7 Control Stratigraphy

7.
Controls on basin stratigraphy

Driving mechanisms for basin stratigraphy
Tectonic mechanism: (a) flexure under
applied loads (rift basin and foreland
basin); (b) fault array evolution; (c) inplane stress
Steers-head
geometry
Elastic
Eustatic mechanism: (a) change in

volume of the ocean basin; (b) changes of
ice volume on polar regions
Climate change: Influence on sediment
discharge to basins
Viscoelastic
7.1 Tectonic mechanisms: flexure

under applied loads
7.1.1 Effects of flexure on stratigraphy
in basins due to stretching
1
Basin Analysis
Dept. Earth Sci., Nat. Central U.
Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
The mechanisms of subsidence in stretched basins comprise: (i) fault-controlled

initial subsidence caused by mechanical stretching of the upper brittle layer of the
lithosphere, (ii) a thermal subsidence caused by the cooling and contraction of the
upwelled asthenosphere, and (iii) sediment and water loading.
In rift basins:
During the stage of rifting: fault-controlled Airy-type subsidence.
During post-rift stage: flexural-controlled subsidence.
The increase of Te with increasing plate thermal age leads to stratigraphic onlap
pattern for post-rift strata.
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Basin Analysis
Initial strong onlap onto the basement at the transition from fault-controlled Airy-type
subsidence to flexural-controlled subsidence.
Lateral heatflow causes thermal uplift on the coastal plain, abruptly terminating onlap.
By about 16 Myr after rifting, flexural subsidence outstrips thermal uplift and the
sediments again progressively onlap basement.
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Basin Analysis
7.1.2 Role of flexure in generating

foreland basin stratigraphy
Transition from passive margin to foreland basins
1. Early stage: thermal age of passive

continental margin is an important control on
foreland basin development.
2. Later stage: the thickness of the
overthrust load is more important.
Fig. 4.31
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Wedge-shaped basin geometry and progressive stratigraphic onlap of a foreland basin
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7.1.3 The flexural forebulge unconformity
7
Basin Analysis
Forebulge unconformity in eastern Switzerland

Calculated erosion
Bathymetry before orogenic loading
Inherited deeper
bathymetry:
no erosion
Observed erosion
Hiatus of the unconformity
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Basin Analysis
7.1.4 Foreland basin isopachs and pinch-outs
Progressive eastward shift of depocenters

during Sevier orogeny
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7.2 Tectonic mechanisms: fault array evolution
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7.3 Changes of in-plane stress
In-plane stresses acting on a

deflected plate may enhance
or reduce the curvature of the
deflection.
Compressive in-plane stress
causes basin margin to uplift and
basin center to subside.
Tensile in-plane stress caused
basin margin to subside and basin
center to uplift.
In-plane stress may have

buckled layered lithosphere
and produced long wavelength
lithospheric folds.
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Basin Analysis
7.4 Eustatic mechanisms

Eustasy, relative sea-level, water depth
Relative sea-level: the distance between
a local datum (e.g. top of the basement of
a basin) and sea-surface. Relative sealevel change is influenced by: (1) eustasy,
(2) basin uplift/subsidence.
Water depth: the distance between the
sea-bed and the sea-surface or water
level.
Eustatic sea-level (or eustasy): This is
global sea-level and is a measure of the
distance between a fixed datum, usually
taken as the centre of the Earth, and the
sea-surface.
Figure 3.6 Cartoon showing the relationship between relative sealevel, water depth, eustatic sea-level, tectonics (uplift and subsidence),
and accumulated sediment. Note that relative sea-level incorporates
subsidence and/or uplift by referring to the position of sea-level with
respect to the position of a datum at or near the sea-floor (e.g.
basement rocks, top of previous sediment package) as well as
eustasy. Eustasy (i.e. global sea-level) is the variation of sea-level
with reference to a fixed datum, for
example the centre of the Earth.
Coe et al. (2003)
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Basin Analysis
Five possible causes that may cause global sea-level changes

1. Continuing differentiation of lithospheric material as a
result of plate tectonic processes. (not important)
2. Changes in the volumetric capacity of the ocean
basins caused by sediment influx or removal. (not
important)
3. Changes in the volumetric capacity of the ocean
basins caused by volume changes in the mid-ocean
ridge system. (important for first-order eustasy)
4. Thermal expansion and contraction of the oceanic
water reservoirs. (not important, 1K increases, 0.45 m rise in sea level)
5. Changes of available water by abstraction in and
melting of polar ice caps and glaciers (glacial eustatic).
20
Basin Analysis
Considering isotasy in eustatic sea level changes
SL = S m
If m = 3.3 g/cm3 ; w = 1.0 g/cm3 The isostatic subsidence of the

ocean floor is approximately 0.4 of
the sea level change ( SL ). Or the
seal level change is 0.7 of the
increase in the water depth of the
ocean (h2-h1).
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However, sediment in the ocean is removed by tectonic accretion and subduction

at active margins and continued spreading creates new ocean floor. It is likely that
the balance between influx and removal of sediment, when averaged over long
periods of time, is insufficient to cause rates of sea-level change of more than ~ 1
22
mm per 1000 yr.
Basin Analysis
Volume of present world ridge system is about 10% of the volume of the ocean water.
Change in spreading rate and change in the length of ridge systems influence the ridge volume.
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First-order (225300 Myr) eustatic

curve of Vail: due
to ridge volume
fluctuation.
~ <100 to 150 m above present

Maximum sea level: latest Cretaceous (Maastrichtian)
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Melting of Present Ice Cap

Total melting of Antarctic land ice would result in an increase in water
depth, ranging from 60~75 m. Melting Greenland ice cap > 5 m rise,
Taking into account the isostatic effect, if all the land-locked ice melted, it
would cause a 50 m rise in sea level (SL).
In geological term, rate of melting ice caps is a rapid process (~10 mmyr-1)
Melting of Pleistocene Ice Cap

May cause about 150 m sea level rise.
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Basin Analysis
For the last 120,000 yrs, 8 sea-level cycles.

Magnitudes: 20~180 m, periods: 100,000 yrs (primary),
40,000 yrs, and 20,000 yrs.
26
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: (Milankovitch cycles)
(a) (eccentricity)41106
(b) (obliquity)41
(c) (, precession)
1923
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O18/O16
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O18/O16
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7.5 A primer on process stratigraphy

Process stratigraphy (as defined in Allen and Allen (2005), p.268) is the
science of the recognition and interpretation of the genetic structures of
stratigraphy. The fundamental aim of process stratigraphy is to understand the
driving mechanisms for the range of stratigraphic architectures found in
sedimentary basins. The key concept of process stratigraphy is the
generation/destroy of accommodation space and the amount of sediments
supplied.
The stratigraphy in a sedimentary basin is the result of the interplay of the
generation of space or accommodation and the influx of sediments (sediment
supply).
Accommodation is the interplay of eustatic sea-level changes, basin
subsidence/uplift, local patterns of faulting.
Sediment supply is a function of climate (exerting controls on vegetation,
weathering, erosion, and far-field sediment transport to basins) and sediment
routing systems for siliciclastic deposits. For carbonate systems, carbonate
productivity determines how much carbonate sediments will be generated
and carbonate productivity depends on water depth (available of light), water
31
turbidity and temperature, and type of biota.
Basin Analysis
Major Controls on Sedimentary Fill of Basins

The sedimentary fill of basins is controlled by three major variables (Figure 1.8.1):
Subsidence:
"The thermal and mechanical properties of the lithosphere exert important controls on the
formation of sedimentary basins" (Steckler, 1990). Thermal subsidence rates and the magnitude
and distribution of subsidence due to loading vary in basins of different tectonic settings
(Steckler and Watts, 1978; Stephenson, 1990).
Eustasy (global sea level):
Eustasy refers to sea level relative to a fixed datum, such as the center of the earth. Global sea
level variations result from changes in either oceanic basin volume or water volume. Eustasy
combined with subsidence results in relative sea level variations, which control accommodation
for sediment deposition (Posamentier et al., 1988; Posamentier and Vail, 1988).
Sediment Supply:
"The role of sediment supply in transgressions and regressions is a fundamental one..."
(Schlager, 1994). When the rate of sediment supply is greater than the rate of relative sea level
rise, accommodation space will be filled.
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Vail (1987)
Process Stratigraphy History
1960s The recognitions of unconformity-bounded sequences of

inter-regional extent (Sloss, 1950, 1963) and the shape of sedimentary
bodies is controlled by quantity of sediment supplied (Q), rate of basin
subsidence (R), sediment dispersal (D), and composition and texture
of the sediment supply (M).
1970s Use of seismic stratigraphy (Payton, 1977, AAPG Memoir 26).
The recognitions of seismic reflection horizon representing time lines
and sequences bounded by unconformities and their correlative
conformities (Exxon group, Payton (eds.), 1977, AAPG Mem. 26)
1987 Global sea-level chart (Haq et al., 1987)
1988 Concept of accommodation was introduced in Wilgus et al.
(1988)
Late 1980s and early 1990s Criticism on eustasy as the
overwhelming controls on sequence development and on presumed
global synchroneity of key stratigraphic surfaces.
Since 1978 Numerical simulations on stratigraphy to explain &
predict stratal geometries within sequences.
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Basin Analysis
7.5.1 Forward modeling of stratigraphic cycles from first principles

Stratigraphy is packaged into large and small genetic units, from
megasequences (or supersequences) to depositional sequences and then
parasequences (or higher order genetic units, they may be driven by orbital
mechanism - Milankovitch band, or unforced - autocyclic).
Stratigraphic cycles can be modeled using expressions for accommodation and
sediment supply. A fundamental parameter is the magnitude of the eustatic
change compared to the subsidence rate.
Considering the stratigraphic cycles generated under a sinusoidal eustatic
variation in a basin with a background tectonic subsidence rate and with a
sediment supply coupled to the relative sea-level variation.
2t
h = h0 sin
: wavelength
h0: amplitude
Adding the tectonic subsidence rate:
Sinusoidal eustatic fluctuation:
2t
hrel = h0 sin
+ at

a: rate of tectonic subsidence

(linear)
t: geological time
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Basin Analysis
A number of different relative sea-level scenarios due to the interplay between

eustasy and basin subsidence can be expressed in terms of the dimensionless
parameter (relative sea-level parameter):
a
h0
z When a << h0: is small, the relative sea-level changes is similar

to that of eustasy;
z As a increases, becomes larger the relative sea-level becomes
more asymmetrical and the peak of relative sea level becomes delayed
in the eustatic cycle.
z At a critical tectonic subsidence rate (is large and greater than 2),
there is no relative sea-level fall, but instead an inflexion point in relative
sea level significantly following the eustatic peak.
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Basin Analysis
Variations in relative sea

level through a cycle of
eustatic change with
wavelength and
amplitude h0 in a basin
with a linear tectonic
subsidence rate a.
100 kyr is the dominant signal for the Pleistocene glacio-eustatic fluctuations.
(100 m variations in height)
(critical rate of
basin subsidence
for no relative
sea-level fall)
In this diagram, the relative sealevel is equivalent ot

accommodation since the curves
begin at zero water depth rather
than at some point on a graded
profile.
(comparison: Taiwan foreland

sequences: basin subsidence
ranges from 0.95 ~1.9 mmyr-1
during the deposition of
Liuchungchi to Erchungchi
Formations (Chen et al., 2001))
Fig. 8.2 The dimensionless parameter varies from 0.2 to 2, corresponding to tectonic subsidence rates
from 0.1 to mmyr-1 (grey area). Increasing values of cause the relative sea-level maximum (open circle) to
be delayed in the cycle. For the glacial eustatic parameters used, tectonic subsidence must be > mmyr-1 in
order for the relative sea-level fall to disappear.
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Basin Analysis
Key stratigraphic surfaces (e.g., basal surface of forced regression,

sequence boundary, transgressive surface of marine erosion, maximum
flooding surfaces) are commonly diachronous, with a phase shift of up to
of a eustatic period (). Because (1) the variations of tectonic subsidence
rate in co-existing basins, (2) the different response times of sediment
routing systems to base level change produces different sediment inputs in
coeval basins.
Typical glacio-eustatic cycles have a high enough frequency and
amplitude to generate unconformities, even at high tectonic subsidence
rates.
Lower frequency/amplitude non-glacial cycles are easily overwhelmed
by tectonic subsidence to produce monotonically rising relative sea levels.
Some critical subsidence rates for a monotonic rise in relative sea-level:
3.14 mm yr-1: h0=50 m, = 100 kyr
0.3 mm yr-1: h0=20 m, = 400 kyr
0.06 mm yr-1: h0=10 m, = 1 Myr
Basin Analysis
37
Considering the effects of sediment supply

Water depth
Sediment supply
eustasy
1 2t
2t
2t
w(t ) = h0 sin
cos
+ 1
+ at s0
2 2

Tectonic subsidence
Rate of sediment supply (s0):
Sediment supply is coupled to the rate of relative sea-level changes, with
sediment supply rate peaks at the maximum rate of relative sea-level fall,
and is zero at the maximum rate of relative sea-level rise.
38
Basin Analysis
Water depth and potential

sediment accumulation during
a cycle of relative sea-level
change with variable tectonic
subsidence rate and sediment
supply, using the glacioeustatic function.
A
A: onset of bypass for =0.2

B: onset of bypass for =1
C: onset of bypass for =2
Fig. 8.3: (a) Variation in water depth as a function of the dimensionless relative sea-level parameter
with a constant maximum sedimentation parameter s0=2 mmyr-1. When accommodation is filled, sediment
starts to bypass the depositional site (illustrated for the case of =2). The onset of bypass occurs
progressively later as tectonic subsidence increases ( increases). At =2. the basin remains waterfilled until 40 kyr, after which erosion and sediment bypass take place until the beginning of the next
39
glacio-eustatic cycle.
Basin Analysis
s0
Fig. 8.3: (b) Variation in water depth and potential accumulated sediment as a function of the sedimentation
velocity s0, with a constant dimensionless relative sea-level parameter of 2, corresponding to a tectonic
subsidence rate a of 1 mmyr-1. High sediment supply rates cause the available accommodation to be filled
early during the cycle of relative sea-level change, after which sediment is bypassed and eroded (two
illustrations at s0=2 and mmyr-1), whereas at low supply rates (s0=0.1 mmyr-1), the accommodation
remains unfilled. The evolution of water depth during a cycle of relative sea level, sedimentary facies, and
the occurrence of erosional bypass surfaces are all critically dependent on the sediment supply.
40
Basin Analysis
Cycle thickness
Fig. 8.4 Stratigraphic cycles generated using the
algorithms in the text for a glacio-eustatic cycle (=2)
using different values of the maximum sedimentation
velocity s0, from 0.1 to 5 mmyr-1. Cycle thickness and water
depth trends vary strongly from the thin, sediment starved,
deep water case (s0=0.1 mmyr-1) with a nonerosional
flooding surface as an upper boundary, to the thicker, toptruncated shallow-water cycles at higher values of s0.
Accommodation-limited: cycles are facies

are determined by accommodation; sediment
supply is always adequate.
Sediment supply-limited: depositional
space is always great enough to
accommodate the sediment supply.
41
Basin Analysis
Fig. 8.5 Sensitivity of retrogradational versus

progradational cycles resulting from variations
in tectonic subsidence rate a, with a constant
maximum sedimentation velocity so= 2 mmyr-1.
(a) Aggradational cycles (parasequences)
containing offshore, shoreface (0~25 m) and
potentially thin coastal plain deposits are
produced at =2 (a=1 mmyr-1), using an intial
water depth of 50 m. Relative sea level and
sediment supply are in balance. (b)
Progradational cycles produced by a small
decrease in to 1.8 (a=0.9 mmyr-1), with and
initial water depth of 100 m, showing that
younger cycles contain progressively lesser
amounts of offshore deposits and more
shoreface deposits. (c) Retrogradational cycles
produced by a small increase in to 2.2
(a=1.1 mmyr-1), with an initial water depth of
zero, showing that coastal plain-shoreface
cycles are progressively replaced by
shoreface-offshore cycles with time. Small
variations in tectonic subsidence rate (relative
to the sediment supply) therefore cause major
variations in the stacking patterns of cycles.
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Basin Analysis
Fig. 8.6 Large scale architecture of

depositional units in relation to
accommodation and sediment
supply (after Galloway, 1989). (a) A
rise in relative sea level causes an
increase in topset accommodation
volume Vta, equal to the product
of the relative sea-level rise and
the topset area; (b) Stratigraphic
patterns change from transgressive
to retrogradational, aggradational,
and progradational as the sediment
supply increases relative to the
topset accommodation. White
cicles approximate position of
beach (or offlap break).
Shoreline movements
Transgression:()
Regression:()
Sediment accumulation resulting from shoreline
movement
Transgressive deposits: (
transgressive lags)
Retrogradation:
Aggradation:
Progradation:
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43
7.6 Numerical Simulation of Stratigraphy

Quantitative modeling of the filling of sedimentary basins was begun in 1960s.
The goal of modeling is to generate insight.
http://sedpak.geol.sc.edu/doc/help/
Chap1.html
Reading: Paoloa, C. (2000) Quantitative models of sedimentary basin filling.

Sedimentology, 47 (Suppl. 1), 121-178.
44
Basin Analysis
Traditional Use of Sedimentary

Simulations
Sedimentary process models from outcrops, well
log & seismic cross sections used to:
Understand complexities of clastic or
carbonate stratigraphy
Identify & model sedimentary systems.
Quantify models that explain & predict
stratal geometries within sequences.
Used by specialized experts who design
& build the simulations.
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Basin Analysis
Some sedimentary models

Short-term local events
SEDSIM (Tetzlaff and Harbaugh, 1989)
SEDFLUX (Syvitski et al., 1998a; Syvitski et al., 1998b)
Long-term regional events
PHIL (Bowman et al 1999)
SEDPAK (Eberli, et al, 1994)
FUZZIM (Nordlund1999a&b)
CSM (Syvitski et al., 2002)
Robinson and Slingerland, 1998
Steckler et al., 1993.
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Basin Analysis
Approaches to modeling
Geometric models
Fixed depositional geometries are
assumed
Conservation of mass
Simple computations through general
nonlinear dynamic models
Variations in depositional geometries
Variations in surface slope vs
discharge
More complex computationally
Paola (2000
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47
Geometric Model
Basin Analysis
Eberli, et al, 1994
48
Numerical models
9 For carbonates: rely on a carbonate productivity versus
depth function combined with rules for surface transport of
sediments.
9 For siliciclastics: require a linkage between catchment
processes, fluvial transport, and sediment distribution in the
basin.
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Basin Analysis
Fig. 8.32 Model for the generation of

unforced high resolution cyclicity in
peritidal carbonates, after Burgess et
al. (2001). (a) Illustration of different
processes involved in generating
prograding inter- and supratidal
islands and autocyclic shallowingupward cycles; (b) Depth-dependent
carbonate productivity relationship
and sediment transport rate; (c)
Different stages in the evolution of
prograding islands. Time 1: landward
transport of sediment causes
accretion of inter- and supratidal flat.
Time 2: Continued accretion drives
inter- and supratidal flate
progradation, which causes a
sediment starved leeward side to
develop. Time 3: Sediment starved
lee subsides and prograding island
forms, allowing a new subtidal
carbonate factory to develop. Time 4:
A second island system develops as
the entire process is repeated.
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Basin Analysis
Fig. 8.33 Carbonate productivity versus depth

from various authors (a), normalized by the
maximum production rate in (b), after Paola
(2000).
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Basin Analysis
()
()
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Fig. 8.34 Carbonate

depositional geometries,
modified after Pomar
(2001). (a) Range of
morphologies from ramps
to rimmed platforms; (b)
Carbonate productivity in
relation to the type of biota.
Variations in the dominant
biota control the water
depth range of maximum
productivity. Ramps may
be distally steepened
where oligophotic
organisms dominate.
52
Fig. 8.35 Examples of a

geometrical 2-D model for
stratigraphy at a passive margin
(after Burgess and Allen, 1996),
showing how depositional
sequences and bounding
unconformities can be simulated.
(a) Movement of the fluvial and
marine profile during relative
sea-level rise and fall; (b)
Computer-generated
stratigraphy with a Type 1
sequence boundary and its
distal marine conformity and a
transgressive ravinement
surface generated during
relative sea-level rise. Small
numbers are chrons.
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Basin Analysis

7 Control Stratigraphy

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7.

Controls on basin stratigraphy

Eustatic mechanism: (a) change in

7.1 Tectonic mechanisms: flexure

The mechanisms of subsidence in stretched basins comprise: (i) fault-controlled

7.1.2 Role of flexure in generating

1. Early stage: thermal age of passive

Wedge-shaped basin geometry and progressive stratigraphic onlap of a foreland basin

7.1.3 The flexural forebulge unconformity

Forebulge unconformity in eastern Switzerland

7.1.4 Foreland basin isopachs and pinch-outs

Progressive eastward shift of depocenters

7.2 Tectonic mechanisms: fault array evolution

7.3 Changes of in-plane stress

In-plane stresses acting on a

In-plane stress may have

7.4 Eustatic mechanisms

Five possible causes that may cause global sea-level changes

Considering isotasy in eustatic sea level changes

If m = 3.3 g/cm3 ; w = 1.0 g/cm3 The isostatic subsidence of the

However, sediment in the ocean is removed by tectonic accretion and subduction

First-order (225300 Myr) eustatic

~ <100 to 150 m above present

Melting of Present Ice Cap

Melting of Pleistocene Ice Cap

For the last 120,000 yrs, 8 sea-level cycles.

7.5 A primer on process stratigraphy

Major Controls on Sedimentary Fill of Basins

Process Stratigraphy History

1960s The recognitions of unconformity-bounded sequences of

7.5.1 Forward modeling of stratigraphic cycles from first principles

a: rate of tectonic subsidence

A number of different relative sea-level scenarios due to the interplay between

z When a << h0: is small, the relative sea-level changes is similar

Variations in relative sea

(100 m variations in height)

In this diagram, the relative sealevel is equivalent ot

(comparison: Taiwan foreland

Key stratigraphic surfaces (e.g., basal surface of forced regression,

Considering the effects of sediment supply

Water depth and potential

A: onset of bypass for =0.2

Accommodation-limited: cycles are facies

Fig. 8.5 Sensitivity of retrogradational versus

Fig. 8.6 Large scale architecture of

7.6 Numerical Simulation of Stratigraphy

Reading: Paoloa, C. (2000) Quantitative models of sedimentary basin filling.

Traditional Use of Sedimentary

Some sedimentary models

Eberli, et al, 1994

Fig. 8.32 Model for the generation of

Fig. 8.33 Carbonate productivity versus depth

Fig. 8.34 Carbonate

Fig. 8.35 Examples of a

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