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CHAPTER - ONE
INTRODUCTION TO MARKETING
RESEARCH

Give a definition of marketing research

Define marketing research as the systematic and objective
identification, collection, analysis, and dissemination of
information for the purpose of assisting management in decision
making related to the identification and solution of problems (and
opportunities) in marketing. We also list the AMAs definition of
marketing research, which is worded slightly differently from the
definition offered in the text.
1. Identification: Involves defining the marketing research
problem (or opportunity) and determining the information that is
needed to address it.
2. Collection: Data must be obtained from relevant sources.
3. Analysis: Data are analyzed, interpreted, and inferences are
drawn.
4. Dissemination of information: The findings, implications,
and recommendations are provided in a format that makes this
information actionable and directly useful as an input into
decision making.
Marketing research is a key element of the marketing process.
Marketers rely on marketing research
When they develop new products
When identifying profitable target markets
When planning a promotional campaign
When monitoring the effectiveness of a marketing program
To keep an eye on the competition
To measure customer satisfaction
When setting goals for market share
In marketing planning and forecasting generally
Classifications of marketing research.

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1. Problem identification research: research that is

undertaken to help identify
problems that are not necessary apparent on the surface and yet
exist or are likely to arise in the future. The goal is to identify
existing or potential problems not apparent on the surface.
Examples include market potential, market share, market
characteristics, sales analysis, short-range forecasting, long-range
forecasting, and business trends research.
2. Problem solving research: research undertaken to help
solve specific marketing problems. The goal is to solve specific
marketing problems such as segmentation, product, pricing
promotion, and distribution research.
Marketing
Marketingresearch
research
Problem
Problem
identification
identification
research
research
Market
Marketpotential
potentialresearch
research
Market
share
research
Market share research
Image
Imageresearch
research
Market
characteristics
Market characteristics
research
research
Sales
Salesanalysis
analysisresearch
research
Forecasting
research
Forecasting research
Business
Businesstrends
trendsresearch
research

Problem
Problemsolving
solvingresearch
research

Segmentation
Segmentationresearch
research
Product
research
Product research
Pricing
Pricingresearch
research
Promotion
Promotionresearch
research
Distribution
Distributionresearch
research

The marketing research process

A set of six steps that identifies the task to be accomplished in
conducting a marketing research study. Emphasize the
importance of these steps because the entire research project
will be conducted within this framework.

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1. Problem definition: Defining the marketing research problem

to be addressed is the most important step because all other
steps will be based on this definition.
2. Developing an approach to the problem: Development of
a broad specification of how the problem will be addressed allows
the researcher to break the problem into salient issues and
manageable pieces.
3. Research design formulation: A framework for conducting
the marketing research project that specifies the procedures
necessary for obtaining the required information. It details the
statistical methodology needed to solve the problem and thus the
data requirements needed from data collection.
4. Fieldwork or data collection: A field force (personal
interviewing, phone, mail, or electronic surveys) gathers project
data. Although seemingly trivial in nature, to obtain meaningful
results field workers must be accurate and thorough in data
collection.
5. Data preparation and analysis: The editing, coding,
transcription, and verification of data allow researchers to derive
meaning from the data.
6. Report preparation and presentation: The findings are
communicated to the client. The report should address the
specific research questions identified in the problem definition,
describe the approach, the research design, data collection and
the data analysis procedures adopted, and present the results and
the major findings.
The role of marketing research in marketing decision
making process
The nature and role of marketing research can be better
understood in light of the basic marketing paradigm illustrated in
the below figure

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The emphasis in marketing is on the identification and satisfaction

of consumer needs. In order to determine customer needs and to
implement marketing strategies and programs aimed at satisfying
those needs, marketing managers need information. They need
information about customers, competitors, and other forces in the
market place. In recent years, many factors have increased the
need for more and better information. As firms have become
national and international in scope, managers need for
information on larger and more distant markets has increased. As
consumers have become more affluent and sophisticated,
marketing managers need better information on how they will
respond to products and other marketing offerings.
As the
environment changes more rapidly, marketing managers need
more timely information.
Customer groups
Consumers
Employees
Shareholders
suppliers
Controllable
marketing
variables
Product
Pricing
Promotions
distribution

Marketing
Research
Assessing
informati
on needs

Providing Marketin
informati g
on needs decision
making

Marketing managers
Market segmentation
Target market selection
Marketing programs
Performance & control

Uncontrollable
environmental
factors
Economy
Technology
Competition
Laws & regulation
Social & cultural
factors
Political factors

The task of marketing research is to assess the information needs

and provide management with relevant, accurate, reliable, valid,
current and actionable information. Todays competitive
marketing environment and the ever increasing costs attributed
to poor decision making require marketing research to provide
sound information.
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Marketing managers make numerous strategic and tactical

decisions in the process of identifying and satisfying customers
needs. They make decision about potential opportunities, target
market
selection,
market
segmentation,
planning
and
implementation marketing programs, marketing performance and
control. These decisions are complicated by interactions among
the controllable marketing variables of product, pricing, promotion
and distribution.
Further complications are added by uncontrollable environmental
factors such as general economic conditions, technology, public
policies and laws, the political environment, competition, and
social and cultural changes.
Another factor in this mix is the complexity of the various
customer groups such as consumers, employees, shareholders,
suppliers.
Marketing research helps the marketing managers link the
marketing variables with the environment and the customer
groups. It helps to remove some of the uncertainty by providing
relevant information about marketing variables, environment, and
consumers. In the absence of relevant information consumers
response to marketing programs cannot be predicted reliably or
accurately. Ongoning marketing research programs provide
information on controllable and uncontrollable factors and
consumers; this information enhances the effectiveness of
decisions made by marketing managers.
Marketing researchers are becoming more involved in decision
making, whereas marketing managers are becoming more
involved with research.

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CHAPTER - TWO
MARKETING RESEARCH
PROBLEM AND DEVELOPING AN
APPROACH

The tasks involved in defining the marketing research problems

The tasks involved in problem definition consist of discussion with
the decision makers, interviews with industry experts and other
knowledgeable individuals, analysis of secondary data and
sometimes qualitative research. These tasks help the researcher
to understand the background of the problem by analyzing the
environmental context. Certain essential environment factors
bearing on the problem should be evaluated.
Tasks involved
Discussion with
decision makers

Interviews with
experts

Secondary data
analysis

Environmental context of the problem

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Qualitative
research

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1. Discussion with decision makers: Discussion with decision

makers is extremely important. The DM needs to understand the
capabilities and limitation of research. Research provides
information relevant to management decision, but it cannot
provide solution because solutions require managerial judgment.
To identify management problem, the researcher must possess
considerable skill in interacting with the DM. Several factors may
complicate this interaction.
2. Interviews with experts: in addition to discussions with the
DM, interviews with industry experts, individuals knowledgeable
about the firm and the industry may help formulate the marketing
research problem. The experts may be found both inside and
outside the firm.
3. Secondary data analysis: secondary data are data collected
for some purpose other than the problem at hand. Secondary
data include information made available by business and
government sources, commercial marketing research firms, and
computerized databases. Secondary data are an economical and
quick source of background information.
4. Qualitative research: information obtained from the DM,
industry experts, and secondary data may not be sufficient to
define the research problem. Qualitive research is understand,
exploratory in nature, based on small samples, and may utilize
popular qualitative techniques such as focus groups, word
associations, and depth interviews.
Factors to be considered in the environmental context of the problem
The researcher should analyze the factors that have an impact on
the definition of the marketing research problem. These factors
encompassing the environmental context of the problem includes
the followings:
1. Past information and forecasts: Past information and
forecasts of trend with respect to sales, market share,
profitability, technology, demographics, etc.
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2. Resources and constraints: To formulate research problem,

it is necessary to take into account both the resources available
(money, research skills), and the constraints on the organization
(cost and time).
3. Objectives: The formulation of the management decision
problem must be based on a clear understanding of two types of
objectives- (a) The organizational objectives, and (b) the personal
objectives of decision maker.
4. Buyer behaviour: Buyer behaviour is a central component of
the environmental context. The buyer behaviour factors that
should be considered
The number of geographical location of buyers and nonbuyers,
Demographic and psycho graphical characteristics of buyers
Product consumption habits and related product categories.
Media and response to promotion
Price sensitivity
Retails outlets patronized , and buyers
Preference
5. Legal environment: Legal environment includes public
policies, laws, government agencies, and pressure groups that
influence and regulate (trade marks, patents, copy right)
organizations and individuals.
6. Economic environment: The economic environment consists
of incomes, prices, savings, investment, credit and general
economical conditions. These economic environments have
important implication for research problems.
7. Marketing and technological skills: a companys expertise
with each elements of the marketing mix, as well as its general
level of marketing and technological skills, affects the nature and
scope of the marketing research projects. A firms marketing and

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technological skills greatly influence the marketing programs and

strategies that can be implemented.
Component of the Approach
In the process of developing an approach, we must not lose sight
of the goal. The approach development process should include
the following components:
1. Objective/Theoretical framework: In general, research
should be based on objective evidence and those are supported
the theory.
a. Theory: A theory is a conceptual scheme based on
fundamental statements which are assumed to be true (books,
Journals, etc)
b. Objective evidence: An unbiased evidence that is supported
by empirical findings (measuring variables, research design,
sample selection).
2. Analytical model: an analytical model is a set of variables
and their relationship designed to present some real system or
process in whole or in part. It can have many different forms:
a. Verbal model: An analytical model that provides a written
representation of the relationships among variables.
b. Graphical model: An analytical model that provides a visual
picture of the relationships among variables.
c. Mathematical model: an analytical model that explicitly
describe the relationships among variables usually in equation
form.
3. Research questions: Research questions are refined
statement of the specific components of the problem. They ask
what specific information is required with respect to the problem
components. If research questions are answered by research then
the information obtained should aid the decision maker.
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4. Hypothesis: A hypothesis is an unproved statement or

proposition about a factor or phenomenon that is of interest to the
researcher.
a. Research question Vs hypothesis: Often as hypothesis s
possible answer to the research question. Hypothesis goes
beyond the research question.
b. Develop a research question and hypothesis
5. Relevant characteristics: Relevant characteristics are the
characteristics factors, products attributes, or variables that may
affect the research design.
Management decision problem and Marketing
research problem
The management decision problem asks what the decision maker
needs to do whereas the marketing research problem asks what
information is needed and how it can best be obtained.
The Management Decision Problem: This problem is action
oriented. It is encouraged the possible actions the DMs can take.
The Marketing Research Problem: This problem is information
oriented. It involves determining what information is needed and
how it can be obtained effectively and efficiently.
For example, the loss of market shares for a particular product
line. The DMs decision problem is how to recover this loss.
Alternative courses of action include modifying existing products,
introducing new products, changing other elements in the
marketing mix, and segmenting the market. Suppose the DM and
the researcher believe that the problem is caused by
inappropriate segmentation of the market and want research to
provide information on this issue.
Defining the Marketing Research Problem

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The general rule to be followed in defining the research problem

is that the definition should:
1. Allow the researcher to obtain all the information needed to
address management decision problem
2. Guide the researchers in proceeding with the project. The error
of problem definition can be reduced by stating the marketing
research problems in the following manners:
a. Broad statement of the problem: It means the initial
statement of the marketing research problem, which provides an
appropriate perspective on the problem.
b. Specific components of the problem: It is the second part
of the marketing research problem. It includes the specific
components focused on the key aspect of the problem and
provides clear guidelines on how to process.
Difference between management decision problem and
marketing research problem

Subject
matter
Definition
Orientatio
n
Focus
Example

Management
decision problem
Asks
what
the
decision maker needs
to do
Action oriented

Marketing research
problem
Asks what information is
needed and how it should
be obtained
Information oriented

Focuses on symptoms Focuses on the underlying

causes
Should a new product To determine consumer
be introduced?
preferences and purchase
intentions for the proposed
new product.
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH DESIGN

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Definition of research design.

A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection
and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance
to the research purpose with economy in procedure.
In the other words, decision regarding what, when, how, by what
means concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute a
research design.
According to N.K.Malhotra Research design is a framework or
blueprint for conducting the marketing research project. It
specifies the details of the producers necessary for obtaining the
information needed to structure and solve marketing research
problem.
Classification of research design
Of
Research design can be broadly classified as exploratory and
conclusive.

However, the classifications of research design are

shown as follows:
Research
ResearchDesign
Design
Exploratory
Exploratory
Research
Research

Conclusive
Conclusive
Research
Research

Descriptive
Casual
Descriptive
Casual
Research
Research
Research
Research
There are THREE types of research design such as Exploratory
Research, Descriptive Research and Casual Research.
1. Exploratory Research: It is an initial research conducted to
clarify and define the nature of a problem. In this research, the
problem is ambiguous nature. Generally the following three
methods in the context of research design are considered here:

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a. The survey of concerning literature: It happens to be

most simple and fruitful method of formulating precisely the
research problem or developing hypothesis.
b. Experience survey (through interview): It means the survey
of people who have had practical experience with the problem to
be studied. The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into
the relationship between variables and new ideas.
c. Analysis of insight stimulating examples (unstructured
interview may be taken): It is also a fruitful method for suggesting
hypothesis for research. This method consists of the intensive
study of selected instances of the phenomena in which one
interested.
2. Descriptive Research: A type of conclusive research which
has as its major objective the description of something
usually market condition, characteristics or/and function. It is
conducted for the following reasons:
To describe the characteristics of relevant groups (may be
consumers)
To estimate the percentage of units in a specific population
To determine the percentage of product characteristics
To determine the degree to which marketing variables are
associated
To make specific prediction.
3. Causal Research: A type of conclusive research in which the
major objective is to obtain evidence regarding cause-andeffect relationship. It is appropriate for the following purposesa. To understand which variables are the causes (Independent
variables) and which variables are the effects (dependent
variables) of a phenomenon.
b. To determine the nature of the relationship between the
casual variables and the effect to be predicted.
Differences between exploratory and conclusive/causal research
Of
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Category

Exploratory Research
To provide insight and
understanding

Causal Research
Objectives
To test specific
hypotheses and examine
relationships
Characteri Information needed is
Information needed is
stics
defined loosely
clearly defined
Research process is flexible Research process is
and unstructured
formal and structured
Sample is small and nonSample is large and
representative
representative
Data analysis is
Analysis of primary data
quantitative
is qualitative
Findings
Tentative
Conclusive
Outcome
Generally followed by
Findings used as input
further explanatory or
into decision-making.
conclusive research
Potential Sources of Error
Several potential sources of error can affect a research design. A
good research design attempts to control the various sources of
error. The total error is the variation between the true mean value
in the population of the variable of interest and the observed
mean value obtain in the marketing research project. In fact, total
error is composed of random sampling error and non-sampling
error.
A. Random sampling error: When the selected sample is
imperfectly represent the population of interest is called Random
sampling error. It is the variation between the true mean value for
the population and the true mean value for the original sample.
B. Non-sampling error: Non-sampling errors are errors that can
be attributed to sources other than sampling and that can be
random or non-random. Non-sampling errors can be divided
into two broad categories such as- Non-response error and
Response error.

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1. Non-response error: It arises when some of the respondents

do not respond. The primary causes of non-response are refusals
and not availability of respondents. Non-response error is defined
as the variation between the true mean value of the variable in
the original sample and the true mean value in the net sample.
Total
Totalerror
error
Random
Randomsampling
samplingerror
error

Non-sampling
Non-samplingerror
error
Response
Responseerror
error

Researcher
Researchererrors
errors
1.1.Surrogate
Surrogate
information
informationerror
error
2.2.Measurement
Measurement
error
error
3.3.Population
Population
definition
definitionerror
error
4.4.Sampling
Samplingframe
frame
error
error
5.5.Data
Dataanalysis
analysiserror
error

Interviewer
Interviewererrors
errors
1.1.Respondent
Respondent
selection
selectionerror
error
2.2.Questioning
Questioning
error
error
3.3.Recording
Recording
error
error
4.4.Cheating
Cheating
error
error

Non-response
Non-responseerror
error
Respondents
Respondentserrors
errors
1.1.Inability
Inabilityerror
error
2.2.Unwillingness
Unwillingness
error
error

2. Response error: It arises when respondents give inaccurate

answer or the answers are miss-recorded. Response error is
defined as the variation between the true mean value of the
variable in the net sample and the observed mean value obtain in
the marketing research project.
Response errors can be made by researchers, interviewers or
respondents. These are shown in the following ways:
a. Researchers error: It may make the following errors:
i. Surrogate (representative) information error: It may be
defined as the variation between the information needed and

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information short by the researcher. Example Salary instead of

income.
ii. Measurement error: It may be defined as the variation
between the information sought and information generated by the
measurement process employed by the researcher. Example,
seeking to measure consumer preference, researcher employs a
scale that measures perception rather than preference.
iii. Population defines error: It may be defined as the variation
between the actual population relevant to the problem at hand
and the population as defined by the researcher.
iv. Sampling frame error: It may be defined as the variation
between the population defined by the researcher and the
population as implied by the sampling frame (list) used. Example,
Number of telephone user-collected from a telephone directory;
there may be new user or unlisted even, may be disconnected
one.
v. Data analysis error: It may be defined as the error when raw
data from questionnaire are transformed into research findings.
Example, An inappropriate statistical procedure is used.
b. Interviewers error: These may be many kinds such as
i. Respondent selection error: It occurs when interviewers
select respondents other than those specified by the sampling
design. Example Tutor instead of teacher.
ii. Questioning error: It denotes errors made in asking
questions to the respondents or is not probing when more
information is needed. Example, Researcher does not use exact
wording.
iii. Recording error: It arises due to errors in hearing,
interpreting, and recording the answers given by the respondents.
Example, Respondent gives neutral but interviewer mean it
positive.
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iv. Cheating error: It arises when the interviewer fabricates

answers to a part or whole of the interview. Example, He does not
ask any sensitive question but later fills in by his own.
c. Respondents error: It includesi. Inability to answer: Inability error results
respondents inability to provide accurate answer.
ii. Unwillingness error: It arises from
unwillingness to provide the right answer.

the

from

the

respondents

Exploratory Research Design:

Secondary Data
What is data?
Generally verbal or numerical expression that explains any
particular fact or event is data. A collection of facts from which
conclusion can be drawn. Data is the raw material of any research
workings. Therefore, measuring elements of the characteristics of
any research workings is data.
Types of data or Primary versus secondary data
Mainly there are two typesa. Primary data: Primary data comes from the original sources
and are collected especially for the task at hand. Primary data are
a fresh and collected for the first time, and thus to happen be
original in character. For example primary data are collected in
case of observing certain production and measuring their cost.
The collection of primary data involves all six steps of the
marketing research process. However, obtaining primary data is
expensive and time consuming.
b. Secondary data: Refers to information gathered from sources
already existing, like- website, industry analysis, govt.
publications etc. So secondary data are those which have already
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been collected by someone else and through the statistical

measures process. Here studies made by the others for another
purpose, represent secondary data. The data can be located
quickly and inexpensively.
Sources of data
There are two sources for data collection..
1. Primary sources: primary sources are those from where
researcher collects data by interviewing.
a. Individuals: who provide information when interviewed,
administered questionnaire and observed.
b. Focus group: consists typically with 8-10 members with a
moderator who discuss with them at least two hours.
c. Panels of respondent: Like focus group. Focus group meets
once but panel of respondent meets several times.
2. Secondary sources: Secondary sources are those which data
have published or collected previously.
a. Various publications of the central, state or local govt.
b. Various publications of foreign govt.
c. Trade journals
d. Books magazines and newspaper.
e. Reports and publications of various associations.
f. Report prepared by research scholars and universities.
g. Public records and statistics and other published sources.
h. Unpublished sources like- diaries, letters, unpublished
biographies and autobiographies.
Data collection methods
Two methods
1. Interview method: It involves presentations of oral verbal
stimuli and reply of oral- verbal responses. It can be conducted in
four ways..

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a. Face to face interview: Here the researcher meet the

respondents face to face & ask question. It is a two way
conversation initiated by an interviewer to obtain information
from a respondent.
b. Telephone interview: Here the researcher collect the phone
numbers of respondent and call them. This method of collecting
information consists in contacting respondents on telephone.
c. Computer assisted interview: Here the researcher computer
& internet and chat with and mail to respondent s to collect data.
d. Interview through electronic media: Here the researcher
collect data with help of electronic broadcast media like- radio, TV
etc.
2. Observation method: it is a scientific method of data
collection. Here the researcher directly observes the target
respondents and from his observation he gets data about the
respondent group without asking any question to the
respondents. In way we all observe things around us, but this sort
of observation is not scientific observation. Observation becomes
a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the
researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is
systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks
and controls on validity and reliability.
a. structured observation: when observation is characterized
by a careful definition of the units to be observe, the style of
recording the observed information, standardized condition of
observation and the selection of pertinent data of observation
then the observation is called as structured observation.
b. unstructured observation: when observation is to take
place without these, characteristics to be though in advance, the
same is termed as unstructured observation.
c. participant observation: if the observe by making himself,
more or less a member of the group. So that he can experience
what the member of the group experience, the observation is
called the participant observation.
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d. non-participant observation: when the observation

observed as a detached emissary without any attempt on his part
to experience through participation what others feel is nonparticipant observation.
e. controlled observation: when observation takes place
according to define pre-arranged plan, involving experimental
procedure then it is called controlled observation.
f. uncontrolled observation: if the observation takes place in
the natural setting then it is called uncontrolled observation.

Difference between primary and secondary data:

Sub.
matter
1.Defininti
on

2. Purpose
3.Collectio
n process
4.Cost
5.Time

Primary data

Secondary data

Information
that
is
obtained firsthand by the
researcher on the variables
for the special purpose of
study.
For the problem at hand
Require high involvement

Information
that
is
obtained from existing
sources
by
the
researcher
on
the
variables
for
the
special
purpose
of
study.
For the other problem
Rapid and easy

High
Long

low
Short
Advantages of Primary data

1.It can be collected from a number of ways like interviews,

telephone surveys, focus groups etc.
2.It can be also collected across the national borders through
emails and posts.

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3.It can include a large population and wide geographical

coverage.
4.Primary data is current and it can better give a realistic view to
the researcher about the topic under consideration.
5.Primary data are contemporary as it comes from original
source.
6.These are easy to classify
7.Researcher collects these by himself. That is why these are
more reliable.
8.Researchers have clear idea about the sources of information.
Disadvantages of primary data
1.The questions must be simple. Otherwise the answer may not
be accurate.
2.Some respondents do not give timely responses.
3.Sometimes, the respondents may give fake, socially
acceptable and sweet answers and try to cover up the
realities.
4.In some primary data collection methods there is no control
over the data collection.
5.Primary data collection is time consuming and costly.
6.A possibility of error is much in primary data.
7.Sometimes primary data are inadequate.
Advantages of Secondary data
Secondary data offer several advantages over primary data.
Secondary data are easy accessible, relatively inexpensive, and
quickly obtained. Possible sources of secondary data are Bureau
of Statistics, library, annual reports of several government and
non-government organization, etc. Secondary data can help one
in the following ways:
1. Identify the problem
2. Better define the problem.
3. Formulate an appropriate research design. ( by identifying the
key variables)
4. Interpret primary data more insightfully. .
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5.
6.
7.
8.

Answer certain research questions and test some hypotheses.

Develop an approach of the problem.
It is relatively cheap and no prior arrangements are required.
Secondary data can usually be found more quickly and
cheaply.
9. Different types of information can be gathered.
10.
Researchers do not need special experience to collect
secondary data.
Disadvantages of secondary data
Since secondary data have been collected for purpose other than
the problem at hand, their usefulness to the current problem may
be limited in several important ways, including relevance and
accuracy.
1.Accuracy of secondary data is not known.
2.Data may be outdated.
3.The objectives, nature and methods used to collect secondary
data may not be appropriate to the current situation.
Processing and analyzing of data
Processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of
collected data so that they are amenable to analysis. It includes
the following steps1. Editing: Editing of data is a process of examining the collected
raw data (specially in surveys) to detect errors and omissions to
correct these when possible.
It is done to ensure that the data are accurate, consistant with
other facts gathered. It can be done in two waysa. Field editing: Here editing is done in running situation. This
sort of editing should be done as soon as possible after the
interview, preferably on the very day or on the next day.

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b. Central editing: A single or group editor just corrects the

error. Central editing should take place when all forms or
schedules have been completed and returned to office.
2. Coding: It refers to the process of assigning numerals or other
symbols to answers so that responses can be put into a limited
number of categories or classes. Main function is categories in
numbers or symbols to analysis easily.
3. Classification: Most research studies result in a large volume
of raw data which must be reduced into homogenous groups if we
are to get meaningful relationship. Here large data or respondents
are categorized on the basis of common characteristics or classify
different classes.
4. Tabulation: It refers to see the whole data at a glance. When
a mass data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the
researcher to arrange concise and logical order named tabulation
to show the entire data at a glance.
Criteria for Evaluating Secondary Data
The quality of secondary data should be routinely evaluated,
using the criteria discussed below:
1. Specification: Methodology used to collect the data: The
specification or methodology used to collect the data should be
critically examined to identify possible sources of bias. It includes

Size and nature of sample

Response rate and quality
Questionnaire design and administration
Procedures used to field work
Data analysis and reporting procedure

These checks provide information on the reliability and validity of

data.

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2. Error: accuracy of data: Secondary data can have a number of

sources of error, or inaccuracy including error in
Approach
Research design
Sampling
Data collection
Data analysis, and
Reporting stages of the project.
3. Currency: When the data were collected: Secondary data may
not be current, and the time lag between data collection and
publication may be long. Moreover, data may not be updated.
4. Objective: The purpose for which the data were collected:
Data are invariably collected with some objective and a
fundamental question to ask.
5. Nature: The content of the data: The nature or content of the
data should be examined with special attention to the definition of
key variables, the units of measurement, categories used and the
relationships examined.
6. Dependability: How dependable are the data: An overall
indication of the dependability of data may be obtained by
examines the expertise, credibility, and reputation of the source.
Classification of Secondary Data
Secondary data may be classified as either internal or external.
1. Internal data: Internal data are those generated within the
organization for which the research is being conducted. This
information may be available in a ready-to-use format. Examples
of secondary data of a Department store sales by product line,
sales by major department sales by geographic region, sales by
cash versus credit, sales in specific time period, etc.

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2. External data: Secondary data are those generated by

sources outside the organization. These data may exist in the
form of published materials, on-line data-base, or information
made available by syndicated services. Examples are federal,
state. And local government, non-profit organization (chamber of
commerce), trade association, and professional organizations,
commercial publishers, investment brokerage firms, and
professional marketing research firms. There are the following
divisions in publish data
a. General business data: Businesses publish a lot of
information in the forms of books, periodic, journals, newspapers,
magazines, reports, and trade literature.
b. Government sources: Government produces large scale of
secondary data such as census data (Bureau of statistics, etc) and
other publications.
3. Computerized data: Most published data is also available in
the form of computerized databases. Computerized databases
contain information that has been available in computer-readable
form of electronic distribution. Computerized databases offer a
number of advantages over printed data including:
a. The data are current and up-to-date
b. The search process is more comprehensive, quicker and
simplified.
c. The cost of accessing these data is low.
d. It is convenient to access these data through computer devices (a
modem or a communication network)
4. Syndicated sources of secondary data: Information services
offered by marketing research organizations that provide
information from a common database to different firms that
subscribe to their services.
Computer database and Classification of
computerized database
Database marketing involves the use of computers to capture and
track customer profiles and purchase detail. This secondary
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information serves as the foundation for marketing programs or

as an internal source of information related to customer behavior.
The task of database marketing is to transfer raw sales
information, which information can then be analyzed in terms of a
customers activity over the life of the business relationship.
These databases provide the essential tool needed to nature,
expand, and protect the customer relationship.
There are the following types of computerized data
1. On-line databases: Databases, stored in computer, that
require a telecommunication network to access.
2. Internet databases: Internet databases can be accessed,
searched, and analyzed on the Internet. It is also possible to
download data from the Internet and store in the computer or an
auxiliary storage device.
3. Off-line databases: Databases those are available on
diskette or CD-Rom.
4. Biographic databases: Databases composed of citations to
articles in journals, magazines, newspapers, marketing research
studies, technical reports, government documents, and the like.
They often provide summaries or abstracts of the materials cited.
5. Numeric databases: Numeric databases contain numerical
and statistical information that may be important sources of
secondary data.
6. Full-Text databases: Databases containing the complete text
of source documents of the database.
7. Directory databases: Directory databases
information on individuals, organizations, and services.

provide

8. Special-purpose databases: Databases that contain information of

a specific nature, e.g., data on the specialized industry.

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Exploratory Research Design:

Qualitative Research

Primary Data: Qualitative versus quantitative

Research
Qualitative research: An unstructured, exploratory research
methodology based on small samples that provides insights and
understanding of the problem setting.
Quantitative research: A research methodology that seeks to
quantify the data and, typically applies some form of statistical
analysis.
Qualitative research provides insights and understanding of the
problem setting whereas quantitative research seeks to quantify
the data and, typically applies some form of statistical analysis.
Classification of Qualitative Research Procedures
A classification of qualitative research procedures is presented
below:
1. Direct approach: One type of qualitative research in which the
purposes of the project are disclosed to the respondents or are
obvious given the nature of the interview. It is non disguised
approach.
2. Indirect approach: A type of qualitative research in which the
purposes of the project are disguised from the respondents.
3. Focus group: An interview conducted in an unstructured and
natural manner by a trained moderator among a small group of
respondent.
Qualitative
Qualitative Research
Research
Procedure
Procedure
Direct
Indirect
Direct (Non(NonIndirect
disguised)
(Disguised)
disguised)
(Disguised)
Focus
Focus
group
group
Association
Association techniques
techniques

Depth
Projective
Depth
Projective
techniques
interview
techniques
interview
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Completion
Completion

Construction
Construction

Expressive
Expressive techniques
techniques

Page 28 of 51

Figure: Classification of qualitative research procedures

4. Depth interview: An unstructured, direct, personal interview

in which a single respondent is probed by a highly skilled
interviewer to uncover underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes,
and feeling on a topic.
5. Projective technique: An unstructured and indirect form of
questioning that encourages the respondents to project their
underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feeling regarding the
issues of concern. It includes
a. Association techniques: The respondent is presented with a
stimulus and asked to respond with the first thing that comes to
mind.
b. Completion techniques: In completion techniques, the
respondent is asked to complete an incomplete stimulus situation
such as sentence completion, story completion, etc.
c. Construction techniques: A projective techniques in which
the respondent is required to construct a response in the form of a
story, dialogue, or description.
d. Expressive techniques: Respondent is presented with a
verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the feeling and
attitudes of other people to the situation.
Descriptive Research: Survey and
Observation

Survey Methods
A structured questionnaire given to a sample of a population and
designed to elicit specific information from respondents.
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The survey method is based on the questioning the respondents.

Respondents are asked a variety of questions regarding their
behavior, intentions, attitudes, awareness, motivations, and
demographic and lifestyle characters.
Classification of Survey Method
Survey method may be classified in four major modes such as
1. Telephonic method: This method is further classified into
following categories a. Traditional telephone interview: This method involves
phoning a sample of respondents and asking series of questions.
It uses proper questionnaire and record the responses.
b. Computer assisted telephone interviews: It is operated
from a central location and more popular than traditional method.
It uses computerized questionnaire and administered to
respondents over telephone. The interviewer reads questions on
the computer screen and records the respondents answers
directly into the computer.
2. Personal method: This method may be categorized as inhouse, mall-intercept or computer assisted.
a. Personal in-house interview: Under this method
respondents are interviewed in person in their homes. In recent
years, this is declined due to high cost.
b. Mall-intercept personal interview: Under this method mall
shoppers are intercepted and brought to test facilities in the
malls. The interviewer then administers a questionnaire as in the
in-home personal survey method.
c. Computer assisted personal interview: Under this method
respondents are asked to sit in front of computer terminal and to
answer the questionnaire on the computer screen.

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3. Mail method: This method is further classified into following

categories
a. Mail interview: Under this method questionnaires are mail to
preselected potential respondents.
b. Mail panel: A mail panel consists of a large, nationally
representative sample of households that has agreed to
participate in periodic mail questionnaires, product tests, and
telephone surveys.
4. Electronic method: This method is further classified into
following categories
a. E-mail interview: To conduct an e-mail survey, a list of e-mail
addresses is obtained. The survey is written within the body of the
e-mail message and sent to respondents.
b. Internet interview: Under this method questionnaire are
posted on a web site and the respondents are asked to go to a
particular Web location to complete the survey. A particular web
language (hyper text web language) is used in this connection.
Observation Methods
Observation methods are the second type of methodology used in
descriptive research. Observation involves recording the
behavioral patterns of people, objects, and events in a systematic
manner to obtain information about the phenomenon of interest.
Information may be recorded as the events occur or from records
of past events. Observation methods may be structured or
unstructured, direct or indirect. Furthermore, observation may be
conducted in a natural or artificial environment.
1. Structured observation: In this case, the researcher
specifies in detail what is to be observed and how the
measurements are to be recorded. This is appropriate when the
marketing research problem has been clearly defined and the
information needed has been specified.
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2. Unstructured observation: In this case the observers

monitor all aspects of the phenomenon that seem relevant to the
problem at hand- for example, observing children playing with
new toys.
3. Disguised observation: In this case, the respondents are
unaware that they are being observed. This enables respondents
to behave naturally.
4. Undisguised observation: The respondents are aware that
they are under observation. In this case, the observers effect is
minor and short-lived.
5. Natural observation: It involves observing behavior as it
takes places in the environment.
6. Contrived observation: In this case, respondents behavior
is observed in an artificial environment, such as a test kitchen.
Classification of observation method
The observation methods are classified in the following categories

1. Personal observation: In personal observation, a researcher

observes actual behaviour as it occurs. The observer does not
attempt to control or manipulate the phenomenon being
observed.
2. Mechanical observation: In mechanical observation,
mechanical devices rather than human observers, record the
phenomenon being observed.
3. Audit: In audit, the researcher collects data by examining
physical records or performing inventory analysis. Audits have
two distinguishing feature. First, data are collected personally by
the researcher. Second, the data are based on counts, usually of
physical objects.
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Panty audit: In a pantry audit, the researcher takes an inventory

of brands, quantities, and packager sizes in a consumers home
perhaps in the course of a personal interview.
4. Content analysis: Content analysis is an appropriate method
when the phenomenon to be observed is communication, rather
than behaviour or physical objects. It is defined as the objective,
systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content
of communication.
5. Tress analysis: In trace analysis, data collection is based on
physical traces, or evidence of past behaviour.
A Comparison of Survey and Observation Methods
Few marketing research projects rely solely on observation
methods to obtain primary data. This implies that observation
methods have some major disadvantages as compared to survey
methods. Yet these methods offer some advantages that make
their use in conjunction with survey methods quite fruitful.
1. Relative advantages of observation
a. The greatest advantage is that they permit measurement of
actual behaviour rather than reports of intended or preferred
behaviour.
b. There is no reporting bias, or potential bias caused by the
interviewers.
c. Certain data can only be collected by observation.
d. Phenomenon occurs frequently or short-duration that may
cause of significant cost cut and time save.
2. Relative disadvantages of observation
a. The reason of observed behaviour may not be determined.
b. Selective perception (bias in researchers perception) can
bias the data.
c. It is obviously time consuming and expensive and difficult to
observe certain form.
d. In some cases, it is unethical (monitoring people without
their knowledge of consents).
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CHAPTER - FOUR
MEASUREMENT & SCALING

What do you mean by measurement and scaling?

Measurement: Measurement means assigning members or
other symbols to characteristics of objects according to certain
pre-specified rules.
Scaling: Scaling may be considered as extension of
measurement. It involves in creating a continuum upon which
measured objects are located.
Types of scaling
There are four types of primary scales of measurement. These are
as follows-

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1. Nominal scale: A scale where numbers are used to level or

tag the objects for identifying them. For example- social security
numbers, football players numbers, brand numbers.
2. Ordinal numbers: Here numbers are used to indicate the
relative positions of the objects but the extents of differences are
not indicated here. For example- cricket team rankings,
preference rankings, market positions etc.
3. Interval scale: An interval scale contains all the information
of an ordinal scale but it also allows ones to compare the
differences between objects. The difference between any two
adjacent scale values is identical to the difference between any
other two adjacent values of an interval scales. There is a
constant or equal interval between scales values. For exampletemperature (Fahrenheit centigrade).
4. Ratio scale: A ratio scale possesses all the properties of the
nominal, ordinal and interval scale. It allows the researcher to
identify or classify objects, rank order the objects and compare
intervals or differences. For example- length, weight, age, income,
costs, sales etc.
Scaling techniques/ types of scaling techniques
The scaling techniques commonly employed in marketing
research can be classified into comparative and non-comparative
scales.
Scaling
Scalingtechniques
techniques
Comparative
Comparative
scales
scales
Paired
Paired
comparison
comparison
scales
scales

Rank
Rank
Order
Order
scales
scales

Constant
Constant
sum
sum
scaling
scaling

Non-comparative
Non-comparative
scales
scales
Q-sort
Q-sort&&other
other
procedure
procedure

Continuous
Continuous
rating
ratingscales
scales

Likert
Likert
scale
scale

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Itemized
Itemized
rating
ratingscales
scales

Semantic
Semantic
scale
scale

Staple
Staple
scale
scale

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1. Comparative scaling techniques: Comparative scales

involve the direct comparison of stimulus objects. For example
respondents might be asked whether they prefer sensation or
Black Panther. It includesa. Paired comparison: In paired comparison scaling a
respondent is presented with two objects and asked to select one
according to some criterion. Paired comparison scales are
frequently used when the stimulus objects are physical objects.
b. Rank order scaling: A comparative scaling techniques in
which respondents are presented with several objects
simultaneously and asked to order or rank them according to
some criterion. For example - rank-1, coca-cola, brand value
69.39 core tk. and rank-2, Microsoft, brand value 61.37 core tk.
c. Constant scaling: In constant sum scaling respondents
allocate a constant sum of units, such as points, dollars, or chips,
among a set of stimulus objects with respects to some criterion.
2. Non-comparative scaling: In non-comparative scaling each
stimulus objects is scaled independently of the other objects in
the stimulus set. It is divided into two partsa. Continuous rating scale: In a continuous rating scale also
referred to as a graphic rating scale, respondents rare the objects
by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a line that runs
from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other. Here the
respondents are not restricted to sleeting marks previously set by
the researcher.
High
low
b. Itemized rating scale: Here the respondents are provided
with a scale that has a number or brief description associated
with each category. The categories are ordered in terms of scale
position and the respondents are required to select the specified
category that best describes the object being rated. It includes-

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i. Likert scale: Here the respondents have to indicate a degree

of agreements or disagreement with each of a series of
statements about the stimulus objects. A measurement scale with
five response categories ranging from strongly disagrees to
strongly agree which requires the respondents to indicate a
degree.
ii. Semantic differential scale: It is a 7-point rating scale with
endpoints associated with bipolar labels that have semantic
meaning.
iii. Staple scale: A scale for measuring attitudes that consist of a
single adjective in the middle of an even numbered range of
values from -5 to +5 without a neutral point zero. Respondents
are asked to indicate how accurately or inaccurately each term
describes the object by selecting an appropriate numerical
response category. The higher the number the more accurately
the term describes the object.

CHAPTER - FIVE
SAMPLING DESIGN

Sampling design

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A definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It

refers to the technique or the procedure that the researcher
would adopt in selecting items for the sample.
Issues related in sampling design
1. Population: refers to either group of people, events o things
of interest that the researcher wishes to investigate.
2. Sample: It is a subset of population. It comprises of some
members selected from it. Some but not all elements of the
population would be form the sample.
3. Elements: An element is a single member of the population.
4. Subset: A subset is a single number of the samples just as an
element is a single member of the population.
What do you mean by Sampling?
It is the process of selecting a sufficient number of elements from
the population, so that a study of the sample and an
understanding of its properties or characteristics would make it
possible for us to generalize such properties or characteristics of
the population?
Reasons for sampling
1. It can save time and money.
2. It may enable more accurate measurement.
3. It is the only way when population contains infinite
members.
4. It enables to estimate the errors and thus assists in
obtaining.
Steps in sampling:
At the time of developing a sample design, the researcher must
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1. Types of universe: Define the set of objects termed as

universe. Two types of universe are - finite universe and infinite
universe.
2. Sampling unit: Sampling unit may be a geographical one likestate, district, or a construction unit like- house, flat, or social unit
like- family or it may be an individual.
3. Source list: Also known as sampling frame. It should be
compr4ehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate.
4. Size of sample: Refers to the numbers of items to be selected
from the universe to constitute a sample.
5. Parameters of interest: Researcher must consider the
question of the specific population parameters which are of
interest.
6. Budgetary constraints: Cost consideration from practical
point of view.
7. Sampling procedure: Finally the researcher must decide
about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the
sample.
Types of sampling designs:
Sampling designs are mainly two types:
1. Probability sampling: Here individual items are picked up
form the whole group. Every item has an equal chance to be
included in the sample. It is of different types
a.
b.
c.

Random sampling: Selecting sampling by lottery.

Systematic sample: Selecting sample by using the nth
elements.
Stratified sampling: Selecting sampling from the sub
population.
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d.

Cluster sampling: grouping the population and selecting

group.
Area sampling: Clusters happens in different area.
Multi-stage sampling: The item is divided by hierarchy
in high or low.
Sequential sampling: Sample is not fixed and it comes
by survey process.

e.
f.
g.

2. Non- probability sampling: Here the researcher includes

sampling according to his judgment and opinion. Three types..
a. Convenience sampling: Here researcher select sample
according to convenience.
b. Judgment sampling: Here researcher chooses sample based
on his own judgment.
c. Quota sampling: Here the researcher select sample in such a
way so that every sample acts as representative of all samples of
the universe.
Characteristics of good sample design
We can list down the characteristics of a good sample design as
follows:
1. True representation: A sample design must result a true
representation of the population under studied.
2. Small sampling error: A sample design must reduce
sampling errors.
3. Viability: a sample design must be viable in the context of
fund available for the study.
4. Control of systematic bias: Sample design must be such so
that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way.
5. Confidence level: A sample should be such that that result of
the study can be applied in general, for the universe with a
reasonable level of confidence.

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Criteria of selecting a sampling procedure

One must remember that two costs are involved in a sampling
analysis. The cost of collecting the data and the cost of an
incorrect inference resulting from the data. Researcher must keep
in view the two causes of incorrect inference viz.. Systematic bias
and sampling error. A systematic bias result from errors in the
sampling procedures, and it cannot be reduced or eliminated by
increasing the sample size. A systematic bias is the result of one
or more of the following factors.
1. Inappropriate sampling frame: if the sampling frame is
inappropriate i.e. a biased representation of the universe, it will
result in a systematic bias.
2. Defective measuring device: if the measuring device is
constantly in error, it will result in systematic bias. In survey work,
systematic bias can result if the questionnaire or the interviewer
is biased.
3. Non-respondents: if we are unable to sample all the
individuals initially include in the sample, there may arise a
systematic bias.
4. Indeterminacy principle: sometimes we find that individuals
act differently when kept under observation that what they do
when kept in non-observed situations. For instance, if workers are
aware that somebody is observing them in course of work then
they will not work like unobserved situation. Thus, the
indeterminacy principle may also be a cause of a systematic bias.
5. Natural bias in the reporting of data: natural bias of
respondents in the reporting of data is often the cause of a
systematic bias in many inquiries. There is usually a downward
bias in the income data collected by government taxation
department, whereas we find an upward bias in the income data
collected by some social organization.
Determination of sample size.
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Sample size is influenced by the average size of samples in

similar studies. If we analyze the previous research then we find
that sample sizes have been determined based on experience and
can serve as rough guidelines, particularly when non-probability
sampling techniques are used.
The sample size decision should be guided by a consideration of
the resource constraints. In any marketing research project,
money and time are limited. Other constraints include the
availability of qualified personnel for data collection.
Simply sample size depends on the following factors.
Degree of accuracy
Resources
Time
Advanced knowledge of the population
National versus local
Need for statistical analysis
What should be the size of the sample? The following steps will
lead to an answer.
1. Specify the level of accuracy/precision. This is the maximum
permissible difference between the sample mean and the
population mean.
2. Specify the level of confidence. Suppose that a 95% confidence
level is desired.
3. Determine the z value associated with the confidence level.
4. Determine the standard deviation of the population. The
standard deviation of the population may be known from
secondary sources.
5. Determine the sample size using the formula for the standard
error of the mean.
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6. If the resulting sample size represents 10 percent or more of

the population, the finite population correction should be applied.
7. If the population standard deviation is unknown and an
estimate is used, it should be re-estimated once the sample has
been drawn.

CHAPTER - SIX
QUESTIONNARE

What is Questionnaire?
Questionnaire is a pre-formulated written set of questions through
which a researcher requests the respondents to record their
answers for the purpose of data collection for the research study.
It is usually within closely defined alternatives.
Administration of Questionnaire
Administration of the questionnaire refers to the designing and
making a questionnaire to use in the data collection for any
research program. It can be done in three ways:
1. Personally administered questionnaires: When the
questionnaire is used to collect data directly from the respondent,
then it is called as personally administered questionnaire.
Personally
administered
questionnaires
require
some
preconditions to be fit:
When a survey is confined in a local area.

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Organization is willing and able to assemble the

respondents.
2. Mail questionnaires: When the questionnaire is distributed
to the respondents to over mail for feedback after answering the
questions. Then it is called as mail questionnaire.
Techniques of mail questionnaire
This method is further classified into following categories
1. Mail interview: Under this method questionnaires are mail to
preselected potential respondents.
2. Mail panel: A mail panel consists of a large, nationally
representative sample of households that has agreed to
participate in periodic mail questionnaires, product tests, and
telephone surveys.
Advantages of personally administered questionnaire
1. Researcher can collects data within a short period of time.
2. Respondents' doubts and questions can be clarified on the
spot.
3. Researcher can introduce the research topic and motivate the
respondents to answer frankly.
4. Administering questionnaires to the large number of
individuals at the same time is less expensive and consumes
less time.
5. It does not require as much skill to administer the questions
as to conduct interviews.
Advantages of mail questionnaires:
1. A large geographic area can be covered.
2. Respondent can send it back in convenient time.
3. 30% returns is acceptable.
Disadvantages of mail questionnaires:
1. Response is low.

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2. Doubt of respondents cannot be clarified.

3. Difficult to establish the representation of the sample.
Effective techniques employed for improving the rates of response to
mail questionnaire
1. Sending follow up letters: Researcher can send a follow up
letter to the respondents mentioning the details information about
the research topic, purpose and way to answer to make
questionnaire easy to respondents.
2. Some monetary incentive can be given: To motivate the
respondents to answer the questions and send it back, the
researcher can give some monetary incentives along with the
questionnaire.
3.
Providing
self-addressed
and
stamped
return
envelopes: To have quick response researcher can provide selfaddressed and stamped envelopes to the respondents.
4. Keeping the questionnaire short: Researcher can design
the questionnaire small and brief to consume the less time to
respondents.
5. Using the name of renowned research organization:
Researcher can use the name of renowned research organization
in the introductory cover letter to charm the respondents and
make the program more reliable and valid.
Guidelines for questionnaire design
Sound questionnaire design principles should focus on three
areas1. Principles of Wording.
2. Planning issues of measurement.
3. General appearance of the questionnaire.
These are discussed bellow1. Principles of Wording: It refers to the some factors like-

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a. The Appropriateness of the Contents and purpose of

questions: Here the appropriate contents and the purpose of the
questionnaire are considered according to the subjective and
objective variables like respondent's perceptions, attitudes, age,
education etc.
b. Language and wording of the questions: The usage of the
language in the questionnaire depends on the educational level of
the respondents, the usage of the idioms and term in their culture
and norms and the frame of preference.
c. Type and forms of the questions: The researcher is to take
the decision about which type of questions will be asked in the
questionnaire. The questions may be

Open- ended versus closed question

Positively and negatively worded questions.
Double-Barreled questions.
Ambiguous question.
Recall-Dependent questions.
Leading question.
Loaded question.
Social desirably question.
Length of questions.

d. The sequencing of the questions: Sequencing the

questions chronologically easier questions to the difficult
questions, general questions to specific questions, primary to final
question etc. is also a main task at the time of designing
questionnaire.
e. The personal data sought from the respondents: The
researcher can include the personal and demographic questions
about the age, educational level, marital status, and income. It is
better not to ask the name of the respondents.

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2. Principles of measurement: Here the researcher thinks

about the measurement of scaling, hypothesis, variables etc.
which are to be included in the questionnaires.
3. General appearance of the questions: It is also necessary
to pay attention to how the questionnaire looks. An attractive
and neat questionnaire with appropriate introduction is the precondition to char the respondent and to get reliable data.
Types/forms of the questionnaires
A questionnaire consists of different types of written set of
questions. A question criterion is a vital element to conduct a
research program. Questions may be categorized in different
ways. The main forms and types of questions are described
bellow1. Open-ended versus closed: Open-ended questions allow
the respondents to answer them in any way they choose. The
researcher here will not provide boundary. So, respondents are
free to answer what they like to choose. For example-the
researcher asks the question to customer or buyer about the price
rate of daily necessary goods. Here the customer can answer
according to his wish.
On the other hand, in the closed questions the respondents
have to make choice among a set of alternatives given by the
researcher. For example- the researcher ask the question to the
customer or consumer about the price rate of daily necessary
goods and fix five possible answers to choose any one.
2. Positively and negatively worded questions: A
questionnaire that includes both positive and negative questions
is called positively and negatively worded question. A good
questionnaire should include both positively and negatively
worded questions. The researcher should avoid the double
negative and excessive use of word, because it makes the
respondents confused. For example- Are you satisfied with the
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service of train? It can be asked negatively such as- You are not
satisfied with the service of train, is it? So, actual information can
be found through negative and positive questions.
3. Double-Barreled question: When different responses come
from its support is called double barreled question. The researcher
should avoid double-barreled question and two or more separate
question should be asked. For example- The quality of Sunsilk
shampoo is very high, that is why its sales are decreasing? The
first part's answer is "yes" but the second part's answer is "NO".
So, the researcher can ask in bellow way Is the quality of Sunsilk shampoo very high?
Is it the reason to decrease its sales?
4. Ambiguous question: A question that is not clearly stated or
defined is called ambiguous question. Sometime the language of
the question is not only double-barreled but also ambiguous. For
that the respondents become confused what will be his answer.
For example- What about the Bangladesh politics? Here the
respondents will become confused actually what the researcher
wants to know from his answer.
5. Recall-dependent question: A question which may require
respondents to recall past experience that are unclear in their
memory is called recall-dependent question. For example- If a
person, who has completed honors 3rd year, is asked to state
when he first went to the high school, he may not be able to give
the correct answer.
6. Leading question: Questions should not be expressed in such
a way that lead the respondent to give responses that the
researcher would like or want them to give. For example- a
question is, "Do you think that the students' politics of
Bangladesh should be banned? Here the respondent is forced in a
way to say 'YES'. But this matter can be asked in bellow way- "To

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what extent do you think that the students' politics of Bangladesh

should be banned?"
7. Loaded question: A question which is asked to the
respondents in an emotionally charged manner is called loaded
question. An example of such loaded question is- 'To what
extent do you think the price rate of daily necessary goods is
high, if the political party decides to go on Hartal or strike?'
8. Social desirable question: A question which is asked to the
respondents to find out socially desirable responses is called
socially desirable question. The question should not go against
the social norms and believes. If the question goes against it, then
it may have negative impact. For example- 'Do you think wine
should be available in every grocery shops?' In these cases the
respondents may show negative attitudes or may become
annoyed, because the question is against the social value as a
Muslim country.
From the above discussion we can say that different types of
questions are used in the questionnaire by the researchers to find
out the intended information.
Pretesting the Questionnaire

Pretesting refers to the testing of the questionnaire on a small

sample of respondents in order to identify and eliminate potential
problems. Even the best questionnaire can be improved by
pretesting. All aspects of the questionnaire should be tested,
including question content, wording, sequence, form and layout,
question difficulty, and instructions.
Pretests are beating done by personal interview, even if the
actual survey is to be conducted by mail, telephone, or electronic
methods, because interviewers can observe respondents
reactions and attitudes.

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CHAPTER - SEVEN
REPORT WRITING

The report
It is important that the results of the study and the
recommendations to solve the problem are effectively
communicated to the sponsor, so that the suggestions made are
accepted and implemented; otherwise all the effort expended on
the investigation would be in vain. Writing the report concisely,
and with clarity is perhaps as important.
Basically there is no hard and first rule for the layout of the
research report, while there is no single report layout or format
which is appropriate for all situations. However the following
outline is generally accepted as the basic format for most of the
research project.
1. The title page: The first contain of writing a report is the title.
The title page should state the subject of the report, for whom
and by whom the report was prepared, and the date of
completion, submission or presentation.
2. Abstract or summery of the report: Abstract or summery
of the report explain why the researcher project was conducted,
what aspects of the problem were considered, what the outcomes
were, and what should be done.
3. Introduction or background: The details of the research
project are found in the introduction of the report. This section
includes Background information
Research problem
Research gap

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4. Justification or scope of the research: After analyzing and

reviewing extensive available literature at hand, the researcher
can clarify or identify the concept or knowledge gap. To fill up the
knowledge gap is the main purpose of justification. Here the
researcher should answer the following questions

Does the field need reworking?

Is there any gap in knowledge?
Are the expected results useful to the society?
Who might be interested in the result?

5. Literature review: Literature review refers to a direct search

to published works including periodical books, academic journals,
govt. report etc that discuss theory and present empirical result
relevant to the topic at hand. The main purpose of the literature
review is to find out the knowledge gap in the field of proposed
research.
6. Framework development: Usually a theoretical framework is
developed in the introductory section. But some research
problems require defining many concepts in detail and that is not
possible to complete in the introductory section hence in this
section framework or hypothesis should be explained.
7. Methodology: It is the important part in the research writing
process. It includes
Research design
Population and sampling
Measurement system
Data collection and analysis
Results of analysis
8. Findings: Findings will be normally the longest section of the
report. If the problem is to be solved, the gathered data must be
examined as they relate to the objectives of the study.

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9. Discussion: The discussion of the researcher with the

knowledgeable person about the problem and the findings can
narrowly be included in this section.
10. Limitations: When the researcher studies his report, he may
face some limitations. Like a time constraints for completing the
work, larger population etc. these limitations should be reported
within their proper perspective, indicating the accuracy of the
interpretation of the results.
11. Conclusion: The conclusion is drawn by inference either
inductive or deductive from the findings. The conclusion verifies
or denies the premises or hypothesis upon which the investigation
has been conducted.
12. References: It is the final section of the report preparation. it
contains detailed information of sources from where material s
are found including the books, journals, conferences and various
articles, magazine, news papers etc.

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