus
the
economic
of the proletarian woman
impaired.
independence
turns out to be a source of the greatest
evils, not only to her but
also

to

society.

legislation.

Therefore,

(Simmel

the

question

is

to provide

for

protective

1896, p. 136)

These
women

that the industrialization

for
process
problems
produced
rise to two politically
women's
distinct
gave
movements,
each pursuing
its own class-specific
and demands:
the
objectives
on
one
women's
the
and
the
movement,
bourgeois
hand,
proletarian
on the other. Common
women's
to both movements
movement,
in "the same social
is their origin
and economic
order"
(Simmel
1896, p.
conceive
intense

the feminist
137). However,
itself as a uniform movement,

movement
which

as such
is illustrated

did

not
by the

between
the members
of its two wings.
the woman
and
the
connected
question
problems
with
of
modern
life
others.
As
among
many
tendency
a theorist
and interpreter
of modernity,
returns
to
he frequently
in his journal articles.8
these issues
In his 'formal sociology,'
Simmel
considers
the woman
question
Simmel

controversies

views
it as one

and

the women's
movement
from the perspective
of differentiation
as
one
He
views
them
of
the process
theory.
example
that was
differentiation
initiated
and made
by modernity.
possible

This content downloaded from 119.15.93.148 on Thu, 26 Jun 2014 05:49:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

of

422

Politics, Culture, and Society

A formerly
circle whose members
abstract
shared a common
feature
into a concrete
interest
is now differentiated
Thus
organization.
were
who
into various
workers
divided
crafts
and
defined
were not able to conceive
via their respective
themselves
activities,
as a concrete
until industrialization
and
themselves
entity
organize
as abstract
them aware
made
that they shared
that
characteristic:
of being
movement
also is the result
The feminist
'wage-laborers.'
in their homes
of a differentiation
Women
isolated
process.
formerly
came
one common
to see that they shared
characteristic:
their
contrast
movement

to men. However,
unlike
the labor movement,
is an evolutionarily
improbable
development.

the women's

of the individual woman

had
Up to now the sociological
position
certain peculiar elements. The most general of her qualities,
the fact
that she was a woman
and as such served the functions
proper to
her sex, caused her to be classified with all other women under one
It was precisely
this circumstance
that removed
general
concept.
in their strict sense, as
her from the processes
of group-formation
well as from all actual solidarity with other women. Because
of her
to activities within
she was relegated
the limits
peculiar functions,
to devote herself
to a single individual,
of her home, confined
and
the group-life, and perhaps charity and
prevented from transcending
in the way of life and the activities of women
religion. The parallelism
is of such a nature as to effectively
of
the development
prevent
on the basis of this equality. This is because each woman
associations
in her own sphere that another,
is so totally preoccupied
equally
situated woman
is, for this same reason, totally excluded.
(Simmel
1908, p. 325; 1955, p. 180)

of
circle
from
the abstract
that
the
improbability
as a group would
women
differentiated
prove
capable
"women",
as a result
of
into probability
of organizing.
This
changed
of household
in a dissolution
which
resulted
industrialization,
of the traditional
role of
definition
structures
and a more narrow

Consider

in the lower classes

and the
Female
the housewife.
wage-labor
made
in the middle
and upper classes
of housewifery
hollowness
same
women
"the
confronted
that
practical
they
perceive
as other women."
same
"The
"the
needs
and had
situations"
characteristics
its
abstract
'woman'
loses
concept
purely
general
with
of the woman's
the decline
preoccupation
complete
through
the guiding
has become
The general
the home.
purpose
concept
. . ." (Simmel
of a cohesive
group
1908, p. 337; 1955, p. 183). Women
men
now stand
and contend
interests
for
their
vis-?-vis
together
of the sexes.
for equal status and the equal treatment

This content downloaded from 119.15.93.148 on Thu, 26 Jun 2014 05:49:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

423

Heinz-Jiir?en Dahme

VI
movement
to the demands
is receptive
of the women's
Simmel
a critical
to the
In contrast
stance.
maintains
but nonetheless
more
for
hitherto
advocated
which
feminist
movement,
rights
as early as 1902 raised
women
of the
the question
only, Simmel
of this
cultural
and
significance
supersocial
"superpersonal
as a
movement"
1902, p. 159). He asks whether
(Simmel
society
and hence men as well, might
profit from the emancipation
whole,
on the subject,
in which
In his reflections
his "psychology
of women.
of women"
central
also plays a part, Simmel
arguments
anticipates
of a 'feminist
theory of society.'
In the previous
of societal
all objective
history
development,
rare exceptions?are
of male
cultural
achievements?with
origin.
It is men who have
their stamp on culture
and society.
impressed
and many
other fields are male
trade, science,
Industry,
religion,
creations
which
male
for their
powers
"require
specifically
execution"
1902, p. 161; 1984, pp. 67
(Simmel
invariably
repeated
created
world
is a highly
social
and
cultural
The
8).
by men
differentiated
in contrast
an internal

on specialization.
For Simmel,
based
man,
system
in both
to woman,
is "the being
that is determined,
and external
of labor"
sense,
by and for the division

(Simmel 1984, p. 105). The differentiation

of modern

society into

in the psychic
and social
roles
is reflected
various
subsystems
on
is geared
to concentrate
of man.
The male
features
psyche
individual
achievements."
This
of
man's
and "rather one-sided
part
from his
entire
is separated
"so that
personality
personality
and
activities
subjective
personality
each, as
practical-specialist
it were,
live a life of their own" (Simmel
cf.
also
1902, p. 162;
1984,
on the division
in a world
of labor,
the
based
p. 70). However,
no
it
of
role
conflict
arises.
is
problem
Furthermore,
longer possible
to ascribe
on

to the individual
achievement
person.
specific
Systems
a dynamics
the division
of labor develop
of their own.
as an objective
confront
force with
the individual
rules and
They
norms
to
of its own. In such a system,
is reduced
the individual
with his or her personality
of a role incumbant,
the function
staying
outside.
of labor could not be
The world
by the division
produced
a psychic
mechanism
tolerated
unless
by men
they developed
a
to
of
draw
line
them
the require?
between
separation
enabling
on
ments
their
them
by
imposed
occupational
roles, on the one
on
the
other.
Like
of his
and
their
many
hand,
life,
private
women
have
Simmel
believes
that
contemporaries,
psychic
that differ from those of men. As a result, they cannot
dispositions
based

This content downloaded from 119.15.93.148 on Thu, 26 Jun 2014 05:49:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

424

Politics, Culture, and Society

world
of work
unless
learn to behave
they
wonders
whether
this is desirable.
Simmel
is a qualitative
difference
between
that there
Simmel
of his
this idea in the different
the sexes. He advances
fragments
as the "less differentiated
He views women
of women.'9
'psychology
women
in both psychic
and intellectual
respects.
However,
being"
as
such
female
have
emotionality,
spontaneity,
qualities
specific
views
Simmel
them from men.
that differentiate
and sensitiveness
in the male

succeed
like men.

However,
believes

of women
individuality
psychic
same
are
to
not
involved
the
they

the

as
extent

a result
of the fact that
as men
in the modern

its high degree of internal differentiation.

society (of work), with

of the

female
to be
appears
psyche
an anthropological
he is well aware
of the female nature,
definition
is a result of historical
and
the sexes
between
that this difference
of
In the light of his
circumstances.
social
women,'
'psychology
to women
for opening
demand
the feminist
up the professions
norms.
to male
must
that women
Although
adapt
simply means

Although,

as

at first sight,
'more uniform'

Simmel's
characterization
'more self-contained'
and

for women,
training
a
or
to
exercise
trade
them
enable
which
would
women
to achieve
for
is essential
equal status and equal
profession,
to
this as a transitional
he regards
stage. For women
treatment,
of
to
the
increase
and
their
contribute
abilities
deploy
completely
and
that they go their own ways
it is necessary
culture,
objective
in this way can women
make
of their own. Only
create occupations
Simmel

holds

that

and

education

vocational
on a
carry

of the women's
The
aim
culture.
to
the
"female
be
gain
help
principle"
movement,
"lack of differentiation"
The female
recognition
of
deficiency
1890, p. 28; 1984, p. 148) is not a personal
(Simmel
women
a
female
that
rather
but
women,
qualifies
property
positive
as the "more uniform
and more
1904,
(Simmel
beings"
complete
to culture
that men
contributions
p. 179) for making
specific
cannot make.
more
are the psychically
uniform
that women
thesis
Simmel's
a
than
rather
is
and complete
metaphysical
speculation
beings
seems
to
be
His
view
of
scientific
the result
primarily
analysis.
an
of woman.
function
mediated
However,
by the biological
contribution

to

objective
should
therefore,
and prevalence.

is
of the female
psyche
description
like
all
of
Language,
language.
by problems
impeded
primarily
is of male
of formation
and expression,"
other "modes
origin and
of
with
the
to the needs
men,
consequence
that, when
adapted
are
we want
there
countless
to grasp
the "differentially
female,
no
on
and
is
which
there simply
occasions
intelligible
satisfactory
adequate

expression"

consideration

(Simmel

and

1984,

p. 148).10

This content downloaded from 119.15.93.148 on Thu, 26 Jun 2014 05:49:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

425

Dahme

Heinz-J?rgen

With his treatment

of the differential
nature
of men
and women
in the context
on the utility of a specifically
of his reflections
female
Simmel
ventures
onto speculative
to be
He seems
culture,
ground.
aware
of the fact that,
in the final
it is not possible
analysis,
a scientific
answer
to provide
to this sort of question.
But because
such

questions
between
relations

cannot
the

be
sexes,

as entirely futile. Philosophy

such

questions.11
clear-cut
provide
it can do at best

eliminated
their

about
the
thought
cannot
be dismissed

is the proper medium for dealing with

However,
philosophy
and definitive
solutions
is furnish

from

discussion

cannot
to these

be

to
expected
What

problems.

interpretations.

VII
one can say that Georg
In conclusion
Simmel's
of
'sociology
women
and the relationship
between
the sexes'
is anything
but
a coherent
On the one hand,
is sensitive
to the
Simmel
theory.
of the present.
tendencies
On the other, he follows
contemporary
on the
fashions.
His
and psychological
works
early
sociological
are
influenced
of
differenti?
subject
strongly
by Spencer's
theory
ation

and Darwin's

Some commentators
have
theory of evolution.
to
these
influences.
The
of
and
already
pointed
impact
Spencer
on
Darwin
is especially
women.
clear in Simmel's
early writings
Even
of Darwin
were
and Spencer
prior to 1890, the works
very
in Germany,
influential
not
in
academic
although
philosophy,
own
Simmel's
Academic
its main
and
discipline.
philosophy
took a rather negative
stance
towards
the evolutionary
proponents
The collectivist
of the latter was inconsistent
approach
of
German
academic
subject-centered
approach
philo?
of
this
tradition
of thought
sophy. Simmel's
appropriation
English
him an outsider
thus made
in German
academic
philosophy.
We can also identify
the use of some building
blocks
of socialist

perspective.
with
the

in Simmel's
Socialist
theories
found their way
theory
early works.
into German
in
the
when
the
German
Social
years
sociology

Democratic Party, although still discredited, had lost the taint of

illegality with the abrogation of the Anti-Socialist Laws in 1890.
In the first half of the 1890s, Simmel professed sympathies for
the Social

however
Democrats,
only for the small circle of reformers
for the revolutionary
When
the liberalism
of the
wing.
was
a
1890s
conservative
climate
and
early
superseded
by
strictly
the
in
socialist
elements
Simmel's
After
politics,
writings
disappear.
in German
socialist
1895, not one article
by Simmel
appeared
and

not

This content downloaded from 119.15.93.148 on Thu, 26 Jun 2014 05:49:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

426

Politics, Culture, and Society

It is in this period
that Simmel's
which
journals.
aestheticism,
is often declared
to be a constitutive
of his work, develops.
element
But this aestheticism
is not a genuinely
Simmelian
invention
either,
but rather an expression
of the spirit of the times. The same applies
to Simmel's
cultural
criticism
and cultural
can
which
pessimism,
be discerned
in his writings
after 1900.
In many
a child of his time. However,
is clearly
Simmel
respects,
as well as the theoretical
both his analyses
of the present
constructs
he developed
in confrontation
with
current
and trends are
theories
often
remarkable
for their
innovative
and
quality
sensitivity.

Simmel's

ability to get to the bottom of matters

new

in things
aspects
already
on women
and the relationship

and still detect

in his writings
is apparent
between
the sexes
translated
by
to show that these features
have
endeavored
on the topic. But
in Simmel's
early writings

Oakes.
I myself
can be found
I hope
it has become
clear
are
different
writings
quite
Guy
also

known

that Simmel's
from those

interests

in these

early
late writings,
and
that his early analyses
do not always
the same conclusions
support
as his later work.
In this connection,
I just should
like to draw
to Simmel's
attention
of
love
in his early
evolutionary
explanation
as
it
and
of
the same
definition
were, anthropological
his,
writings
in
his
late
phenomenon
writings.
no doubt
an important
The
will
translations
by Oakes
give
to
the
discussion
feminist
researchers
and students
among
impulse
am
of Simmel.
not
I
in a position
As to the feminist
movement,
to offer a well-informed
to
with
its
of
respect
judgment
reception
Simmel.

in his

To

will
Simmel
these
translations
students,
surely be of
With
his
has
Oakes
the
translations,
given
English
the first building
for the assessment
blocks
of a
speaking
public
in
Simmel's
work.
From
dimension
my
"neglected"
perspective,
on women
it would
if Simmel's
be desirable
also
early writings
soon. This would make
a
found a translator
reconstruction
possible
interest.

of Simmel's
of women
from the context
of his complete
picture
In my opinion,
Simmel's
are, on the whole,
early writings
and
Thus
very
illuminating.
far, however,
they have
interesting
are
of
to
been
interest
analyzed.
Moreover,
they
scarcely
special
sources
for two reasons.
of Simmel
students
the
from
which
First,
are more
in his
Simmel
draws
evident
than
early
writings

works.

And
1900
the work Simmel
before
second,
subsequently.
published
he
treat
at
in
contains
does
not
either
all
his
later
many
aspects
or discusses
works
form. These
aspects
only in a rather disguised
mark
turns
in
of his
Simmel's
the
career,
development
important
some
of
of
main
For
and
the
his
themes.
these
reasons,
work,
genesis
a publication
of a selection
of Simmel's
in the not
early writings

This content downloaded from 119.15.93.148 on Thu, 26 Jun 2014 05:49:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

427

Heinz-J?rgen Dahme

be
Such a collection
future would
be welcome.
might
to Simmel
to
not only
but
also
scholars
interest
students,
to the increasing
of sociology
and
concerned
with
the history
of researchers
of the
the
intellectual
number
history
investigating
late nineteenth
century.
too-distant

of

Reference

Notes

1. An overview of Simmel's intellectual development

(1950,1974), and Frisby (1984).
2.

is given in Levin (1971), Wolff

on the differentiation
In the discussion
the discipline,
Simmel's
within
writings
of sex roles and the emancipation
of women,
the hint given
despite
by Naegele
an elaborated
as early
as 1958 that Simmel's
would
work
contain
'sociology
of women,'
It is only through
unnoticed.
Coser's
have
gone
stimulating
largely

article (1977) that an assessment

to develop.
began
3. Cf. Dilthey
(1883,

p.

concept."
4. Cf. Dahme

pp.

(1984,

84),

who

219-21).

of this dimension
calls

sociology

positivistic

Simmel's

in Simmel's

earliest

statement

thought slowly
"gigantic

on

dream

value-freedom

can be found in his Einleitung in theMoralwissenshaft:

"Just as the anatomist
is not obliged to give an aesthetic judgment on the body lying in front of him
on

so the moral
not confuse
the dissecting
should
the study
table,
philosopher
of moral
with
their moral
valuation.
The
fact that here
the value
phenomena
as his object
content
the same general
the researcher
makes,
judgment
displays
of research
this
renders
conflation
of explanation
and normative
valuation
it is especially
understandable.
this fact that entails
However,
psychologically
is all the more
that a more
refined
and differentiated
methodology
compelled
to separate
the scientific
task?which
the impartial
of realities
statement
implies
or hypothetical?from
that are exclusively
the normative
empirical
task, which
the practical,
and thus
of reality"
(1892
implies
invariably
one-sided,
shaping
as a proponent
of the postulate
of value-freedom,
93), vol. II, p. V). On Simmel
cf. Brecht
(1959, pp. 216-18).
2 of his "Problems
5. Cf., for example,
Simmel
of the
p. 59) and chapter
(1895b,

Philosophy

of History"

(1977).

on sociological
for instance,
Eduard
In his writings
Westermarck
See,
(1891).
on the German
of the family,
Simmel
often
draws
translation
of
aspects
Westermarck's
him.
work, without,
however,
citing
on the philosophy
7. In Simmel's
later works
of life, which
also deal with
aspects
of the
between
the
the
that
sexes,
evolutionary
relationship
perspective
in his
into the background.
recedes
predominates
early
sociological
writings
In this
late work,
out of love"
"action
as a
(Simmel
1984, p. 154) is viewed

6.

in man
that is inherent
and merely
needs
timeless,
anthropological
potentiality
or kindled.
to be aroused
to "sexual
as a "proto-form
His
reference
attraction"
of love"
his
treatment
of the same
(Simmel
1984, p. 166) recalls
early
topic
in terms
of differentiation
In his
late philosophy,
Simmel
love
theory.
regards
as a "psychical
between
the sexes
nor
can
act that
cannot
be analyzed,"
it
as a consequence
be "understood
of any combination
of other elements"
(Simmel
nor altruistically
sees love as neither
late Simmel
1984, p. 157). The
egoistically
but as something
"third."
motivated,

8. See Simmel (1890,1892a,

9. Simmel's
pp.

'psychology

1892b, 1899,1902a).

of women'

is contained

in Simmel

(1890,1904,1907,1984,

133-52).

This content downloaded from 119.15.93.148 on Thu, 26 Jun 2014 05:49:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

428

10.

Politics, Culture, and Society

In Simmel's
and
its logical
opinion,
language
categories
by their very nature
lend themselves
so often
of generalities.
who
only to the consideration
Simmel,
a philosophy
of social
stressed
the tragedy
and cultural
to accept
life, also seems
a 'tragedy
of language
that
entails
of language.'
This
holds
true especially
for his view
of a "failure
of language"
to characterize
due to its inability
the
of individuality.
For an early
formulation
of Simmel's
of the
problem
theory
"failure
of language,"
cf. his Philosophie
des Geldes
See
(1900, pp. 534-35).

also his Lebensanschauung

(1918, p. 27) where he
difficulty of conceptualizing qualitative individuality
aware of the logical difficulties arising with respect
way of viewing life. I have tried to formulate it in full
as

danger,
readily
root of

a layer
least
is reached
where
is the one
this layer
silence?for
is fed." For Simmel's
philosophy

here

at

command
itself
logic

(1978) and Dahme

11. For

Simmel's

do not
difficulties
the metaphysical
cf. Christian
language,

logical
on which
of

(1981, pp. 312-18).

delimitation

of

from

science

1984). The complementary

274-83,

describes the linguistic

as follows: "I am well
to conceptualizing
this
awareness of the logical

philosophy,

task that philosophy

cf. Dahme

(1981,

fulfills with

pp.

respect

as follows:
to sociology
is explained
"The
by Simmel
unsatisfactory
feeling
one is left in view
to which
nature
of the fragmentary
of all knowledge
and
one
soon
can be empirically
that
reaches
of what
the fact
the boundaries
and proved,
ascertained
leads one to overcome
these
imperfections
by the means
of speculation.
This means
discrete
elements
of those
a uniform
overall
picture.
to our degree
of knowledge,

also

serves

our

that

are not

of transforming
need
the
parallel
one another
into
connected
with
from
this
function
of metaphysics
directed
Apart
a second
to another
is oriented
function
dimension
of our existence,
in which
lies the metaphysical
of its contents:
significance
or end, as the absolute
as the meaning
We
this function
describe
substance
as
or religious
the
of appearance,
amidst
and
also
the value
relativity
of delimitation"
SimmePs
significance"
(1908, p. 20). This
"problem
pervades
entire work
vol.
(e.g. 1892, pp. 60-3,
103-4;
1892-93,
I, pp. 318, 338, 446; 1900,
p. V; 1917, p. 31; 1918, p. 30; 1977, pp. 118-21).
realms

References
Bebel,
Brecht,

(1879).

August
Arnold

thought.
Christian,

(1959).
Princeton:

Petra

Dahme,
Ansatz
Enke.

A.

Princeton
Einheit

und

her

Sozialismus.
The foundation
Press.
University

theory.
und

Zwiespalt.

Zum

Z?rich:

Volksbuchhandlung.
of twentieth-century
political
Denken

Hegelianisie-renden

und Soziologie Georg Simmeis. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot.

(1977).
In: Signs.

Heinz-J?rgen
und seine

Frau

Political

(1978).

in der Philosophie
Lewis
Coser,
of women."
876.

Die

to
Simmel's
contribution
"Georg
neglected
in Culture
and Society,
Journal
of Women
(1981).

Bedeutung

als exakte
Soziologie
in der gegenw?rtigen

Wissenschaft.
Soziologie.

the

Georg
2 vols.

sociology
2, pp. 869
Simmeis
Stuttgart:

von Philosophie
und
"Das
Heinz-J?rgen
(1984).
Dahme,
'Abgrenzungsproblem'
Simmel.
Zur Genese
und Systematik
einer Problemstel?
Wissenschaft
bei Georg
Dahme
In: Heinz-J?rgen
and Otthein
Rammstedt
Simmel
lung."
(eds.), Georg
und die Moderne.
Neue
und Materialien,
Frankfurt:
Interpretationen
Suhrkamp,
pp. 202-30.

in die Geisteswissenschaft.
Versuch einer
(1883). Einleitung
Dilthey, Wilhelm
Grundlegung f?r das Studium der Gesellschaft und Geschichte. 7th ed. 1973,
Stuttgart:

Teubner.

This content downloaded from 119.15.93.148 on Thu, 26 Jun 2014 05:49:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Heinz-J?rgen Dahme 429

der Familie,
und des
Friedrich
das Privat-eigentums
(1884). Der Ursprung
Engels,
an Lewis
Staats
im Anschluss
H. Morgans
Dietz
9th ed., Berlin:
Forschungen.
1970.
David
Frisby,
Methuen.

(1984).

Frisby, David

Simmel,

Horwood-Tavistock

Sussex:

Chichester,

In: Theory,

of modernity."

(1985). "Georg Simmel. First sociologist

and

Culture,

Georg

2, pp. 49-67.
Th?orie
des

Society,

et des destin?es
Charles
quatre mouvements
g?n?rales.
(1808).
Fourier,
2nd ed., 1841.
de la Phalange,
Paris:
Bureaux
on women.
A study
and political
in personal
T. S. (1984).
"Herbert
Gray,
Spencer
In: International
disillusion."
Journal
of Women's
Studies,
7, pp. 217-31.
Kosmos.
"Die Entstehung
der Ehe und Familie."
Karl
Zeitschrift
(1882).
Kautsky,
vol.
der Entwicklungslehre.
Weltanschauung
auf Grund
6/1882,
f?r einheitliche
329-48.
256-72,
12, pp. 190-207,
"Introduction."
In: Georg
Donald
N.
On individuality
and
(1971).
Simmel,
Levine,
social
pp. IX-LXV.
forms.
Press,
Chicago:
Chicago
University
zur
Niklas
und
Studien
Semantik.
(1981).
Gesellschaftsstruktur
Luhmann,
der modernen
vol. 2, Frankfurt:
Gesellschaft,
Wissenssoziologie
Suhrkamp.
John
The
Stuart
London:
Mill,
(1869).
Green,
subjection
of women.
Longmans,
and Dyer.
Reader,
D.
"Attachment
and alienation.
(1958).
Naegele,
Kaspar
aspects
Complementary
of Durkheim
and Simmel."
of the work
In: American
Journal
of Sociology,
63,
pp.

580-89.

(1852). "Die Frauen. Eine

Riehl, Wilhelm Heinrich

Deutsche

Riehl, Wilhelm Heinrich

Simmel,
27-59.

(1890).

Georg

(1855). Die Familie.

"Zur

Stuttgart: Cotta'sche Buchhandlung.

der Frauen."

Psychologie

?ber
Simmel,
Georg
(1892a).
"Einiges
In: Georg
Simmel,
1985, pp. 60-71.

die Prostitution

Simmel, Georg (1892b). "Ein Jubil?um

In:

Studie."

social-politische

236-96.

15, 3, pp.

Viertel-Jahresschrift,

In: Georg

Simmel,

in Gegenwart

der Frauenbewegung."

und

1985,

pp.

Zukunft."

In: Georg Simmel,

1985, pp. 72-80.

erkenntnistheore?
der Geschichtsphilosophie,
Simmel,
Georg
(1892c). Die Probleme
tische Studie.
& Humblot.
Duncker
Leipzig:
in die Moralwissenschaft.
Kritik
der ethischen
(1892-93).
Simmel,
Georg
Einleitung
2 vols. Berlin:
Hertz.
Grundbegriffe,
"Der Militarismus
und die Stellung
der Frauen."
In: Georg
(1894).
Georg
Simmel,
Simmel,
1985, pp. 106-18.
"Zur Soziologie
der Familie."
In: Georg
(1895a).
Georg
1985, pp.
Simmel,
Simmel,
119-32.
of sociology."
"The problem
In: Annals
of the American
Simmel,
Georg
(1895b).
and Social
Academy
of Political
6, pp. 412-23.
Science,
"Der Frauenkongress
und die Sozial-demokratie."
In: Georg
(1896).
Georg
Simmel,
1985, pp. 133-38.
Simmel,

Simmel, Georg (1898). "Die Rolle des Geldes in den Beziehungen

In: Georg
1985, pp. 139-56.
Simmel,
"Frauenstudium
Simmel,
Georg
(1899).
Simmel,
1985, p. 157.

Simmel, Georg
ed., Berlin

(1900). Philosophie

an

der

Berliner

der Geschlechter."
In: Georg

Universit?t."

des Geldes. Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot,

6th

1958.

Simmel, Georg (1902). "Weibliche Kultur." In: Georg Simmel, 1985, pp. 159-76.
in German
"Tendencies
life and
(1902a).
Monthly,
5, pp. 93-111,166-184.
aus einer Psychologie
"Bruchst?cke
(1904).
Simmel,
Georg
1985, pp. 177-82.
Simmel,
aus
einer
(1907).
Simmel,
Georg
"Fragments
Philosophie
Simmel
1985, pp. 183-86.
Simmel,
Georg
International

thought

since

der Frauen."
der

Liebe."

This content downloaded from 119.15.93.148 on Thu, 26 Jun 2014 05:49:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

1870."

In:

In: Georg
In: Georg

Politics, Culture, and Society

430

der
?ber
die Formen
Untersuchungen
Soziologie.
1968.
Duncker
5th ed., Berlin
& Humblot,
Leipzig:
Individuum
und Gesellschaft.
der Soziologie.
(1917). Grundfragen
Simmel,
Georg
3rd. ed. 1970.
Berlin:
G?schen,
M?nchen
Vier metaphysische
Kapitel.
(1918). Lebensanschauung.
Simmel,
Georg

Simmel,

(1908).

Georg

Vergesellschaftung.

Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot.

Simmel, Georg (1955). Conflict and the web of group affiliation.
H. Wolff

and

New

Bendix.

Reinhard

York:

The

Free

Simmel, Georg (1977). The problems of the philosophy

essay.
Press.

Transi,

Georg
Simmel,
an introduction
Simmel,
Georg
introduction

and

ed.,

with

an

introduction

by

Transi, by Kurt

Press.

of history. An epistemological
Guy

New

Oakes.

York:

on interpretation
science.
Transi,
in social
Essays
and Littlefield.
N.J.:
Rowman
Oakes.
Totowa,
love. Transi,
and
and
On women,
sexuality,
(1984).
Press.
New Haven:
Yale University
by Guy Oakes.
(1980).

and

Free
with

by Guy

with

Simmel, Georg (1985). Schriften zur Philosophie

und Soziologie

and Klaus
Christian
Dahme
by Heinz-J?rgen
of Sociology."
Herbert
(1873). "The Study
Spencer,

Frankfurt:
K?hnke.
Suhrkamp.
In: The Works
of Herbert
Spencer,

Ed.

Vol. XII. Osnabr?ck: Zeller (reprint 1966).

Spencer, Herbert (1876). "The Principles of Sociology." Vol.
Herbert Spencer, Vol. VI. Osnabr?ck: Zeller (reprint 1966).
von

Stein, Lorenz
Dieckmann.
Stein, Lorenz

(1852). Die Frau,

3rd ed. 1890.
von (1875). Die Frau

Cotta'sche
Lorenz
Stein,

Buchhandlung.
von
(1880).

Die

Frau

auf dem
auf

Gebiete

dem

der Geschlechter.

1. In: The Works of

Berlin-Dresden:

und Lebensaufgabe.

ihre Bildung

der National?konomie.

sozialen

Gebiete.

an

Stuttgart:

Stuttgart:
Cotta'sche

Buchhandlung.
Macmillan.
London:
Eduard
marriage.
of human
(1891). The history
Westermarck,
an
ed. and with
Simmel.
The
H.
Kurt
Transi.,
of Georg
(1950).
sociology
Wolff,
New
York: Free Press.
introduction
by Kurt H. Wolff.
New
In: Kurt H. Wolff,
Simmel."
Kurt H.
sociology.
Trying
(1974).
"Georg
Wolff,
York: Wiley,
pp. 29-42.

This content downloaded from 119.15.93.148 on Thu, 26 Jun 2014 05:49:04 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions