Configuration Aerodynamics - 2

Aerodynamic Drag

Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics, MAE 331,

2010

Induced drag
Compressibility effects

" %'C D0
&

1 2
1
!V S " C D0 + # C L2 !V 2 S
2
2
2 1
+ # C Lo + C L$ $ (* !V 2 S
)2

Drag = C D

Drag

P-51 example
Newtonian Flow
Pitching Moment
Copyright 2010 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html

Induced Drag
Induced Drag

Lift produces downwash (angle proportional to lift)

Downwash rotates velocity vector
Lift is perpendicular to velocity vector
Axial component of rotated lift induces drag

Spitfire

Induced Drag
(

Spanwise Lift Distribution

of 3-D (Trapezoidal) Wings
Straight Wings (@ 1/4 chord)
(McCormick)

C Di = C Li sin ! i " C L0 + C L! ! sin ! i

" C L0 + C L! ! ! i # $ C L2
#

C 2 (1 + & )
C L2
= L
% eAR
% AR

where
e = Oswald efficiency factor = 1

for elliptical distribution

TR = taper ratio, !

& = departure from ideal elliptical lift distribution

Spanwise Lift Distribution

of 3-D Wings

C L2! D (y)c(y)
C L3! D c

Straight and Swept Wings

(NASA SP-367)

Wing does not

have to have an
elliptical
planform to have
a nearly elliptical
lift distribution
Sweep moves lift
distribution
toward tips

For some taper ratio between 0.35 and 1,

lift distribution is nearly elliptical

Induced Drag Factor

Graph for " (McCormick, p. 172)
C Di =

C L2 (1 + ! )
" AR

Lower AR

P-51 Mustang
Oswald Efficiency Factor
Approximation for e (Pamadi, p. 390)

C Di =
e!

C L2
! eAR

Wing Span = 37 ft (9.83 m)

1.1C L"

Wing Area = 235 ft (21.83 m 2 )

RC L" + (1 # R)$ AR

Loaded Weight = 9, 200 lb (3, 465 kg)

where
R = 0.0004% 3 # 0.008% 2 + 0.05% + 0.86
AR &
%=
cos ' LE

Maximum Power = 1, 720 hp (1, 282 kW )

C Do = 0.0163
AR = 5.83

! = 0.5
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-51_Mustang

P-51 Mustang Example

Mach Number Effects

C L! =

" AR

2
)
# AR & ,
.
+1 + 1 + %
(
$ 2 ' .
+*
e = 0.947
/ = 0.0557

0 = 0.0576

= 4.49 per rad (wing only)

C Di = ! C L2 =

C 2 (1 + # )
C L2
= L
" eAR
" AR

Drag Due to
Pressure Differential

Air Compressibility Effect

Blunt base pressure drag

C Dbase = C pressurebase
<

Shock Waves in
Supersonic Flow

Sbase

2 # Sbase &
%
(
" M2 $ S '

S ! 0.29

Sbase

C friction Swet

( M < 1) [ Hoerner ]

( M > 2, " = specific heat ratio)

Local airspeed is less than sonic

(i.e., speed of sound)
everywhere

Prandtl factor
C Dwave !

C Dincompressible

!
!

1" M 2
C Dcompressible
M2 "1
C DM ! 2
M "1
2

Lockheed P-38

Drag rises due to pressure

increase across a shock wave
Subsonic flow

( M < 1)

Airspeed is less than sonic at

some points, greater than sonic
elsewhere

( M > 1)

( M > 1)

Effect of Chord
Thickness on Wing
Pressure Drag

Transonic flow

Supersonic flow
Local airspeed is greater than
sonic virtually everywhere

Lockheed F-104

Thinner chord sections lead to higher Mcrit

Critical Mach number

Mach number at which local

flow first becomes sonic
Onset of drag-divergence
Mcrit ~ 0.7 to 0.85

Pressure Drag on Wing

Depends on Sweep Angle
Sweep Angle
Effect on Wing Drag

M critswept =

M critunswept
cos !

Transonic Drag Rise and the Area Rule

Air Compressibility
Effect

Richard Whitcomb (NASA Langley) and Wallace Hayes (Princeton)

YF-102A (left) could not break the speed of sound in level flight;
F-102A (right) could

Sonic Booms
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gWGLAAYdbbc

Transonic

Supersonic

Subsonic
Incompressible

Transonic Drag Rise and the Area Rule

NASA Supercritical
Wing F-8

Supercritical
Wing

Airbus A320

Richard Whitcomb!s supercritical airfoil

Wing upper surface flattened to increase Mcrit
Wing thickness can be restored
Important for structural efficiency, fuel storage, etc.

()

(+)
Pressure Distribution on
Supercritical Airfoil

Large Angle Variations in Subsonic

Drag Coefficient (0 < # < 90)

Newtonian Flow and

High-Angle-of-Attack
Lift and Drag

All drag coefficients converge to Newtonian-like

values at high angle of attack
Low-AR wing has less drag than high-AR wing

Newtonian Flow
No circulation
Cookie-cutter
flow
Equal pressure
across bottom of
the flat plate

Newtonian Flow
Normal Force =
! Mass flow rate $
#" Unit area &% ( Change in velocity ) ( Projected Area ) ( Angle between plate and velocity )

N = ( !V ) (V ) ( S sin " ) ( sin " )

( )(
)
#1
= ( 2 sin " ) % !V
$2
= !V 2 S sin 2 "
2

Normal Force =
! Mass flow rate $
#" Unit area &% ( Change in velocity ) ( Projected Area ) ( Angle between plate and velocity )

&
(' S

#1
&
) C N % !V 2 ( S = C N qS
$2
'

Lift = N cos !

C L = 2 sin 2 ! cos !

Drag = N sin !
C D = 2 sin 3 !

Application of Newtonian Flow

Hypersonic flow (M ~> 5)

Space Shuttle in
Supersonic Flow

Lift vs. Drag for Large Variation

in Angle-of-Attack (0 < # < 90)
Subsonic Lift-Drag Polar

Shock wave close to surface

(thin shock layer), merging with
the boundary layer
Flow is ~ parallel to the surface
Separated upper surface flow

All Mach numbers at

high angle of attack

High-Angle-ofAttack Research
Vehicle (F-18)

Separated flow on upper

(leeward) surfaces

Low-AR wing has less drag than high-AR wing, but less lift as well
High-AR wing has the best overall L/D

Lift-to-Drag Ratio vs.

Angle of Attack

L/D is an important performance metric for aircraft

High-AR wing has best overall L/D
Low-AR wing has best L/D at intermediate angle of attack

Pitching Moment
L CL q S CL
=
=
D CD q S CD

Pitching Moment

Pitching Moment

Pressure and shear stress differentials times moment arms

integrate over the surface to produce a net pitching moment
Center of mass establishes the moment arm center

Distributed effects can be aggregated to

local centers of pressure

Body ! Axis Pitching Moment = M B

=!

## ( "p

+ "sz ) x dx dy +

surface

## ( "p

+ "sx ) "px z dy dz

surface

i=1

i=1

M B ! "# Z i x1 + # X i z1 + Interference Effects + Pure Couples

Pure Couple
Net force = 0
Net moment " 0
Rockets

Net Center of Pressure

Local centers of pressure can be aggregated
at a net center of pressure (or neutral point)

Cambered Lifting Surface

xcpnet

Fuselage

! x C
cp n
="

wing

+ xcpCn

fuselage

C Ntotal

+ xcpCn

tail

+ ...#
$

Static Margin

Static Margin

Static margin reflects the distance between the

center of mass and the net center of pressure

Static Margin = SM =

100 xcm ! xcpnet

c

), %

" 100 hcm ! hcpnet %

Static Margin = SM =

100 xcm ! xcpnet

c

), %

" 100 hcm ! hcpnet %

Effect of Static Margin on

Pitching Moment

Pitch-Moment Coefficient
Sensitivity to Angle of Attack

For small angle of attack and no control deflection

M B = Cm q Sc ! $%Cmo " C N# hcm " hcpnet # &' q Sc ! $%Cmo " C L# hcm " hcpnet # &' q Sc
( Cm ,
)
! + C mo +
# . q Sc = Cmo + Cm# # q Sc
*
(# -

= 0 in trimmed (equilibrium) flight

Typically, static margin is positive and ! Cm/! # is negative for

static pitch stability

For small angle of attack and no control

deflection

M B = Cm q Sc ! Cmo + Cm" " q Sc

Pitch-Moment Coefficient
Sensitivity to Angle of Attack

Horizontal Tail Lift Sensitivity

to Angle of Attack

For small angle of attack and no control deflection

Cm! " #C N!net hcm # hcpnet " #C L!net hcm # hcpnet = #C L!net

$ xcm # xcpwing '

$ xcm # xcpht '
# C L!ht &
= #C L!wing &
)
)( = #C L!wing
c
c
%
%
(

$ lwing '
$ lht '
&% c )( # C L!ht &% c )(

= Cm!wing + Cm!ht
= #C L!total

,
) !C
.
+#% L &(
= C L"ht
horizontail .
+$ !" ' tail
aircraft
- reference
*

( )

$ xcm # xcpnet '

&%
)(
c

aircraft

( )

Correction for aeroelastic effect

referenced to wing area, S

Horizontal Tail Moment

Sensitivity to Angle of Attack

Upwash effect on a
canard (i.e., forward)
surface

Effects of Static Margin and Elevator

Deflection on Pitching Coefficient

Normal force (~lift) x moment arm

Cm!ht

ht

Vtail :
Airspeed at the horizontal tail [Flow over body (), Scrubbing (), Propeller slipstream(+)]
!:
Downwash angle due to wing lift at the horizontal tail
"! "# : Sensitivity of downwash angle to angle of attack

$elas :

$ Static Margin (%) '

&%
)(
100

#V & #
!0 &
# Sht &
= % tail ( % 1 /
( 1elas %$ (' C L"ht
!" '
S
$ VN ' $

( )

#V & #
)* &
#S &
= " % tail ( % 1 "
+elas % ht ( C L!ht
(
$ S '
)! '
$ VN ' $

# lht &
% (
ht $ c '

Zero crossing
determines trim angle
of attack
Negative slope
required for static
stability
Slope, ! Cm/! #, varies
with static margin
Control deflection
affects Cmo and trim
angle of attack

M B = Cmo + Cm! ! + Cm" E " E q Sc

Subsonic Pitching Coefficient

vs. Angle of Attack (0 < # < 90)

Pitch Up and Deep Stall

Possibility of 2 stable equilibrium

(trim) points with same control setting
Low #
High #

High-angle trim is called deep stall

Low lift
High drag

Large control moment required to

regain low-angle trim

Pitch Up and
Deep Stall

Possibility of 2
stable equilibrium
(trim) points with
same control
setting

High-angle trim is
called deep stall

Next Time:
Aircraft Performance

Low #
High #

Low lift
High drag

Large control
moment required
to regain lowangle trim

Air Midwest 5481, Beechcraft 1900D

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2pVBN9cLVuc
Colgan Flight 3407, Bombardier, Dash 8 Q400
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lxywEE1kK6I&feature=fvw