Hal 1.

coal classification
Frequent references will be made in the discussions which follow to the different
ranks of coal. The American society for the testing and material ( ASTM ) classification
standards will be used in naming these ranks, table 1. The world rank is used to designate
differences in coal that are due to progressive change from lignite to anthracite. A change is
generally accompanied by an increase in fixed carbon, sulfur, and probably ash. However,
when one coal is distinguished from the another by the means of the quantity of ash or sulfur
it contains, the different is said to be one of grade. Thus a high grade is one that is relatively
pure, whereas a high rank coal is one that is relatively high on the scale of coals, or, in other
words, one that has undergone devolatization and contains less volatile matter, oxygen, and
moisture than it did before the change occurred.
Ranks of coal
Anthracite : this class is composed of three subdivisions of groups : meta anthracite,
anthracite, and semi anthracite. Meta-anthracite is super anthracite that that has a fixed
carbon content of 98% or more and a volatile matter content of 2% or less. It is rarely found
and is not used for fuel.
Anthracite has a fixed carbon content that ranges from 92 to 98% and a volatile matter
content of from 2 to 8%. It has an iron-black color and dull-to-brill-liant luster. It burns with a
short pale blue frame, emits little odor, and does not coke. Its fuel value is not as great as
either semi anthracite or high-grade bituminous coal. It breaks with a conchoidal fracture and
has a specific gravity ranging from 1.27 to 1.70.
In eastern Pennsylvania where most of it is mined, anthracite was formed by regional
metamorphism. The anthracite which is located in small areas in the west was formed by the
heat of igneous rock.
Semi anthracite, a coal with a fixed carbon content of from 86 to 92%, possesses to a
lesser degree the same properties as anthracite. The conchoidal fracture is not as well defined
in it, and it has more cleats, making it a very friable coal. Because of its higher percentage of
volatile matter, it kindles more readily than anthracite, burning with a short yellow flame.
Because of its more rapid combustion, its efficiency is greater than that of anthracite for
certain purpose. Its volatile matter content ranges from 8 to 14%, and its specific gravity
average about 1.45.
The development of semi anthracite is due to the same geologic process that produced
anthracite except that the process has not been carried as far, possibly because the
metamorphism was not as intense.
Bituminous : in table 1, the bituminous class is subdivided into five groups, the lowvolatile and medium-volatile groups with fixed carbon content between 69% or more are
classified on this basis. The characteristics of these blend naturally with the higher and lower
groups at each extreme but a general, average description will be used here.
Low-bituminous coal has a fixed carbon content of between 78 and 86% while
medium-volatile bituminous coal has a fixed-carbon content between 69 and 78%. These
coals are nearby smokeless coal. The best coals of this type have heating values greater than
any other rank.
Low-volatile or medium-bituminous coal is generally minutely jointed and therefore
is tender and friable. The great bulk of these coals are found in the eastern fields in the US,
but there are some in the west where they have been subjected to a slight amount of regional
metamorphism or have been heated by some igneous mass.

The remaining three groups under the bituminous rank all have fixed carbon content
of less than 69% and are classified according to their joule (Btu) content. The Joule (Btu)
value of high-volatile A is 14.8 MJ (14.000) or more ; of B 13.7 MJ (13,000) or more ; and of
C 12.1 MJ (11,500) or more.
Bituminous coal burns with a long yellow flame and gives off a suffocating odor. It is
more or less layers varies greatly. It may be resinous, silky, pitchy, dull, or earthy. The
fracture may be irregular and somewhat splintery, but it is almost always roughly cubical.
The specific gravity averages about 1.3
There are several subgroups of bituminous coal including coking and non coking
coals ; the latter include the cherry and splint coals, cannel coal, and the related types of
torbanite and boghead coals.
Subbituminous : in the subbituminous class, there are three groups known as A, B,
and C with a heating

Hal 2
COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY
Table 1. ASTM Classification Coal Standards ( Averitt, 1974)
( Photo )
value range of 8.8 to 12.1 MJ (8,300 to 11,500 Btu) per pound. This type of coal has been
called black lignite, but this term should be avoided because the coal is not lignitic in the
sense of being distinctly woody. Many coals of the subbituminous class approach the lower
grades of bituminous coal in quality.
The subbituminous coal very greatly in physical properties. Some are banded like
bituminous coal, and some are like cannel coal in physical and chemical properties. In
general, the cretaceous and younger subbituminous coals of the west contains smaller
percentages of sulfur than the older coals of the east.
Cannel : cannel coal is very rich in volatile matter and high in hydrogen and burns with great
heat and a long flame. It is composed almost entirely of spores, spores cases, seed coats, and
resinous or waxy products of plants that lived at the time of the coal forming swamps.
The absence of woody material gives cannel coal a regular texture and grain that are not
found in any other coals. It breaks like glass, with a conchoidal fracture, and, owing to its
richess in flammable constituents, a splinter of its better grades will ignite readily when in
contact with the flame of a lighted match. Its specific gravity ranges from 1.2 to 1.3. while
limited in use, it makes an excellent fire place fuel.

Lignite : the lignite class has two subdivisions, the lignite group and the brown coal group.
These coals have a joule (Btu) value of less than 8.8 MJ (8300).
The lignites are consolidated; the brown coals are unconsolidated. The two terms, lignite and
brown coal, are often used interchangeably because they are both brown in color and may
have similar physical and chemical properties. The moisture in mine-run lignite ranges from
30 to 40% and the specific gravity ranges from 0.5 to 1.30. those lignites with a joule (Btu)
value from 6.6 to 8.8 MJ (6300 to 8.300) are classified as lignite A and those below 6.6 MJ
(6300 Btu) as lignite B.
Coal Resources of the world by continents
Before the availability of coal throughout the world can be discussed, it is essential to define
the reference base so that it may be employed correctly. The incorrect use of resource and
reserve interchangeably has led to great confusion. A total coal resource means the physical
presence of coal to specified liberal, maximum depths and minimum seam thicknesses and
has nothing to do with whether it can be economically or even technically mined. This coal
may be partly identified or measured or only inferred from geologic covered physical
resources. Unfortunately, in the past there was no international agreement on minimum seam
thicknesses, maximum depths, and other arbitrary boundary constraints for the inclusion of
coal

Hal 3.
COAL STATISTICS
Table 2. Estimate Coal Resources of the world in 1974 and 1971 Annual Production
( Survey of Energy Resources, 1974 )
(Photo)
in the resource listing. The 1974 world energy conference survey of energy resources was the
most successful attempt to bring some order and validity to country listings of total coal
resources by establishing suitable guidelines.
A demonstrated reserve base includes 100% of those coals within the resource group
that are potentially minable with todays technology and economics. A recoverable reserve or
merely reserve base after deductions have been made for losses during mining in pillars,
barriers, and other unrecovered support coal that must be left in place.
Table 2 list the 1974 total world resources, the demonstrated reserve base, and coal
production for the most important countries. Total resources include all coal seams at least
0.3 (1ft) m thick to depths of 500 m (1641 ft) for low rank coals ( brown coal and lignite )
and 1200 meters ( 3937 ft ) for high rank coal ( anthracite, bituminous, and subbituminous ).
The demonstrated reserve base is the corresponding fraction of resources that has been
carefully measured and assessed as being exploitable in a particular nation or region under
present local economic conditions, using existing available technology. For each country, the
criteria employed for the classification in the demonstrated reserve base or reserve varies
widely because of different economic conditions.
While coal resources are widely distributed throughout the world, certain countries
and continents are much more fortunate than others. It is interesting to note that the bulk of
the coal lies above 30o N latitude, principally in three countries the USSR, the United
States, and the Peoples Republic of China which together account for 90% of the world

resources. Further, while the USSR has 53% of the worlds coal resources, the United States
has the highest demonstrated base ( 26% ) and even China (21%) exceeds the USSR reserve
base (19%). Undoubtedly, this reflects the location of large USSR coal resources above the
Arctic Circle.
The only other countries with significant coal resources are west Germany, (259 767
Mt ( 286,150 million tons) ), United Kingdom ( 147 802 Mt ( 162,814 million tons)), and
Poland ( 55 013 Mt (60,600 million tons )) which collectively contains 84% of the European
resources. South Africa contains the only significant coal resources ( 40 215 Mt (44,339
million tons )) in an otherwise coal poor continent, while only India (75 326 Mt ( 82,977
million tons ), besides the USSR and China, has large resources in Asia. Nevertheless, even
though resource tonnages are small on the world percentage basis, the coal resources of
Australia, India, and South Africa, for example, are very important to the development of
those countries. While coal production usually reflects the magnitude of the coal reserve, the
greater maturity of the European coal industry is more significant in that case.
If we were to draw a map of the world scaling all areas according to coal resources,
we would get the distorted view shown in figure 1.
US Coal Distribution
As Figure 2, show, US coal can be classified into six provinces.
Eastern Province
In terms of present and past production and rank of the product mined, the eastern province is
the most important in the United States, Figure 3. It consist of the anthracite region of Rhode
Island and Pennsylvania, and the bituminous areas of the the Atlantic Coast region in Virginia
and North Carolina, and most importantly, the Appalachian region which embraces the
bituminous coal area from Pennsylvania and Ohio in the north to Alabama in the South.

HAL 4.
(PHOTO)
Hal 5.
(PHOTO)
The rhode island Anthracite region is commercially unimportant, but the Pennsylvania
Anthracite region has a reserve base of 6.5 Gt (7.2 billion tons) of high-quality coal. This

region was probably connected with the bituminous coalfields of western Pennsylvania at the
time of deposition, but erosion which occurred during and after the formation of the
Appalachian Mountains removed all of the intervening coal for a distance of 161 km (100
miles) or more, creating the distinct separation of two areas, figs. 2 and 16, chap. 1 and 2, this
chapter. Considerable crustal movement during the Appalachian Mountain construction
caused several distortion of the anthracite coal beds. Especially the southern areas, resulting
in steeply pitching seams which have resisted the application of the highly mechanized
mining machines developed in the relatively flat bituminous seams.
The Atlantic Coast region of bituminous coal in Virginia and North Carolina is
commercially unimportant today although it has the distinction of being the area where the
first bituminous coal was mined in this country (near Richmond) in 1787.
In the Appalachian region, there are over 100 minable coal seams, some of which are
mined over a considerable area. Fig. 4 is a stratigraphic column of west Virginia which
encompasses the widest geologic range of coal in the Appalachian region. Major mining
activity in the Appalachian region is concentrated in three areas : (1) The northern area,
comprised of southwestern Pennsylvania, southeastern Ohio, and northern West Virginia,
includes the following major seams: Sewickley; Pittsburgh; Upper and Lower Freeport; and
Upper, middle, and Lower Kittanning. The Pittsburgh seam lying in this area is probably the
worlds most valuable seam. The Sewickley and Pittsburgh seams are in the Monongahela
formation while the others lie in the Allegheny formation of the Pennsylvania epoch of the
Carboniferous period. (2) The second largest concentration of coal in the Appalachian region
is located in central and southern west Virginia, western Kentucky, and the eastern edge of
Virginia. Some of the major seams in this area include the Upper Mercer, Stockton-Lewiston,
Coalburg, Chilton , Cedar Grove, Campbell, Sewell, Beckley, Eagle, and the Pottsville
formation. (3) The southernmost concentration of coal in the Appalachian region is located in
Alabama. Somewhat localized, it is mostly contained in a number of seams called the Merry
Lee group. (jones and Hunt, 1952; Averitt, 1975; and USBM staff, 1974).
The coalbeds of the Appalachian region were affected by the same crustal movements
that produced the Appalachian mountains. As a result, the synclinal basins, with major axes
running in a northeastern portion. Mountainous ridges predominate along the eastern edge of
region in the northern part, but the effect of the crustal movements lessens toward the western
and southwestern parts. An important feature of the Appalachian region coal deposits is the
variation in rank as the beds progress in a westerly direction. In the eastern margin the bed
are of anthracite or semianthracite rank; in the middle they become low-volatile and medium
volatile bituminous coal ; and western margin coal areas are predominantly high-volatile
bituminous in rank. This progressive devolatilization of the coal and increase in the fixed
carbon content from west to east is the result of the crustal movements that affected the beds
after they were laid down.
The bituminous coal in the Appalachian region varies considerably in volatility and
sulfur and ash content, and an abundance of it is high-quality coal that is used in the
production of coke for metallurgical processes. It has been estimated that approximately onethird of all the coal in Appalachian region is premium coking quality. This premium grade
category is based on coal having strong coking properties and containing no more than 8 %
ash and 1.25 % sulfur, either as mined or after conventional cleaning.
Both surface and underground mining has been done extensively throughout
Appalachian. The mined coal has been and is being consumed by electric utilities, the steelcoke industry, and other manufacturing industries. A significant amount of Appalachian coal,
mostly metallurgical, is exported overseas.

Interior Province
The Interior Province is composed of four geographically distinct regions, two of which, the
Northern region in Michigan and Southeastern region in Texas, have limited coal reserves of
commercial value, Fig. 5. The other two areas, the Eastern and Western Interior regions,
contain abundant reserves that will likely experience a marked increase in underground
production in the future.
Most of the coal in the Interior Province is medium to high volatile bituminous coal with its
ash and sulfur

Hal 6.
(PHOTO)
Hal 7.
(PHOTO)
Figure 5. Interior Province
contents unsystematically variable except for a few low-sulfur areas in southern Illinois
which provide coking coal. Most of the coal produced in this province is consumed by
electric utilities, and considerable surface and underground mining has occurred here,
primarily in the Eastern region. With its hugh reserves, this area is probably destined for even
greater activity in the future. Illinois possesses bituminous coal reserves of any state.
Gulf Province
The coal deposits of the Gulf Province are mostly lignitic in nature, Fig. 6. They are
contained in strata of the Eocene age, generally sandstone and clay, that are so soft as to make
mining difficult and expensive. While These deposits have been mined in only a few
localities in Texas in the past, there has been considerable interest recently in developing
some of them. The first commercial gasification plant in the United States will probably be
built in this area. Lignites, incidentally, appear to be the most suitable for gasification.
Northern Great Plains Province
The Northern Great Plaints Province contains the largest reserves and includes the leading
state, Montana, Fig. 7. While the prefix northern is descriptive of the larger fields in the
province, some of the fields lie as far south as Colorado and New Mexico. This province is
distinctive for its wide variety of ranks of coals from lignites to high-volatile bituminous
coals.
The coals of North and south dakota and Montana, which are part of the fort Union region,
are of lignitic rank and Eocene age. Some of these lignite beds average as much as 9.1 m (30
ft) in thickness and are continuous for many miles. North Dakota is considered to have the
greatest identified coal resources, all of which are amenable to strip mining rather than
underground mining. This coal has a high moisture , from 40 to 45%, and a low joule (Btu)
value, 8440 kJ (8000) per pound. While presently limited to the utilities market, these lowrank coals appear destined for gasification and liquefaction
(PHOTO)

Figure 6. Gulf Province

(PHOTO)
Figure 7. Northern Great Plains Province.
Hal 8. reki
(PHOTO)
Dan teks
Hal 9. reki
(PHOTO)
Dan teks
Hal. 10
(PHOTO)
Hal 11.
BILLIONS OF SHORT TONS
(photo )

usually computed at 50% for underground mining and 85% for surface .
the identified resources estimates which are concentrated largely in the 0-305 m (01000-ft)-overburden category, are of great interest and importance because: (1) they are
firmly based on factual information; (2) they include accessible coal of current economic
interest (reserve base); and (4) they provide data from which estimates of coal in the deeper
and less accessible parts of the coal basins may be obtained by extrapolation.
table 4 lists the total estimated remaining coal resources of the united stated as of jan.
1, 1974, by state. fig. 10 illustrates the identified portion of the resources by state, while table
5 categorizes the reserve base according to surface or underground mining for each state and
gives the production in 1975. From these data, it can be seen that in terms of total resources
wyoming is first, north dakota second, and montana third, but for identified resources, north
Dakota is first, Montana second, and Illinois third, while for the demonstrated reserve base,
Montana
is
first,
Illinois
second,
and
Wyoming
third.

Hal 12.
COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY
TABLE 5. Jan. 1, 1974 Coal Reserve Base by State and by Method of Mining and 1975 Total
Production
(In Million (10%) of Short Tons )

(PHOTO)
IMPORTANT COAL SEAMS
General
While there are well over 100 identified coal seams in the eastern United Stated, only
relatively few are thick and continous over large areas, or possess properties that make them
especially desirable for commercial development. west virginia has the widest geologic range
of named coals (117), Fig. 4, but 90% of its production comes, for example, from only 17
seams. Comprehensive descriptions of all minable seams are available, but a condensed view
of only some of the more important or well-known ones will be given here. Furthermore,
since virtually all eastern coals were formed during the pennsylvanian period, Fig. 2, hap 1,
seam correlation exist. A correlated seam was contiguous throughout the eastern United
Stated during the period of formation , then subsequent erosion may have separated it, but it
still remains the same seam wherever it occurs. In table 6, exact seam correlations are on the
same horizontal lines; the others are approximate correlatives. The use of upper-case letters
indicates greater importance than lower-case although the same seam may be important in
one geographical area and minor or even nonexistent elsewhere. (USBM Staff,1974;
Keystone Coal Industry Manual 1972)

Hal 13.
(PHOTO)
Hal 14.
(PHOTO)
Hal 15.
Table 7 lists the names of the 50 largest producing mines in 1975 and the local names
for the seams being mined. As can be seen, many are relatively new surface mines in the west
where a great deal of expansion is foreseen for the future. Therefore, important seams for the
entire country will be discussed here although the greatest amount of information is available
on the eastern coals. The seams in the eastern United States will be described first, beginning
with the shallower and proceeding to the deeper ones; then western seams will be described.
In the descriptions to follow, the most popular name for a given seam in West Virginia will be
used as a reference base except where otherwise noted. Then the major mines in each seam
will be listed by their number in table 7, followed by other common local names for the seam.
Using the initial entry the Sewickley seam-as an example, Muskin-gum (21) and Egypt valley
mines in Ohio from Table 7 are located this seam are, in Ohio,Meigs creek, No. 9; in
Pennsylvania, 5 foot, Mapletown; in Maryland, Tyson.
Eastern seams (Averitt, 1974; Keystone Coal Industry Manual, 1976; Matson and
White, 1975; and Hamilton et al., 1975).
Sewickley: (21, 32) Ohio : Meigs Creek, No. 9; Pennsylvania; 5 ft, Mapletown:
Maryland: Tyson. The sewickley seam received its name for its occurrence near sewickley,
PA. In west Virginia, it is found in the northern panhandle area, but most of its remaining
reserves occur in Monongolia Country where nearly 771 Mt (850 milion tons) of its utility
coal are still in place.

The only remaining Sewickley reserves in Pennsylvania are in Fayette and Greene
Counties. The seam is primarily deep minable in these areas with a thickness ranging from
0.9 to 1.8 m (3 to 6 ft). Two large deep mines are located in the seam in Greene Country. In
Maryland it is the second most important seam in the state, although the small amuont of
reserves it has make it relatively unimportant. In Ohio, although the sewickley ranks second
among the states coal in annual tonnage produced, it is still relatively undeveloped, and is
considered to contain the largest easily accessible unmined reserves in Ohio. In general,
however, the Sewickley will be of only limited importance in the future because its higher
quality reserves have already been exhausted and those that remain are of relatively high
sulfur and only moderate joule (btu) content. Its reserve base consist of approximately 3.4 Gt
(3.75 blilion tons) as summarized in table 8.
Pittsburgh;(27,32, 35, 36, 42, 43, 44) Ohio: No. 8 : Maryland: Big Vein. The
Pittsburgh seam is one of the most important mineral deposits in the United States, perhaps
the word. Geologically, this seam marks the base of the Monongahela formation. This
2
remarkably uniform deposit covers an area of approximately 15 540 km (6000 sq mi) in
west Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. The seam has been extensivelymined in Pennsylvania,
and was a major factor in the establishment of the iron and stell empire in pittsburgh. The
good coking characteristict of the coal continue in the major remaining Pennsylvania
resources in Greene and Washington Counties and in northern West Virginia. However, into
the northern panhandle of West Virginia and Ohio, it not only becomes thinner but also
degenerates into a poorer quality, good only for use as steam coal. in Maryland almost all of
the reserves have been exhausted with only a few isolated tract remaining that are amenable
to surface mining. This seam has been, and should continue to be, one of the nations most
important coal reserves ; its reserve base in excess of 15.3 Gt (16.9 billion tons).
Upper Freeport: Pennsylvania: E, Holmes; Ohio: No.7; Illinois: No. 7; Indiana: VII;
western Kentucky: No.14 . The Upper Freeport bed is less uniform in thickness than the
overlying Pittsburgh bed or the underlying Lower Kittanning bed because it was subject to
local uplift erosion before deposition of the overlying rock. Nevertheless, it is a persistent bed
throughout large areas of Pennsylvania, west Virginia, and Ohio, and is the third most
important bed in the northern part of the Appalachian basin, both in production and contained
resources. It is thickest and most continuous in he counties around Pittsburgh in the
southwestern part of the state where it thickness ranges from 0.6 to 3.1 m (2 to 10 ft) and is
from 1.2 to 1.8 m (4 to 6 ft) thick over a considerable area. It is thinner into west Virginia and
of a very irregular thickness in Ohio. Nevertheless, its wide distribution makes it the fourth
most important bed in Ohio with respect to known resources. In West Virginia, it is
2
considered to be of minable thickness over an area of 3017 km (1165 sq mi) in a belt
running norht south through the central part of the state. Geologically, the seam mark the top
of the Allegheny formation. In Maryland, it is one of the most widely distributed and valuable
seams. With reserves totaling over 293 Mt (300 Million t), excellent quality, and a thickness
which varies from 1.2 to 1.5 m (4 to 5 ft), the Upper Freeport should be the most important
coal reserve in Marylands future.
Lower Freeport: Pennsylvania : D; ohio: No. 6A Maryland: Barrelville. The Lower
Freeport has been extensively mined in the past by both surface and underground methods.
Initially, it was deep-mined in Clearfield Country as the Moshannon seam. Most of the
remaining reserves in Pennsylvania are found in Cambria and Indiana counties. In general,
these consist of a highh quality coking coal in Pennsylvania. The seam in West Virginia is not
considered very important because of its thickness, which averages 0.9 m (3 ft), and its fair
to poor quality. The same characteristics generally hold true in Maryland, also. In Ohio, the

6A seam is primarily deep mined and, owing to geological differences, it is a high-quality

industrial coal rather.
Hal 16.
(PHOTO)
Hal 17.
(PHOTO)
Hal 18.
COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY
Table 8. Reserve Base oh Important Eastern Coal Seams
(PHOTO)
Than the cooking quality of Pennsylvania. Although this seam does not certain the extensive
reserves of some of the others in the Appalachian basin, its quality and accessibility should
make it of local importance in the future.
Upper Kittanning : Pennsylvania : C prime ; Maryland : Montell. The Upper Kittanning
received its name from its occurrence as the uppermost of three seams near Kittanning, PA.
Primarily a utility coal, it is generally thin (average 0.9 or 3 ft in thickness in west Virginia)
and varies in quality. As such, it is generally unimportant throughout most of the bituminous
area, although sizeable reserves still remain in Cambria and Somerset counties in
Pennsylvania.

Hal 19.
Middle Kittanning : Ohio: No.6 ; Pennsylvania: C; Maryland : Luke. In the Middle
Kittanning, Ohios No.6 seamis quite uniform and, until recently, was the states most
important bed in terms of production and quality. It has also been tentatively correlated with
the No. 6 seam of Illinois. In Ohio, it varies in thickness from 0.9 to 4.3 m (3 to 14 ft ) and
has extensivedeep minable reservesin the counties along the western fringe of the states
coalfields. In Maryland and West Virginia, the seam is relatively unimportant because of
thickness [averaging 0.9 (3 ft)[ and fair to poor quality. In Pennsylvania, the seam is generally
too thin to be deep mined and is, therefore, considered unprofitable to mine. Its better quality
reserves have already been exploited. It will, however, be of local future importance,
particularly in Ohio.
No.5 Block: (33,34) Pennsylvania : B; Maryland: Lower Kittanning; Ohio; No.5. The
Lower Kittaning bed is thinner than the Pittsburgh bed, but is covers a larger area and
contains greater resources. It extend almost continuously throughout the norhern part of the
Appalachian basin in Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Maryland, and Ohio, and into northern
kentucky where it is known as the princess No. 6 bed. It is thickest in central west Virginia
and thins verry gradually in all directions from a maximum of 3.6 m (12 ft) to somewhat less
than 0.9 m(3 ft). It has been mined in most of the areas where it is more than 1.2 m ( 14 ft)
thick, and is second only to the Pittsburgh bed as a major source of coal in the Appalachian
basin. While the No.5 block may not pay as important a role in future Appalachian mining as
it did in the past because of diminishing reserves, the seam will still be very valuable where
tracts of an acceptable thickness can be put together.

Clarion : (33,34) Pennsylvania: A prime ; Maryland: Fulton; Ohio: No.4A. At the top
of the Pottsville formation, the A prime seam covers a wide area in the northern Appalachian
coalfields, but, as a thin bed which is high in sulfur, it is not extensively mined. The better
coal has been extracted from it in Pennsylvania, and the remaining reserves are poor. Thus
future importance of this seam in this state is not anticipated. The seam is of local importance
for steam generation in Ohio where it is thick enough to be worked.
Stockton-Lewiston : (33,34) Pennsylvania: Alton; Maryland: Mercer; Ohio: No.3.
The Stockton-Lewiston seam in west virginia consists of a utility coal of local importance.
Usually double-beddded, it varies in thickness from 0.6 to 2.7 m (2 to 9 ft), averaging 1.5 m
(5 ft) Low in sulfur, the Stocton-Lewistons reserve base is over 0.68 Gt (0.75 billion tons) in
three counties.
Hazard no. 7 in East Kentucky: Virginia: High Split; Tennessee: Bald Knob. The
Hazard no. 7 . seams in eastern kentucky is a low-sulfur, high quality steam coal. In certain
areas, the seams ranges up to 1.8 m (6 ft) in thickness, but averages 0.9 m ( 3 ft)
throughoutthe field; thus it is of local importance.
Coalburg : Eastern kentucky: hazard No. 5A; Virginia: Morris. The Coalburg seam is
a high-quality, low sulfur utility coal. in west Virginia, it varies in thickness between 0.6 to 3
m (2 to 10 ft) and averages 1.5 m (5 ft). Although it has the same characteristics as the
coalburg, the Hazard No. 5A is generally thinner and is found at a thickness of 1.5 m (5 ft)
only in small areas. The Morris seam in virginia has few remaining reserves, all of which are
located in wise Country.
Winifrede ; Pennsylvania : Quakertown; Ohio: No.2; Eastrern Kentucky: Hazard No.
5 The Winifrede is a high quality coal of local importance. It varies in thickness from 0.6 to
3.6 m (2 to 12 ft), averaging 1.2 m (4 ft). Most of its remaining reserves area in Boone
Country, WV.
Chilton: Eastren kentucky: Fireclay ; Virginia : Philips. The chilton seam is a good
quality, low sulfur utility coal averaging 0.9 m (3 ft) in thickness. Most of west Virginias
reserves are located in logan country with a few reserves in Virginia. However, Kentuckys
Fireclay seam ranks second to the Elkhorn No.3 in probable future importance to the state.
Most of the reserve base in kentucky must be deep mined, with the seam running from 0.9 to
1.4 m (3 to 4.5 ft) in thickness. The name Fireclay was given to the seam in this state because
the lower part of the bed contains a fairly consistent 15 cm (6-in.) parting of reddish flint
clay.
Cedar Grove: virginia : Taggert; Eastern Kentucky; Elkhorn No.3; Tennessee: jellico.
In central West Virginia, the coal is soft and there are no partings present. As the seam runs
further to the southwest, it becomes splinty. Averaging 1.2 m (4 ft) in thickness, it range =s
from 0.6 to 1.8 m (2 to 6 ft) Thick in west Virginia. Virginias Taggert seam has been one of
the most important reserves in the state and has been extensively mines. As both a utility and
coking coal, it ranges from 0.9 to 1.5 m (3 to 5 ft) thick. Kentuckys Elkhorn No.3 seam has
produced more coal than any other seam in the eastern portion of this state. It is primarily a
deep minable seam in kentucky and varies in thickness from 76 to 165 cm (30 to 65 in).
Alma : Eastern Kentuckyp; Elkhorn No.1; Virginia: Harland; Tennessee: Blue Gem.
The Alma seam is a low sulfur, utility and metallurgical grade coal, primarily deep minable, it
averages 0.9 m (3 ft) in thicness and is often multi bedded in the southern part of the state. In
eastern kentucky it is not a persistent bed and averages 76 cm (30 in). In thickness in most of
the mining areas. Although there apper to be substantial reserves most of the reserve has been
depleted in Tennessee.
Peerless: Virginia: Campbell Creek. The Peerless seam has been extensively mined as
a seam of local importance. Primarily deep minable coal, it ranges from 0.3 to 1.2 m (1 to 4
ft) in thickness, averaging 0.9 m (3 ft).

No.2 gas: Eastern kentucky, Virginia: Imboden; tennessee : Coal Creek. The No.2 Gas
seam and its correlatives represent the most important deposit in the Pottsville formation.
Primarily a deep minable seam, its low-ash, sulfur, and high joule
Hal. 20
Coal Mining Technology
(Btu) characteristics have made it very important in the manufacture of coke. Usually
multy-bedded, the seam vaies between 0.6 and 3 m (2 and 10 ft) thick in west virginia,
averaging 1.5 m (5 ft). Verry little reserves are left in virginia, but the Lower elkhorn in
eastern Kentucky has fairly wxtensive reserves.
Eagle: Eastern Kentucky: Middle War Eagle. The Eagle seam is mined for bothutility
and metallurgical purposes. It is usually multi-badded and ranges from 0.6-3 m (2-10 ft)
thick, averaging 1.2 m (4 ft).
Pratt in Alabama : This bed, one of the major sources of coking coal in Alabama, has
figured heavily in the establishment of Birmingham as a steelmaking center. While only
slightly more than 181 Gt (200 milion tons) are estimated in its reserve base, it is still
considered important because of its high quality. It varies in thickness from 76 to 165 cm ( 30
to 65 in. ), averaging 106 cm (42 in.)
Kiennedy in Virginia: West virginia: Douglas. The Kennedy seam ranges in
thickness from 0.6 to 1.2 m (2 to 4 ft), is low in sulfur, has a high joule (Btu) rating, and is
among the states largest reserves.
Iaeger: virginia : Jawbone is of local importance in southwestern virginia where it is
low in sulfur and has a high heating value. It ranges in thickness from 1.2 to 1.8 m (4 to 6 ft).
And has been extensively mined where it comes together with the tiller seam, producing a
bed which ranges up to 5.5 m ( 8 ft) thick.
Mary lee in Alabama: The Mary Lee seam contains more coal than any other bed in
Alabama. Primarily deep minable, it varies in thickness from 1.2 to 2.4 m (4 to 8 ft) with
partings that make washing of product necessary. The Mary Lee seam is low in sulfur and is
of local importance as a metallurgical grase coal.
Sewell : pennsylvania: Sharon; Ohio: No. 1; Virginia : Lower seaboard; Tennessee:
sewanee; Alabama: Marry Lee. The Sewel, including several well-known correlatives or
approximate correlates, extends the full length of the Appalachian Basin from Pennsylvania
to Alabama. It is also represented in the southern part of the illinois Basin. However, it is best
developed and mined most extensively in west Virginia where it generally ranges in thickness
from 0.6 to 1.8 m (2 to 6 ft) but attains maximum thickness of about 3 m (10 ft). The
estimated original resources in the Sewell bed of west Virginia total about 7.3 Gt (8 billion
tons) which estalibshes it as the fourth most important coal bed in the state. It is thin and
relatively unimportant in eastern Kentucky, but is thickness in Tennessee, and again in
Alabama.
Sewasee in Tennessee: As indicated previously, the Sewanee has been approximately
correlated with the Sewell. Having been mined more extensively than any other seam in
Tennessee, the Sewanees remaining reserves make it important only for local consumption.
It varies in thickness from 0.7 to 2.7 m (2.5 to 3 ft).
Beckley: The Beckley seam is of local importance as acoking coal. it is usually less
than 1.2 m ( 4 ft) in thickness and most of its reserves are only deep minable.
Fire Creek: The Fire Creek seam is a metallurgical grade coal which, as indicated by
the rather limited reserves, hase been extensively mined. Of local importance, thre seam is
usully less than 1.2 m (4 ft) thick.

Pocahontas No.3: The name Pocahontas has been assigned to nine coalbeds that crop
out in the basal part of the Pennsylvania sequence on the east edge of the Appalchian
bituminous coal basin near the town of pocahontas, VA. These beds extend over a relatively
small area in Virginia and adjoining counties in west Virginia. Collectively, they contaibn
relatively smaller resources compared with other more extensive beds in the two states, but
they are mined very extensively because of their low-ash and high-heat content and special
coking properties. For this reason, their product can be blended with larges amounts of high
volatile bituminous coal, which is less strongly coking, to provide an improved product. Coal
from the pocahontas beds is shipped for this purpose to major steel manufacturing centers
throughout the eastern United States. These debs are numbered from 1 to 9 beginning at the
buttom of the sequence. The pocahontas No.3 bed is the most important of the group and
2
extends over 1683 km
(650 sq miles) in West Virginia and a somewhat smaller area in
virginia. The coal ranges in thickniss from 0.6-3.3 m (2-11 ft) and is about 2.4 m (8 ft) thick
in most operating mines.
No.7 in Illinois: Indian : VII; Western Kentucky: No.14 The No.7 seam has been
most extensively mined in northern Illinois but is not too important today. In Indiana the VII
ranges in thickness from 0.7 to 18.3 m (2.5 to 60 ft) where mined, and with proper sizing and
cleaning, it makes a good product for domestic use, electric utilities, and industry. In western
Kentucky, The No. 14 is discontinous and variable in thickness and is mined only as
secondary beds in major surface mining operations. These three seams, the uppermost
coalbeds in the area, are thought to correlate with the upper Freeport in the Appalachian basin
as does the Holmes coal in the Pennsylvania anthracite.
Herrin No. 6 in Illinois: (2, 12, 19, 24, 41, 45, 49, 50) Indiana: VI; Western
2
Kentucky: No.11. The Herrin No.6 is recognizable over an area of about 38 850 km
(15.000 sq miles) in the Eastern Interior coal basin where it is second in commercial
importance only to the No. 5 bed. In central Illinois and western Kentucky, it is 1.5 to 2.1 m
(5 to 7 ft) thick over larges areas. It thins to the east and is relatively unimportant in Indiana
as well as towards the northwest edge of the basin. From the standpoint of research and
production, it is the most important coal in Illinois, but is followed closely by the No.5 bed.
In western Kentucky, it is second in commercial importance only to the No.5 bed, and as the
No.11 bed, it is second in commercial importance to the No.9 bed (Kentucky). The Herrin
No.6 is thin but persistent over considerable areas in the Weatern Interior coal basin
Hal 21.
And is correlated with the mystic bed of lowa and the Lexington bed of Missouri. The Illinois
No. 6 is believed to approximately correlate with the Middle Kittanning of the Appalachian
coalfields.
No. 5 in Illinois; (12, 15, 16, 24, 29, 45, 48) Indiana: V; Western kentucky : No. 9.
The No.5 is the most widespread, commercially valuable coalbed in the Eastern Interior coal
basin. As a stratigraphic unit, the Illinois No. 5 is the most widespread and continuous seam
east of the Mississippi River. It is the most important seam in indiana and western Kentucky,
and is second in importance to the No. 6 in Illinois. In Illinois, the No. 5 seam is both strip
and deep mined. In Indiana, the No. V seam is the statess most widely mined coalbed,
accounting for over 30 % of Indianas annual production. Western Kentuckys No.9 seam is
the most consistent bed in that part of state, averaging nearly 7.6 m (5 ft) in thickness with
extensive reserves.

Colchester No. 2 in Illinois: Indiana : IIIa; Western Kentucky; Shultztown;

Pennsylvania Anthracite: seven Foot. While relatively unimportant, these beds are thought to
correlate with the Lower Kittanning in Appalachian and thus lie at the base of the Allegheny
formation.
Other Interior Coal Seams: other less important seams for the interior Province are
given in Table 6, for approximate correlation with Appalachian.
Pennsylvania Anthracite: all the anthracite seams are lumped together here becouse
none is mined very extensively today and future is rather bleak. However, the Mammoth coal
zone still contains and has already yielded more coal than any other coal zone or local coal
bed in the Pennsylvania Anthracite region. At its minimum, the zone consist of a single
coalbed averaging 3 m (10 ft) in thickness while, at its maximum, it consists of a sequence of
as many as six coalbeds that with intervening splits can reach a combined thickness of 45.7 m
(150 ft). The Mammoth zone is persistent and easily recognized. While the anthracite region
2
originally extended over an area of at least 8547 km (3300 sq miles) it is now restricted to
a 1253

km 2

(484 sq mile) area in the four structural basins that comprise the Pensylvania

anthracite region. With the decline of anthracite mining, production today is minimal
although there are still large reserves. Presently, feasibility studies are being conducted to see
if this vast coal potential could be economic for minesite power plants.
Western Coals (Averitt, 1975; Keystone Coal Industry Manual, 1976; Matson and
white, 1975; and Hamilton et al, 1975)
Since the major of our coal resources occur in the west, these will become
increasingly important. The relatively short and select list of seams reviewed will ultilimately
be greatly expanded, but no attempt is made here to be comprehensive.
Weir Pittsburg or Cherokee Bed: this bed crops out as a mappable unit or a
reconizable horizon from southern Wagoner County, OK, across southeastern Kansas into
norht-central Missouri- a straight-line distance of about 611 km (380 mi). In Oklahoma it is
also known as the Pawpaw bed, and in Kansas as athe Lower Weir-Pittsburg bed. The bed is
thickest and bed developed in southeastern Kansas where it ranges in thickness from 86 to
152 cm (34 to 60 in). In southeastern Kansas and adjoining parts of Oklahoma and Missouri,
it has been mined on a substantial scale by strip-mining methods, and in southeastern Kansas
it has been mined by underground methods for a distance of about 9.6 km (6 miles) downdip
from the outcrop.It has yielded roughly 80 % of the cumulative coal production of Kansas.
The Lower Hartshorne Bed: Consisting of the largest resources, this is the most
extensively mined bed in both Arkansas and Oklahoma. It is known to be 71 cm (28 in). Or
2
more thick and to be less than 914 m (300 ft) below the surface over an area of 1579 km (
610 sq miles) in the two states. However, the area of accessible coal in this bed is smaller
than that of important beds in other parts of the United States because the enclosing rocks are
folded and dip steeply at places. In Arkansas, therefore, the coal is preserved mainly in
synclinal areas, and in Oklahoma, is accessible only in narrow belts parallel to steeply
dipping outcrops.
The Lower Sunnyside Bed: This is the best kown and most important commercial
coalbed in Utah and perhaps in the western United States becouse it is mined extensively for
the manufacture of coke for the western steel industry. Near the town of Sunnyside, where
mining is concentrated, the bed range in thickness from 2.1 to 4.2 m (7 to 14 ft). It thins north
and west of this area but is estimated to be at least 1.2 m (4 ft) thick over an area of about 440
km 2 (170 sq miles) in the Sunnyside quadrangle. The thickest and most accessible coal is

in a belt 4 km (2.5 miles) wide and 22.5 km (14 miles) long near the outcropt, extending from
about 6.4 km (4 miles) south of Sunnyside to about 16 km ( 10 miles) northwest of
2
sunnyside. In this restricted area of about 90.6 km ( 35 sq miles), the estimated original
identified resources total about 208.7 mt ( 230 million tons) and represent an average coal
thickness of 1.7 m (5.7 ft).
The Hiawatha Bed : in Carbon and Emery Counties, Utah, this is more extensive and
contains larger accessible coal resources than the Sunnyside bed, but it is not as suitable for
the manufacture of coke and is, therefore, mined for other purposes. This bed crops out
almost continuously over a linear north-south distance of 120 km(75 miles) near the base of
the east-facing cliffs of the wasatch plateau. Near the town of Hiawatha, where the bed is
actively mined, it is 2.1 to 6 m (7 to 20 ft) thick. It is estimated that it contains 1402.5 Mt
( 1546 million tons) of coal in an average thickness of 1.2 m (4 ft).
Anderson-Dietz-Wyodak Bed (Jones and Hunt, 1952) : The Powder River basin of
northeast Wyoming and southeast Montana contains many thick,
Hal. 22
closely spaced coalbeds. The Dietz- Wyodak Anderson bed, which crops out in a
northward-tending belt through Campbell country, WY, is the thickest and best known. It has
been mined for many years at the Wyodak mine near Minturn where it is 27 to 32 m (90 to
106 ft) thick. Because of the conspicuous, thick exposure at the Wydok mine, the bed is now
generally known as the Wyodak bed. It crops out continuously over a north-south airline
distance of about 193 km (120 miles), and its correlatives persist in the subsurface to the
deepest part of the Powder River basin. Through this large area, the Wyodak bed is generally
15 to 30 m (50 to 100 ft) thick, but it thins at places to a minimum of 7.6 m (25 ft), and
thickens at other places to a maximum of 45 m (150 ft). As can be seen from table 6, The
Decker mine located in this seam was by far the largest coal mine in the United States but has
been surpassed by the Belle Ayr mine [18 Mt (20 million tons) in 1979], nearby.
The wadge Bed: This bed has been mapped for a linear distance of about 56 km (35
2
miles) in Coloraddo but is known to underlie an area of about 777 km ( 300 sq miles) to
aximum overburden depth of 914 m (3000 ft). It is actively mined by both underground and
stripmining methods to supply coal for power plants in the Boulder and Denver areas. Where
mined, the bed is 2.4 to 3 m (8 to 10 ft) thick.
The Raton-Walsen Bed: This bed crops out discontinuously on the east edge of the
Raton Mesa coalfield for a linear distance of about 112 km (70 miles). In New Mexico, the
bed is known as the Raton or Willow Creek bed contains only modest resources pf a few
hundred million tons, but it is one of the most important beds in New Mexico because its coal
yields a high-quality metallurgical coke.
The Wheeler Bed; This is the thickest and most extensive bed in Garfield Country,
CO. It is recognizable as a single, continuous, thick be dfor a linear distance of about 32 km
(20 miles). At the northwest end of the identifiable outcrop, it is 9.1 m( 30 ft) thick, whereas
at New Castle, where it was formerly mined extensively to supply coal for the Denver and
Rio Grande Railroad, it attains a maximum thickness between 13.7 and 14.6 m ( 45 and 48
ft). South of this point, the Wheeler bed apparently splits into four beds, termed, from oldest

to youngest, the A, B, C and D beds. Since mid 1950, coal from the A and B beds in the Coal
Basin and Thompson Creek areas has been mined extensively for metallurgical coke.
The Roslyn No. 5 Bed: This bed is only one of the eight mapped coalbeds in the
Roslyn coalfield in Washington, but it is has yielded more coal than any bed in the state and
is, without question, Washingtons most important coalbed. It ranges in thickness from 1.3 to
2.1 m (4.5 to 7 ft) and contains, on the average, about 1.3 m (4.4 ft) of clean coal. past mining
has, in general, removed coal to an overburden depth of 304 m ( 1000 ft), and most of the
remaining coal lie between 304 and 914 m (1000 and 3000 ft) below the surface. The coal at
the northwest end of the field is of high-volatile A bituminous rank and is suitable for use in
coking coal blends.
Rosebud-McKay Bed (Mc Cullock, at all., 1975; Keystone Coal Industry Manual,
1972; Merritt and Davis, 1977): Located in Montana, the Rosebud bed averages 7.6 m (25 ft)
and is sometimes mined alone and at other times with the McKay, which averages 3.6 m (12
ft) thick. This is a good-quality coal and resources are approximately 1.5 billion tons.
Providing the resources for 3 of the 50 largest mines in the United States, this seam is
destined to play and increasing role in the future.
US COAL MINING DATA
History of Coal Mining
Table 9 indicates the historical trend of the coal mining industry in the United States.
Generally, coal production increased steadily from 1890 until the 1930swhen the effects of
the great depression were felt; then is started upward again to mee the demands of World War
II. A temporary high-water mark eas reached an 1947 as a result of the post war consumer
goods production boom. When the high demand of the Korean War was over and
dieselization of the railroads was complete, the industry suffered a severe decline to a
moderrn loe point in 1954. Since than, production has steadily increased until now each new
year may prove to be a record one, see Fig.11
Other salient features of the coal industry through the years are shown in Fig. 11 and
table 9. First, while production has increased steadily except for the fluctuation noted,
manpower needs have eroded from a high of 704, 793 in 1923, to low of less than 140,000 in
the mid-sixties, to around 200,000 today. However, during this same period, the tons
produced per man shift steadily increased, reaching a high of 17.09 t (18.84 tons) per man in
1960. The continuing decline in production since then has been blamed on implementation of
the federal Coal Mine Health and safety Act of 1969, but perhaps this is only a transitory
disruption and the future will see increased productivity. It seems that present mining under
the more difficult natural conditions and increased cost of environmental controls may also
have contributed to this reduction, not to mention a deteriorating work ethic.
These figures reflect the increased mechanization that has taken place in the industry.
The higher productivity required less manpower and led to a very stable price for coal during
the 1950-1970 period. The sharp increase in the value of coal since has been blamed on the
1969 Act, loss of productivity, ecological demand, and inflation.
Another important feature of the industry has been the sharp reduction in the number of
mines During the last 25 years. There were fewer than half as many in operation in 1973 as in
1950. Also, strip mining has been increasingly responsible for producing a larger.
Hal 23.
COAL STATISTIC

Table 9. Bituminous and Lignite Coal Productiom in The USA.

(PHOTO)
Teks belum
Share of the total tonnage and now exceeds the production of deep mining. Increased strip
production with its better productivity figures has, in recent years, minimized the drop in total
productivity.
In summary, todays increasing production is from fewer but larger mines that are
highly mechanized, with strip mining supplying more of the market.
Table 5 includes production by states during 1975, a representative year. As can be
seen, the three largest coal producing states provided approximately 52% of the total US
production : (1) Kentucky, (2) West Virginia, and (3) Pennsylvania. All production figures
already given are limited to bituminous and lignite coal production. However, we would be
remiss in not at least briefly mentioning anthracite production, since at one time it was very
significant.
As can be seen in figure 2 and 3, only a small fraction of the coal resource is
anthracite and this comes largely from eastern Pennsylvania. While the reserve base in
eastern Pennsylvania is large, totaling 6.5 Gt (7.2 billion tons), nearly all of this coal is on the
pitch and has undergone severe geologic transformation. The coal and overburden are badly
fractured, creating roof and water problems, while the steep pitches do not lend themselves to
a high degree of mechanization. Thus the anthracite industry has undergone a severe decline,
going from a yearly production of nearly 90.78 Mt (100 million tons) at the beginning of the
century, to 5.9 Mt (6.5 million tons) in 1973. Unlike bituminous coal, anthracite productivity
has not risen due to a high degree of mechanization and so production costs have made the
fuel uneconomic. The result is that today there is very little deep mining in the anthracite
industry with the bulk of the production coming from strip mining or recovery of culm banks.
While there have been a number of attempts to improve productivity through mechanization,
none has met with success and the future of anthracite mining remains bleak despite some
efforts to revive the industry. Therefore, in the remainder of this book, no further reference
will be made to anthracite mining methods, which differ considerably from bituminous
mining techniques.
Markets.
Figure 12 reveals how the coal market mix has changed drastically during the last 40 years
with estimated projections to 1985. Prior to 1948, a considerable market existed in railroads
and retail deliveries,
Hal 24.
COAL MINING TECHNOLOGY
(PHOTO)
Figure 11. Mining history graphically portrayed
Both of which have virtually vanished today. Home heating by coals is too inconvenient for
the average America, and he long ago switched to orher fuels. The railroad industry virtually
completed its switch from the more inefficient steam engines to diesels by 1955. The other

two areas of major coal consumption, coke producers and industrials, show small percentage
declines. Steel production in the US has suffered in the last 25 years because of competition
from japan West Germany. The lack of growth plus more efficient utilization of coke in
steelmaking have limited this market. The industrials have also followed the home heating
market to a considerable degree by turning to more convenient fuels, hence the decline in this
market also. (Keystone Coal Industry Manual, 1976; USBM Minerals Yearbooks, 1960-1974;
and national Academy of Sciences and engineering, 1977)
The on bright spot has been the steady rise of coal consumption in the electric utilities
market. In 1971, for the first time, over half of the entire US coal production went to this
single area.
Coals Future
Having looked at coal resources, production, and marketing to date, we might well
ask what the future holds for coal. This is very difficult to prognosticate because of the
complex social-political-legislative influences on coal usage, none of which is easily
predictable. Furthermore, it is necessary to evaluate other alternative energy resources that
might displace coal. Today, probably for the first time in our history, there is a recognition
that all source of energy have interchangeable uses, and, considering that our energy
requirements are doubling approximately every 15 years, a need for all types of energy is
obvious, at least in the near future.
The Project Independence Report graphically reveals our plight, Figs. 13a and b
(National Energy Outlook, 1976). Although the vas US coal resources are equivalent to three
times the energy contained in the Middle East oil reserve, and currently account for more
than 90% of US proved energy resources, over the last 75 years, the US has switched from
using coal for over 90% of its energy needs to depending on oil and gas for 75% of its energy.
This the nation depends upon its least abundant resources to provide most of its energy needs.
The result has been a growing dependence on imported energy, the availability and price of
which is controlled by a few Middle East countries.
The task laid out for us in the next few decades is revealed in the extrapolation of
future energy needs in Fig. 14. We must find and develop more oil and gas, stimulate
conservation, and allocate our short supplies For special
Hal 25.
(PHOTO)
Hal 26
Uses such as vehicular energy while turning to the more abundant resources of coal and
possibly nuclear energy for other industrial and domestic uses. Cautious optimism for coals
future is in order. There is considerable potential for oil and gas offshore and in Alaska,
which could make a significant impact in the next decade, although these are too limited to
have much significance beyond 2000. Furthermore, during this time frame, the OPEC oil
cartel could be broken, resulting in a lowering of oil prices again to a point where coal could
not be competitive. Also, there is always a possibility of technological breakthroughs in the
nuclear area, not to mention other supplementary resources beyond 1985. Although the rosy
predictions for nuclear energy have not come true because of high cost, lack of reliability, and
public hostility, it will probably have provide the bulk of our energy at some future date,
probably not until close to 2000 when the breeder process is perfected, or fusion energy
becomes available and safety and reliability are proven.
There is no denying that at least to the year 2000, coal is our ace in the hole and could solve
our energy dilemma through a suitable national energy policy. It could provide all of the

nations increasing electric generation needs until nuclear energy comes into its own, freeing
all of oil and gas now used by the utilities for the special uses. Further into the future,
liquefaction and gasification of coal could result in the production of gas and oil products.
A reasonably coordinated energy policy with the judicious development of our
available coal reserve and the application of reasonable environmental standards can result in
an equitable solution to our energy crisis. Therefore, the reminder of this text will be based on
the premise that a reasonable energy policy will ensue in our country and coal will make the
contribution to the nation of which it is capable. If it is to make this contribution, mining
engineers must develop highly efficient mining system, both underground and surface, that
will combine high production rates, health and safety, and minimum environmental and
ecological depredation. In the ensuing chapters, good mining practices will be presented with
emphasis on achieving these results.
While underground and surface mining have some elements in common, the material
in the remainder of this book applies primarily to underground mining. The high degree of
mechanization and variety of mining systems employed in the surface mining of coal are
justifications for separate treatment to keep this volume within manageable limits. However,
a special brief treatment is given to strip mining in a later chapter. (No. 10)