CDMA

CDMA Reception and System

Performance
By/ Eng. Abdelmonem Abdelghany
Elbawab
AMAGSMB

CONTENTS

Multi-User CDMA Coding and Detection

Interference and Processing Gain
RAKE Reception
Power Control
Quadrature Spreading and Modulation

MULTI-USER CDMA CODING

AND DETECTION

MULTI-USER CDMA
CODING AND DETECTION

MULTI-USER CDMA
CODING AND DETECTION

Multi-User Downlink Overview

MULTI-USER CDMA
CODING AND DETECTION

MULTI-USER CDMA
CODING AND DETECTION

MULTI-USER CDMA
CODING AND DETECTION

MULTI-USER CDMA
CODING AND DETECTION

MULTI-USER CDMA
CODING AND DETECTION

MULTI-USER CDMA
CODING AND DETECTION

MULTI-USER CDMA
CODING AND DETECTION

MULTI-USER CDMA
CODING AND DETECTION

Multi-User Uplink Overview

INTERFERENCE AND
PROCESSING GAIN

INTERFERENCE AND
PROCESSING GAIN

Traditional Systems
Performance is measured by signal-to-noise ratio (S/N). The
desired user's signal versus noise.

CDMA Systems
Performance is measured by signal-to-interference ratio
(S/I). The desired user's signal versus interference from
other users signals.

INTERFERENCE AND
PROCESSING GAIN

INTERFERENCE AND
PROCESSING GAIN

INTERFERENCE AND
PROCESSING GAIN

Processing gain
Is the ratio of the spread (or RF) bandwidth to the unspread
(or baseband) bandwidth. It is usually expressed in decibels
(dB).
G (processing gain) = F c/Fb = Tb/Tc
Fb =1/Tb (the bit rate of the input signal)
Fc =1/Tc (the chip rate of the spreading code)
Consequently, the greater the process gain, the larger the
allowable interference.

INTERFERENCE AND
PROCESSING GAIN

Processing gain

where M = number of users

Assume that IS-95 uses a chip rate of 1.2288 Mbps and an input
data rate of 9.6 kbps ( there is another rate for data). The
processing gain (G) would be 128 = 21.07 dB

INTERFERENCE AND
PROCESSING GAIN

How many users can one CDMA carrier accommodate?

The key determinate of capacity is voice quality, but voice
quality is subjective
Scor Quality Scale
e
5

Excellent ( Speech Perfectly

Understandable)

Good (speech easily understandable,

some noise )

Fair ( speech understandable with a

slight effort, occasional repetition
needed )

2
Poor ( speech understandable only
ean opinion score ( MOS). Usually select voice quality of MOS >= 4
with considerable effort, frequent
repetitions needed)

INTERFERENCE AND
PROCESSING GAIN

How many users can one CDMA carrier accommodate?

Adding users should end when S/I
reaches 6 dB.
This corresponds to acceptable speech quality. It also
corresponds to a theoretical maximum of
32 interferes
or a total of 33 users.

No exact calculation of the number of users on a carrier is

possible because it requires such unattainable information
as the environment, speed, and direction of each mobile
unit. Empirical evidence suggests that 15 to 20 users can be
accommodated with today's technology.

INTERFERENCE AND
PROCESSING GAIN

Traditional cellular systems at 850 MHz

such as AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone
System) separate users by a technique
called FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple
Access) that assigns each user a separate
RF channel. AMPS provides 395 channels
for each of two competitive service
providers.
GSM have 124 carriers and each can hold 8
users. So, the total users number is 992.

INTERFERENCE AND
PROCESSING GAIN

The AMPS system uses the technique of

sectorizing cells to reduce interference with
other sectors using the same frequencies.
AMPS uses sectorization to improve S/I
(speech quality), not capacity.

INTERFERENCE AND
PROCESSING GAIN
With an IS-95 CDMA system, there are fewer RF carriers available
than with AMPS.
Two IS-95 carriers use the same amount of spectrum as 100
AMPS channels or can provide up to 8 RF carriers in the AMPS
spectrum allocated for 395 AMPS channels.
Currently, an IS-95 system can support about 14 or 15 users per
RF carrier.
Therefore, in a CDMA system with two carriers, we can have 28 to
30 users in the same spectrum that can handle 100 AMPS users.
So, how can it be that IS-95 can be used to increase the capacity
of a system over AMPS? The secret is in the way the frequencies
are reused.

INTERFERENCE AND
PROCESSING GAIN
Assume that the same seven-cell area is sectorized into 21 sectors.
In an IS-95 CDMA system, the same RF carrier frequency is
allowed to be used in every cell and every sector and thus is said
to have a frequency reuse factor of "1". That is because with
CDMA, the spreading PN codes are used to recover each user's
signal, instead of separate RF channels as with AMPS.
Using today's technology that can support approximately 15 users
per IS-95 CDMA carrier, the seven-cell area has the potential to
accommodate 2,520 active users (multiply 21 sectors by 8 carriers
by 15 users).
Keep in mind that CDMA also uses the PCS spectrum. Therefore,
CDMA systems have the potential to support many thousands of
active users in each seven-cell area.

RAKE RECEPTION

RAKE RECEPTION

Multipaths and Delay Spread

The received signal is actually the sum of several signals, each

traveling over a separate path and arriving at a different time.
TM, the length of time between reception of the first and last
path of the signal, is referred to as delay spread. Typically,
delay spread is between 2 and 5 s

RAKE RECEPTION

Effects of Multipath Propagation

Intersymbol Interference

RAKE RECEPTION

Effects of Multipath Propagation

Rayleigh Fading

Severe local variations in signal strength as these multipath signals bounce

back and forth due to the buildings and houses, they form many standingwave pairs in space, those standing-wave pairs are summed together and
become an irregular wave-fading structure. This type of variation is called
Rayleigh Fading ( because it follows Rayleigh distribution).

When a mobile unit is standing still, its receiver only receives a signal
strength at that spot, so a constant signal is observed. When the mobile
unit is moving, the fading structure of the wave in the space is received.

The recorded fading becomes fast as the mobile move faster.

RAKE RECEPTION

Effects of Multipath Propagation

Doppler Shift
The third effect of multipath propagation is caused by the
movement of the mobile station. This effect is known as
doppler shift and causes each receive signal to be shifted in
frequency as a function of the direction and speed of the
mobile. Shifts as much as +100 and +200 Hz can take place
in cellular systems at 900 MHz and 1800 MHz respectively.

RAKE RECEPTION

Multipath reception has traditionally posed a significant

engineering challenge. In older wireless technologies, delay
spread adds noise to the system that cannot be totally
eliminated. Fading is a common result.
With CDMA it is quite a different story. The digital coding
inherent to CDMA processing enables CDMA receivers to
reject most multipaths in much the same way you've seen
that they can reject noise (other users).

RAKE RECEPTION

Non-RAKE CDMA Reception

assuming that the receiver is synchronized to the time
delay and phase associated with path a.

RAKE RECEPTION

Non-RAKE CDMA Reception

Delay > 1 Tc
Delay < 1 Tc

RAKE RECEPTION

Non-RAKE CDMA Reception

Delay Difference and Differential Distance Between
Paths
Speed = Distance * Frequency
time delay = t d = distance(m) / [3x10 8 m/s]
Time Delay (s)

Differential Distance (m)

Feet

0.333

100

328

1.

300

984

10.

3000

9840

33.3

10,000

32,800

Thus a CDMA system with a chip time of 1s can suppress

multipath signals that have a differential distance of 300 m

RAKE RECEPTION

RAKE Receiver Operation

RAKE RECEPTION

RAKE Receiver Operation

RAKE RECEPTION

RAKE Receiver Operation

Once the multipaths are aligned (synchronized), it becomes
possible to combine them resulting in a net processing
gain.
The resulting signal has a higher S/N than any one of the
individual multipaths that was received.

RAKE RECEPTION

RAKE Receiver Operation

RAKE RECEPTION

RAKE Receiver Operation

POWER
CONTROL

POWER CONTROL

Near/Far Problem
Serve the maximum number of subscribers and extends the
dynamic range of the system.
Use optimum power levels
Mobile battery & Healthy.
Decrease interference to other base stations

POWER CONTROL
Remember at least
a 6 dB signal-tointerference (S/I)
ratio is required to
properly recover
the signal. The S/I
ratio is equivalent
to the signal energy
in each bit (Eb)
over the noise from
other users (N0).
Therefore, in IS-95
systems, the base
stations and
mobiles measure
Eb/N0 to determine
how well the
signals are

POWER CONTROL

In order to correct for the near/far problem, CDMA systems

use a technique called "Power Control." This technique
controls the transmitter power by monitoring both the
received signals (Eb) and noise (N0). The goal of power
control is to achieve optimum power levels in order to serve
the maximum number of subscribers.
Power control is used on both downlink and uplink signal
paths. However, power control is done independently in
uplink and downlink directions. Each direction uses a
different power control procedure.

POWER CONTROL

linear decrease (mean path

loss) with increasing distance
(assuming dB and a log scale
for distance).

A slow variation (shadowing)

about the linear decrease.

A rapid variation (Rayleigh

fading) superimposed on the
other two.

POWER CONTROL

Propagation Path Loss:

- 40 dB/decade ( mobile moves
10 Km)
- Increase with frequency and
distance.

POWER CONTROL

Shadowing:
- Due to terrain contour
between the base station and
the mobile unit.

POWER CONTROL

Rayleigh Fading:

POWER CONTROL

Power Control on the Up Link:

1- Autonomous Power Control
2- Directed Power Control
3- Access Channel Power Control

POWER CONTROL

1- Autonomous Power Control

This approach to controlling the transmitted power of the mobile
unit comes from realizing that an area that causes the base
station's signal to be weak at the mobile also causes the mobile's
signal to be weak at the base station.
The downlink and uplink signals are at different frequencies,
fluctuations do not exactly match. But since the frequencies are
very close, the differences between uplink and downlink are
negligible.
One way to dynamically control the power level received at the
base station is for the mobile unit to vary the power of its broadcast
inversely with the power level of the signal it receives. Thus, if the
mobile detects that the received power from the transmitter has
decreased by a factor of 2 or 3 dB, it will increase its transmit
power by that same factor.

POWER CONTROL

1- Autonomous Power Control

IS-95 refers to this power
control technique as "Open
Loop" or "Reverse Open
Loop" power control

POWER CONTROL

1- Autonomous Power Control

Autonomous control measures the received signal
strength of all base station pilot signals at the
mobile unit. A strong pilot signal received at the
mobile means that less transmitter power is
required to send uplink information to the base
station.
Autonomous control is useful in countering large,
slow changes in path loss.

POWER CONTROL

2- Directed Power Control

With directed power control, there are 16 power control
bits transmitted in every 20 ms frame. Therefore, E b/N0
is measured every 1.25 ms.
The base station measures E b/N0 and sends power
control bits over the downlink to the mobile to instruct
the mobile to either increase or decrease its transmit
power
Directed control is much faster than autonomous
control and is useful in countering rapid changes in
path loss such as shadowing and slow fading.

POWER CONTROL

2- Directed Power Control

Direct control uses two types of closed loops:
Closed outer loop is computed once per frame.
Closed inner loop computes changes in transmit
power 16 times per frame.

POWER CONTROL

2- Directed Power Control

The closed outer loop computes a target value of
Eb/N0 once per frame. This target value is called
the setpoint. The goal of the mobile is to adjust its
transmit power to the level indicated by the
setpoint. Notice in the example, there are two
frames and each frame indicates a calculated
setpoint.

POWER CONTROL

2- Directed Power Control

The closed inner loop receives power control bits from the base
station telling the mobile to increase or decrease transmit power in
attempt to bring the measured Eb/N0 closer to the target value.
If the measured Eb/N0 is greater than the current setpoint, the base
station tells the mobile to decrease power by 1 dB.
If the measured Eb/N0 is less than the current setpoint, the base
station tells the mobile to increase power by 1 dB.

POWER CONTROL

2- Directed Power Control

The closed outer loop
reduces the setpoint a small
amount (labeled as "a" in the
diagram) each frame until a
frame error occurs. It takes
about 35 frames to lower the
setpoint by 1 dB, assuming
no other changes occur.
Once a frame error occurs,
the setpoint is raised a large
amount (labeled as "100a" in
the diagram) that equals
about a 3 dB increase.

POWER CONTROL

2- Directed Power Control

POWER CONTROL

3- Access channel Power Control

The access channel is used to send call requests and
messaging from the mobile to the base station prior
to establishing a voice or data connection. IS-95
specifies that the access channel must use a power
control technique to optimizing transmit power.
When the mobile needs to send an access channel
message, it uses an access probe sequence consisting
of 16 probes. Each access probe consists of an access
channel preamble and an access channel message
capsule.

POWER CONTROL
3- Access channel Power Control
The process of sending one message on the access
channel and receiving (or failing to receive) an
acknowledgement (ACK) for that message is called
an access attempt. Within an access attempt, access
probes are grouped into access probe sequences of
16 probes each.
The mobile begins by sending the first access probe
at a specified power level relative to the autonomous
power level. It then waits a specific amount of time
for an ACK. If no ACK is received, the mobile waits a
random amount of time then sends the next probe in
the sequence. Each subsequent probe is transmitted
at a higher level than the previous one until the base
station responds with an ACK.
Once the mobile receives an ACK, it remembers
what power level works.

POWER CONTROL
Power Control on the Downlink
Downlink power control attempts to use the minimum power
needed to meet a Frame Error Rate (FER) threshold for
each mobile independently. Note that the base station can
increase the S/N for one mobile by increasing the amplitude
of its modulating signal before combining the signals for all
mobiles.
The mobile unit measures the downlink FER and compares
it with a set threshold. If the FER has exceeded the
threshold, the mobile sends error reports back to the base
station, which may increase the modulation (index) for that
mobile.
The central strategy for downlink power control can be
described as follows. When a frame is received without
error, there is the possibility that it could have been
transmitted successfully at a lower power level. So the
following frame is transmitted at a slightly lower power
level. Thus each successive frame is transmitted a
successively lower power level until, finally, a frame error
occurs. The base station then increases its power
significantly for the next frame, and the "trickle down"
process resumes.
A service provider can set values for U and D as required on
a per base station basis.

QUADRATURE SPREADING
AND MODULATION

QUADRATURE SPREADING
AND MODULATION

QUADRATURE SPREADING
AND MODULATION

BPSK

QPSK

One Bit a time

2 Bits a time

QUADRATURE SPREADING
AND MODULATION

QUADRATURE SPREADING
AND MODULATION

QUADRATURE SPREADING
AND MODULATION
Notice that each leg of the
quadrature modulator uses
a different PN code to
spread the incoming signal.
The PN-I(t) and PN-Q(t)
spreading codes used on
the I- and Q-channels have
a low cross-correlation
with each other and are
neither the same code nor
are they orthogonal to each
other.

QUADRATURE SPREADING
AND MODULATION

Quadrature Despreading and RAKE

Receiving


/ .