M.

Lashley Communication Studies 2014-2015

What is Communication?
Communication can best be summarized as the transmission of a message from a
sender to a receiver in an understandable manner. The same basic principles
apply whether humans, animals, other forms of life, or combinations of these
are involved. In humans communication is the process used to achieve
understanding. When you want others to understand what is in your mind, you
choose words to form your message to your intended receiver. The receiver
must read the message as it comes in if he or she is to understand the ideas you
are trying to get across. Then the receiver reacts to your ideas, which is called
feedback.
The Communication Process
The communication process consists of a message being sent and received.
The message may be verbal or non-verbal. Effective communication involves a
message being sent clearly and received as intended. Added to this is the element
of feedback to ensure that the message sent was received exactly as
intended.
The Elements of the Process
1. Sender
2. Message
3. Channel/Medium
4. Receiver
5. Feedback

Sender

Conceptualizes
SENDER and
encodes message

Message

I want to
see you!

Medium/
Channel

email/inte
rnet
speech/tel
ephone

Receiver

Decodes message;
creates feedback

Feedback

Come over
this
evening
after six!

The Steps in the Process

1. Conceptualization
2. Encoding
3. Selection of channels/mediums
4. Decoding
5. Interpretation
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6. Feedback
An Example from the Classroom
Sending the Message
First, the teacher (sender) formulates the message he/she intends to communicate
(conceptualization). Next, she considers possible barriers that may affect the
message. This includes difficulty of the topic, the terms she will use, and the
students feeling toward the subject. External barriers such as noise must also be
considered. Next, she puts the message into the words she wants to use (encoding),
and plans a lesson the students will find interesting (selection of
channels/mediums). Then, she clearly communicates (sends) the message.
Receiving the Message
The students (receivers) will first hear and/or see the message the teacher sent. The
message is affected by external barriers, like noise outside the classroom that
drowns the teachers voice or that result in lack of concentration. Possible internal
barriers may include the students experience level, their understanding of the
terms used, and their attitude toward the material, or the way they feel about the
teacher. The students absorb the message through the use of mental images
(decoding). They retain knowledge of the concept taught depending on their
understanding (interpretation). They may ask questions for further clarification,
they may make notes, or they may do well or poorly on the test set on the concept
(feedback).

M. Lashley Communication Studies 2014-2015

Communication Process
By: Nick Sanchez
Communication can best be summarized as the transmission of a message from a
sender to a receiver in an understandable manner. The importance of effective
communication is immeasurable in the world of business and in personal life. From
a business perspective, effective communication is an absolute must, because it
commonly accounts for the difference between success and failure or profit and
loss. It has become clear that effective business communication is critical to the
successful operation of modern enterprise. Every business person needs to
understand the fundamentals of effective communication.
Currently, companies in the United States and abroad are working toward the
realization of total quality management. Effective communication is the most
critical component of total quality management. The manner in which individuals
perceive and talk to each other at work about different issues is a major
determinant of the business success. It has proven been proven that poor
communication reduces quality, weakens productivity, and eventually leads to
anger and a lack of trust among individuals within the organization.
The communication process is the guide toward realizing effective communication.
It is through the communication process that the sharing of a common meaning
between the sender and the receiver takes place. Individuals that follow the
communication process will have the opportunity to become more productive in
every aspect of their profession. Effective communication leads to understanding.
The communication process is made up of four key components. Those
components include encoding, medium of transmission, decoding, and feedback.
There are also two other factors in the process, and those two factors are present in
the form of the sender and the receiver. The communication process begins with
the sender and ends with the receiver.
The sender is an individual, group, or organization who initiates the
communication. This source is initially responsible for the success of the message.
The sender's experiences, attitudes, knowledge, skill, perceptions, and culture
influence the message. "The written words, spoken words, and nonverbal language
selected are paramount in ensuring the receiver interprets the message as intended
by the sender" (Burnett & Dollar, 1989). All communication begins with the
sender.

M. Lashley Communication Studies 2014-2015

The first step the sender is faced with involves the encoding process. In order to
convey meaning, the sender must begin encoding, which means translating
information into a message in the form of symbols that represent ideas or concepts.
This process translates the ideas or concepts into the coded message that will be
communicated. The symbols can take on numerous forms such as, languages,
words, or gestures. These symbols are used to encode ideas into messages that
others can understand.
When encoding a message, the sender has to begin by deciding what he/she wants
to transmit. This decision by the sender is based on what he/she believes about the
receivers knowledge and assumptions, along with what additional information
he/she wants the receiver to have. It is important for the sender to use symbols that
are familiar to the intended receiver. A good way for the sender to improve
encoding their message is to mentally visualize the communication from the
receiver's point of view.
To begin transmitting the message, the sender uses some kind of channel (also
called a medium). The channel is the means used to convey the message. Most
channels are either oral or written, but currently visual channels are becoming
more common as technology expands. Common channels include the telephone
and a variety of written forms such as memos, letters, and reports. The
effectiveness of the various channels fluctuates depending on the characteristics of
the communication. For example, when immediate feedback is necessary, oral
communication channels are more effective because any uncertainties can be
cleared up on the spot. In a situation where the message must be delivered to more
than a small group of people, written channels are often more effective. Although
in many cases, both oral and written channels should be used because one
supplements the other.
If a sender relays a message through an inappropriate channel, its message may not
reach the right receivers. That is why senders need to keep in mind that selecting
the appropriate channel will greatly assist in the effectiveness of the receiver's
understanding. The sender's decision to utilize either an oral or a written channel
for communicating a message is influenced by several factors. The sender should
ask him or herself different questions, so that they can select the appropriate
channel. Is the message urgent? Is immediate feedback needed? Is documentation
or a permanent record required? Is the content complicated, controversial, or
private? Is the message going to someone inside or outside the organization? What
oral and written communication skills does the receiver possess? Once the sender
has answered all of these questions, they will be able to choose an effective
channel.
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After the appropriate channel or channels are selected, the message enters the
decoding stage of the communication process. Decoding is conducted by the
receiver. Once the message is received and examined, the stimulus is sent to the
brain for interpreting, in order to assign some type of meaning to it. It is this
processing stage that constitutes decoding. The receiver begins to interpret the
symbols sent by the sender, translating the message to their own set of experiences
in order to make the symbols meaningful. Successful communication takes place
when the receiver correctly interprets the sender's message.
The receiver is the individual or individuals to whom the message is directed. The
extent to which this person comprehends the message will depend on a number of
factors, which include the following: how much the individual or individuals know
about the topic, their receptivity to the message, and the relationship and trust that
exists between sender and receiver. All interpretations by the receiver are
influenced by their experiences, attitudes, knowledge, skills, perceptions, and
culture. It is similar to the sender's relationship with encoding.
Feedback is the final link in the chain of the communication process. After
receiving a message, the receiver responds in some way and signals that response
to the sender. The signal may take the form of a spoken comment, a long sigh, a
written message, a smile, or some other action. "Even a lack of response, is in a
sense, a form of response" (Bovee & Thill, 1992). Without feedback, the sender
cannot confirm that the receiver has interpreted the message correctly.
Feedback is a key component in the communication process because it allows the
sender to evaluate the effectiveness of the message. Feedback ultimately provides
an opportunity for the sender to take corrective action to clarify a misunderstood
message. "Feedback plays an important role by indicating significant
communication barriers: differences in background, different interpretations of
words, and differing emotional reactions" (Bovee & Thill, 1992).
The communication process is the perfect guide toward achieving effective
communication. When followed properly, the process can usually assure that the
sender's message will be understood by the receiver. Although the communication
process seems simple, it in essence is not. Certain barriers present themselves
throughout the process. Those barriers are factors that have a negative impact on
the communication process. Some common barriers include the use of an
inappropriate medium (channel), incorrect grammar, inflammatory words, words
that conflict with body language, and technical jargon. Noise is also another
common barrier. Noise can occur during any stage of the process. Noise essentially
is anything that distorts a message by interfering with the communication process.
Noise can take many forms, including a radio playing in the background, another
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M. Lashley Communication Studies 2014-2015

person trying to enter your conversation, and any other distractions that prevent the
receiver from paying attention.
Successful and effective communication within an organization stems from the
implementation of the communication process. All members within an organization
will improve their communication skills if they follow the communication process,
and stay away from the different barriers. It has been proven that individuals that
understand the communication process will blossom into more effective
communicators, and effective communicators have a greater opportunity for
becoming a success.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Burnett, M.J., & Dollar, A. (1989). Business Communication: Strategies for
Success. Houston, Texas: Dane.
Ivancevich, J.M., Lorenzi, P., Skinner, S.J., & Crosby, P.B. (1994). Management:
Quality and Competitiveness. Burr Ridge, IL: Irwin.
Gibson, J.W., & Hodgetts, R.M. (1990). Business Communication: Skills and
Strategies. NY, NY: Harper & Row.
Bovee, C.L., & Thill, J.V. (1992). Business Communication Today. NY, NY:
McGraw-Hill.
Berko, R.M., Wolvin, A.D., & Curtis, R. (1986). This Business of Communicating.
Dubuque, IO: WCB.
Wright, P.M., & Noe, R.A., (1995). Management of Organizations. Chicago, IL:
Irwin.

Feedback
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M. Lashley Communication Studies 2014-2015

The signals that a receiver continuously gives to a sender indicating how well the
message is being received are known as feedback. Feedback is extremely
important for senders, since it allows them to discover such matters as whether
they are speaking too fast, using words that are too complex, or even whether they
are offending or angering their receivers.
Feedback can consist of words, nonverbal symbols, or both. Feedback makes it
possible for speakers to judge how well they are communicating. For example, in
a face-to-face conversation, interviews, and small group discussion, a good balance
of verbal and nonverbal feedback is possible.
Talking on the phone consists of verbal feedback. In public speaking, the form of
feedback is usually nonverbal. This is because, if a large number of audience
members begin responding aloud, it would soon be impossible to hear the speaker.
Most audience speakers confine their feedback to kinesic symbols--smiles, frowns,
and nods of their heads. Some paralanguage symbols such as yawning, occasional
boos, or hisses and clapping may also be used as feedback.
Communication Channels or Mediums

Mass media
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M. Lashley Communication Studies 2014-2015

Mass media is media which is intended for a large audience. It may take the form
of broadcast media, as in the case of television and radio, or print media, like
newspapers and magazines. Internet media can also attain mass media status, and
many mass media outlets maintain a web presence to take advantage of the ready
availability of Internet in many regions of the world. Some people also refer to the
mass media as the mainstream media, referencing the fact that it tends to stick to
prominent stories which will be of interest to a general audience, sometimes
ignoring controversial breaking news. Many people around the world rely on the
mass media for news and entertainment, and globally, mass media is a huge
industry.
Usually, mass media aims to reach a very large market, such as the entire
population of a country. By contrast, local media covers a much smaller population
and area, focusing on regional news of interest, while specialty media is provided
for particular demographic groups. Some local media outlets which cover state or
provincial news may rise to prominence thanks to their investigative journalism,
and to the clout that their particular regions have in national politics. The
Guardian, formerly known as the Manchester Guardian, for example, is a
nationally-respected paper in England which started as a regional daily.
One of the biggest criticisms of the mass media is that it is too topical. When a
media outlet is forced to cover national and international news, it cannot address
numerous interesting local stories because these stories are not of interest to very
many viewers. For example, the residents of a community might view their fight
against development as critical, but the story would only attract the attention of the
mass media if the fight became controversial or if precedents of some form were
set.
People often think of mass media as the news, but mass media also includes
entertainment like television shows, books, and films. It may also be educational in
nature, as in the instance of public broadcasting stations which provide educational
programming to a national audience. Political communications including
propaganda are also frequently distributed via mass media, as are public service
announcements and emergency alerts.

Facilitators of Communication
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M. Lashley Communication Studies 2014-2015

In any communication model, noise is interference with the decoding of messages

sent over a channel by an encoder. Facilitators are the opposite of noise:
Environmental Factors:
working channels and mediums
quiet
access to channels and mediums
Physiological Factors:
20/20 vision
Good hearing
Use of facilitative devices (braille, hearing aids)
Sobriety
Intelligence
Health
Semantic Factors:
Knowledge of words (wide vocabulary)
Fluency in a language
Correct register (appropriate use of language)
Syntactical Factors:
Use of the Standard (English) language
Knowledge of grammar, syntax(sentence structure), pronunciation
Organizational Factors:
Accuracy of information from each source
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M. Lashley Communication Studies 2014-2015

Timeliness of information
Sharing of information with all relevant parties
Use of appropriate channels/mediums
Cultural Factors:
Relevant cultural knowledge
Diplomacy
Observation
Psychological Factors:
Emotional equilibrium
Objectivity
Sensitivity

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M. Lashley Communication Studies 2014-2015

Barriers (Communication Noise)

In any communication model, noise is interference with the decoding of messages
sent over a channel by an encoder. There are many examples of noise:
Environmental Noise: Noise that physically disrupts communication, such as
standing next to loud speakers at a party, or the noise from a construction site next
to a classroom making it difficult to hear the professor.
Physiological-Impairment Noise: Physical maladies that prevent effective
communication, such as actual deafness or blindness preventing messages from
being received as they were intended.
Semantic Noise: Different interpretations of the meanings of certain words. For
example, the word "weed" can be interpreted as an undesirable plant in your yard,
or as a euphemism for marijuana.
Syntactical Noise: Mistakes in grammar can disrupt communication, such as
abrupt changes in verb tense during a sentence.
Organizational Noise: Poorly structured communication can prevent the receiver
from accurate interpretation. For example, unclear and badly stated directions can
make the receiver even more lost.
Cultural Noise: Stereotypical assumptions can cause misunderstandings, such as
unintentionally offending Jews by wishing them a "Merry Christmas."

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Psychological Noise: Certain attitudes can also make communication difficult. For
instance, great anger or sadness may cause someone to lose focus on the present
moment. Disorders such as Autism may also severely hamper effective
communication.

Forms of Communication
Humans need to communicate because we are social creatures by nature. There is
a certain need to communicate. Once we have decided to communicate with
someone, our next step is to use symbols to encode our ideas. You must then
transfer ideas into a symbol system, or code known to both you and your receiver,
and then hope that the receiver will decode, or translate the symbols correctly.
Verbal (Speech, Writing) Symbols
Words are language symbols. They are also called verbal symbols. Language is a
medium of exchange for ideas.
Nonverbal Symbols
These include all the ways you encode your ideas without words. You can smile,
nod, or tap your feet.
Occulesics
Our eyes communicate in ways other than facial expressions. Looking, staring, and
blinking can also be important nonverbal behaviours. When people encounter
people or things that they like, the rate of blinking increases and pupils dilate.
Looking at another person can indicate a range of emotions, including hostility,
interest, and attraction.

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Kinesics (Facial and body motions)

One nonverbal symbol is kinesics, which is the use of facial or body motions to
communicate. Examples of kinesics is rolling one's eyes, frowning, staring,
laughing, gesturing, crossing one's legs, or any similar body movement. Facial
expressions (sticking out the tongue, yawning sniffing raising of eyebrows and
frowning, turning up of mouth) are responsible for a huge proportion of nonverbal
communication. Consider how much information can be conveyed with a smile or
a frown. While non-verbal communication and behaviour can vary dramatically
between cultures, the facial expressions for happiness, sadness, anger, and fear are
similar throughout the world. Deliberate movements and signals (gestures) are an
important way to communicate meaning without words. Common gestures include
waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate number amounts. Other gestures are
arbitrary and related to culture.
Proxemics is the study of spatial communication to communicate. An example
would be good friends sitting or standing closer to each other rather than a new
acquaintance. People often refer to their need for personal space, which is also
an important type of nonverbal communication. The amount of distance we need
and the amount of space we perceive as belonging to us is influenced by a number
of factors including social norms, situational factors, personality characteristics,
and level of familiarity. For example, the amount of personal space needed when
having a casual conversation with another person usually varies between 18 inches
to four feet. On the other hand, the personal distance needed when speaking to a
crowd of people is around 10 to 12 feet.
Paralanguage refers to vocal communication that is separate from actual
language. This includes factors such as tone of voice, loudness, inflection, and
pitch. Consider the powerful effect that tone of voice can have on the meaning of a
sentence. When said in a strong tone of voice, listeners might interpret approval
and enthusiasm. The same words said in a hesitant tone of voice might convey
disapproval and a lack of interest.
Volume indicates how loudly or softly you are speaking.
Pitch (tenor) is how high or low the sounds of your voice are.
Speaking rate is how fast or slow you are speaking.
Voice quality (Clarity) is what makes people able to recognize your voice alone,
and makes people understand what you are saying.

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Haptics
Communicating through touch is another important nonverbal behaviour. There has
been a substantial amount of research on the importance of touch in infancy and
early childhood. Harry Harlows classic monkey study demonstrated how the
deprivation of touch and contact impedes development. Baby monkeys raised by
wire mothers experienced permanent deficits in behaviour and social interaction.
(pat on the back, shaking of hands, hugging and holding hands, rubbing ones head,
caressing )
Artefacts
Our choice of colours, clothing & accessaries, hairstyles, and other factors
affecting appearance are also considered a means of nonverbal communication. A
police uniform, a soldier uniform, a suit all provides nonverbal communication.
The same is true of the wardrobe of someone who is homeless and unkempt.
Research on colour psychology has demonstrated that different colours can invoke
different moods. Appearance can also alter physiological reactions, judgment, and
interpretations.
Chronemics
is the study of the use of time in nonverbal communication; the way that one
perceives and values time, structures time and reacts to time frames
communication. Across cultures, time perception plays a large role in the
nonverbal communication process. It is important to be aware of the use of time in
communication. Effective public speaking and interviewing are impacted by
chronemics.
Graphic elements
Pictures can convey certain information more efficiently than words and are more
easily read by some persons than words. Verbal information can be supplemented
with icons, avatars and similar pictorial types of nonverbal communication. Also
much factual information can be through tables charts and diagrams.

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Communication Contexts
These are:
1. Intrapersonal
2. Interpersonal
3. Small group
4. Organizational
5. Academic
6. Public
7. Intercultural
8. Mass-Mediated
9. Computer-Mediated
Communication Contexts
The communication contexts are the environment and circumstances between the
participants that are communicating. Here is a story example of Sean to explain
each context.
The first is intrapersonal communication. Intrapersonal communication is
communication in which there is one person. Sean may notice that the local
community Arts Center is falling into a state of disrepair. As a musician, Sean may
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M. Lashley Communication Studies 2014-2015

think to himself that the Arts Center is vital to the well-being of the community and
seeing the poor shape of the building, Sean may think about taking up the issue
with the Community Council.
Sean may think to himself about the issue and when he mentions it to his
roommate, Steve, there is interpersonal communication, which is communication
between two people. Intrapersonal and interpersonal communication look alike, but
they are very different in that one is self-addresses (intra) whereas the other in
between two people (inter). Many scholars recognize that communication begins
with two people, which is called a dyad, and not with one person, which is seen as
an interest to psychology and not to communication. Others believe that Sean can
debate whether or not to support the Arts Center by himself and consider this
important for communication studies. That is, the debate is within one person but
between two positions.
Sean and Steve both believe that the Arts Center is a really great idea, but they do
not have enough time between the two of them. They may enlist some other friends
Kevin, Mishka and Cara. When they all sit down and discuss the Arts Center
they are engaging in small-group communication. In small group communication
there is at least three individuals and can range up to twelve. While there is at least
three, any less would be a dyad, the maximum number is defined by the ability of
all those involved to contribute regularly to the discussion. Groups are usually task
based whereas dyads are relationally based (e.g., platonic/romantic). The more
members of a group there are, the more ideas and different perspectives can be
explored.
Sean and all his friends all like the idea of rebuilding the Arts Center, but he has to
go to work at the music store downtown. Sean goes off to work and talks to his
coworkers and his manager about starting a petition about the Arts Center. Sean
was so excited, he even wanted to tell the chief executive officer (CEO) of the
company, but he cannot. The business that he works at is very large and the
organizations home office is on the other side of the country. Sean cannot just go
into the CEOs office and talk about a local Arts Center. The CEO is too busy
making decisions and sitting in conferences, which can be a type of small group.
Sean may decide to write an essay or research paper for his workplace about the
value of an Arts Centre. This would be academic communication.
Sean can, in addition, tell his supervisor directly over him who can then tell the
area manager, who can in turn tell the district manager and eventually the message,
if its important enough, can get to the CEO. The national CEO would not need to
approve Seans use of the store to get people to sign a petition. That decision may
be made by the local or regional manager. That is, the message would not get very
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M. Lashley Communication Studies 2014-2015

high in the chain of command. On the other hand, the CEO can send messages
down through the chain of command. For example, if the CEO of a company wants
to implement a change in the way the records are displayed, then that message
would be handed down through high-level managers to low-level managers until
the message was received by the workers who would be affected by the change.
This context in which messages go up and down hierarchies is called
organizational communication.
If Sean and his friends were highly successful in the efforts to rebuild the Arts
Center they may decide to operate their own organization to build art centers
throughout the world. They visit other cultures and do research, they will find four
major dichotomies: individual and collective; high and low context, high and low
power distance; and feminine and masculine, which are the basic concepts of
intercultural communication, which is communication between (inter) cultures.
Individual oriented cultures focus on the individual whereas a collective culture
focuses on the communitys interests.
In high context cultures, meaning is in the setting and therefore meaning is
communicated implicitly whereas in low context cultures, the emphasis is on the
spoken word and meaning is explicit. High and low power distance differ in that
the former values such things as birth order and occupation and in low power
distance cultures, everyone is considered equal. Lastly, is feminine and masculine,
which is different from woman and man. Feminine traits generally focus on
nurturing whereas masculine traits refer to assertiveness and competitiveness.
Importantly, a man can be nurturing just as a woman can be assertive.
But if Sean and his friends all just focus on their local Arts Center, they may go to
the library and uncover information about the citys budget and the value of art to a
community. He then arranges the information so that the speech flows nicely. Next,
he memorizes the speech although he does not need to memorize the speech wordfor-word. He might compose some stylistic elements of the speech, which he
memorizes exactly but may not memorize other lesser elements. Finally, he
practices his delivery to get the most out of it. These are the elements in the context
of public communication.
Sean may have given his speech outside the Arts Center, but many people were not
around to hear it. He decides that he will send a press release to the local television
and radio outlets that announce the date and time of his next speech. This causes
the outlets to come and record the speech and broadcast it. Sean is now in the
mass-mediated context. The difference between the Seans public speaking and
the broadcast of Sean speaking is very important. In the public speaking context,
Sean can see his audience. In the mass-mediated context, Sean cannot see his
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M. Lashley Communication Studies 2014-2015

audience. The difference is slim but substantial. When Sean can see the audience,
he can change his speaking style to reflect the audience. If the crowd is
complacent, he can energize them; if they are cheering, he can become louder or
wait until they are done. If he does not know the reactions of his audience, then he
cannot do this. Watching great speakers like Martin Luther King Jr. speak show
how reacting to the audience can do wonders for a speech.
The last context is the computer-mediated context. As its name suggests it is
communication mediated through computer technology especially through the use
of the Internet. Some people may record Seans speech with their digital cameras
and place it online. Whereas mass-mediated communication only broadcast Seans
speech to the local community, the computer-mediated context allows anyone with
an Internet connection to view the speech. Thus, one of the major differences
between mass communication and computer communication is the latters ability
to transcend geographic limitations. That is, with computer-mediated
communication, people in India, Luxemburg, or Samoa can view Seans speech.
Not only can they view the speech but they can also offer comments and make
their own videos responding to Seans.
Some may argue that mass communication can transcend geographical boundaries
too. While they can to a certain degree, computer-mediated communication is far
superior. You local television affiliate broadcasts news to your local community,
the national news networks broadcast to the country. Some of these national
networks are picked up around the worldjust like Americans can watch the
British news from the BBC on public television.
These are examples of mass-communication transcending boundaries, but do you
ever see local Barbadian news aired in America? Have you ever seen the local
news from a town in any country in Africa? China? Russia? Probably not! Have
you ever watched videos on YouTube.com from Africa, China, or Russia? Probably
you have! And these videos do carry the extremely local newsthe events at
school or in the neighborhood and these events that the local news would not
broadcast to the area can be posted for the entire world to watch.
ACA Public Speaking Online Guide:
http://www.textcommons.org/node/99

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The Purpose/Function of Non-Verbal Communication

Substituting : the use of movements to replace words
Nodding yes
Raise of hand to indicate wait or stop
Reinforcing: the use of movements to complement/reinforce your verbal sounds
Shrugging
Applauding
Regulating: movements that keep the flow of interaction orderly
Inclining of head
Nodding
Hand gesture
Contradicting: the use of paralanguage and facial expressions to oppose your
verbal message, or deceive your audience
sarcasm
smile instead of a yawn
maintaining eye contact
Managing Impressions: the use of artefacts to create and control how others
perceive you
Clothing
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Cars
Jewellery
Brands
Cell phones
Establishing Relationships: the use of proxemics or artefacts to establish or reveal
a relationship
An engagement ring, identity bracelet
Hugging
Holding hands

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