Road Drainage Manual Chap 11 Appenddrnix 11 A

Department of Transport and Main Roads
Road Drainage Manual
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Chapter 11
Road Surface
and Subsurface
Drainage Design
11
January 2013

Chapter 11
Chapter 11 Amendments Jan 2013

Revision Register
Issue/
Rev
No.
Reference
Section
11.2.10.7 &
11.2.11
11
January 2013
ii
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Initial Release of 2nd Ed of manual.
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Minor update to figures and removal of Section

11.2.10.7 (c).
M
Whitehead
Jan
2013

Chapter 11
Table of Contents
11.1
11.2
11.3
Introduction .................................................................................... 11-1

11.1.1
Road Surface Flows ......................................................................... 11-1
11.1.2
Subsurface Flows ............................................................................. 11-2
Road Surface Drainage.................................................................. 11-2

11.2.1
Pavement Runoff.............................................................................. 11-2
11.2.2
Roadway Flow Width Criteria ........................................................... 11-2
11.2.3
Kerb and Channel Flow .................................................................... 11-7
11.2.4
Edge and Median Drainage.............................................................. 11-8
11.2.5
Table Drains and Table Drain Blocks ............................................. 11-11
11.2.6
Diversion Drains and Diversion Blocks........................................... 11-13
11.2.7
Batter Drains................................................................................... 11-14
11.2.8
Catch Drains and Catch Banks ...................................................... 11-15
11.2.9
Road Batter Stabilisation ................................................................ 11-16
11.2.10
Drainage Pits .............................................................................. 11-17
11.2.11
Access Chambers....................................................................... 11-26
11.2.12
Access Chamber Tops................................................................ 11-27
11.2.13
Reduction in Pipe Size................................................................ 11-27
11.2.14
Surcharge Chambers.................................................................. 11-28
11.2.15
Pipeline Requirements................................................................ 11-28
11.2.16
Splay Pipes ................................................................................. 11-29
11.2.17
Structural Requirements of Pipelines.......................................... 11-29
11.2.18
Flow Velocity Limits .................................................................... 11-29
11.2.19
Pipe Grade Limits ....................................................................... 11-29
11.2.20
Discharge Calculations ............................................................... 11-29
11.2.21
General Design Procedure ......................................................... 11-31
11.2.22
Hydraulic Calculations ................................................................ 11-31
Aquaplaning ................................................................................. 11-31

11.3.1
What is Aquaplaning?..................................................................... 11-32
11.3.2
Causal Factors ............................................................................... 11-33
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iii
11

11.4
11
11.3.3
Road Surfacing............................................................................... 11-34
11.3.4
Tyres............................................................................................... 11-37
11.3.5
The Road-Tyre Interface ................................................................ 11-37
11.3.6
Skid Resistance.............................................................................. 11-39
11.3.7
Assessment Water Film Depth .................................................... 11-41
11.3.8
Assessment Aquaplaning Potential ............................................. 11-47
11.3.9
Quick Assessment.......................................................................... 11-48
11.3.10
Time of Flow ............................................................................... 11-49
11.3.11
Puddles / Wheel Ruts ................................................................. 11-49
11.3.12
Guidance to Reduce Aquaplaning Potential ............................... 11-50
Subsurface Drainage ................................................................... 11-51

11.4.1
Moisture in Roads........................................................................... 11-51
11.4.2
Control of Road Moisture................................................................ 11-53
11.4.3
Types of Subsurface Drainage ....................................................... 11-53
11.4.4
Requirements of Filter Materials..................................................... 11-57
11.4.5
Design Procedure........................................................................... 11-58
11.4.6
Location of Subsoil Drains.............................................................. 11-59
11.4.7
Transverse Subsurface Drains ....................................................... 11-62
11.4.8
Cut-off Drains ................................................................................. 11-62
11.4.9
Design of Cut-off Drains ................................................................. 11-62
11.4.10
Size of Drain ............................................................................... 11-63
11.4.11
Materials ..................................................................................... 11-63
11.4.12
Access to Subsurface Drains...................................................... 11-64
11.4.13
Lowering of Ground Watertable .................................................. 11-64
11.4.14
Schilfgaardes Method ................................................................ 11-64
11.4.15
Draining an Inclined Aquifer........................................................ 11-67
11.4.16
Design of a Filter Blanket to Lower a Water Table ..................... 11-68
11.4.17
Capillary Rise in Soils ................................................................. 11-68
11
January 2013
iv
Chapter 11

Chapter 11
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface
Drainage Design
11.1
Introduction
Road surface drainage deals with the

drainage of stormwater runoff from the road
surface and the surfaces adjacent to the road
formation. Several elements can be used to
intercept or capture this runoff and facilitate
its safe discharge to an appropriate
receiving location. These elements include:
kerb and channel;
edge and median drainage;
table drains and blocks;
diversion drains and blocks;
batter drains;
catch drains and banks;
drainage pits; and
pipe networks.
Subsurface drainage deals with the
interception and disposal of subterranean
(groundwater) flows with predominate
drainage element being sub-soil drainage.
11.1.1 Road Surface Flows

After falling onto road surfaces, rainfall
runoff drains to the lowest point and in
moving across the road surface forms a
layer of water of varying thickness. This
water can be a hazard to the motorist.
Splash and heavy spray are thrown up by
moving vehicles reducing visibility, whilst
the water on the pavement reduces friction
between the tyres and road surface.
Excessive water on the pavement, whether

ponded or flowing, can represent a real risk
of aquaplaning or the build-up of a layer of
water between the vehicle tyre and the road
surface which leads to a total loss of grip.
While part of road surface drainage,
aquaplaning is a critically important aspect
of road surface drainage and is discussed
within its own section, Section 11.3.
On reaching the lowest point, runoff is
channelled along the pavement edge via
kerbing / kerb and channelling or
discharged over the shoulders to a suitable
collection system such as a natural
watercourse, table drain, or piped drainage
system (pipe network).
Some degree of water quality treatment
may be needed between the road and the
receiving water to remove litter, heavy
metals, nutrients and oils. In this regard,
there is a growing trend to place some form
of grass filter between the road surface and
any concrete-lined drain. This form of
drainage is known as indirectly connected
impervious surface area and is a form of
Water Sensitive Urban Design (see Chapter
7).
In all cases, design of the elements for this
runoff must adequately cater for the safety
and convenience of road users, including
pedestrians and protect adjacent properties
and the road pavement from damage.
Where erosion of the batters is not
considered likely, pavement runoff
discharged over the shoulders and batters,
January 2013
11-1
11

directly to the natural surface, may be

acceptable in some rural situations such as a
level stretch of road in flat country.
Where batter erosion is likely / possible, the
use of a concrete or asphalt kerb / dyke
should be investigated.
11.1.2 Subsurface Flows

Subsurface or subsoil drains are required to
intercept and drain excessive moisture or
groundwater flow in order to avoid
premature pavement failures. This moisture
can come from:
seepage or capillary rise from the
watertable (when in close proximity
to subgrade / pavement);
seepage from ponded stormwater into
embankment /pavement; and/or
seepage from an aquifer or other
groundwater flow.
The design and installation of subsurface or
subsoil drains beneath / adjacent to road
pavements is essential where groundwater
or seepage is known or considered to be
present.
11
It is important to note that the construction

of an underground stormwater drainage
system with associated granular pipe
bedding can result in the interception of
seepage and the concentration of this
intercepted water at drainage structures.
The installation of subsoil drains should be
considered in conjunction with the drainage
pipes to allow seepage water to be collected
and discharged into the drainage system.
Detailed recommendations in respect of
design and installation of subsoil drains
have been prepared by the Australian Road
Research Board, (ARRB 1987).
January 2013
11-2
Chapter 11
11.2
Road Surface
Drainage
11.2.1 Pavement Runoff

Pavement runoff is calculated by the
Rational Formula:
Q y k .C y .I tc , y . A (refer Chapter 5)
The contribution to the flow at the kerb or
median channel is given by a modification
of the Rational Formula and is expressed
as:
qy
C y .I tc , y .W
3.6 X 10 6
Where:
qy = contribution per longitudinal
metre of pavement (m/s) for an ARI
of y years;
=
runoff
coefficient
Cy
(dimensionless) for an ARI of y years
(refer Chapter 5);
Itc,y = average rainfall intensity
(mm/h) for design duration of tc and
ARI of y years (refer Chapter 5); and
W = width of contributing cross
section (m).
A runoff coefficient C50 of 0.95 (or higher)
is typical for most road surfaces.
Where the pavement width varies or the
runoff coefficient is different, then total
runoffs or lengths for given runoffs have to
be calculated algebraically.
11.2.2 Roadway Flow Width

Criteria
For the safety of vehicular traffic other than
requirements against aquaplaning, flow
width criteria apply. Water depths and
velocities are also limited by the width
restrictions.

Flow widths in both the minor and major

storms need to be considered.
11.2.2.1 Minor Storm Flow Limits
Adopting the ARI 10 year flood as that
arising from the design minor storm of the
same average recurrence interval, flow
width criteria are shown on Figures
11.2.2.1(a) and 11.2.2.1(b).
These diagrams represent the following:
For two lanes (or more) in the same
direction plus parking lane, the
maximum allowable width of spread
leaves the inside and any lane-locked
lanes clear plus 2.5 m clear width in
the remaining lane i.e. water is kept
out of the wheelpaths of lanes. The
term lane includes auxiliary lanes and
any parking lane that has the
potential to become used as a full or
part time through lane.
For two lanes (or more) in the same
direction, the maximum allowable
width of spread leaves the inside and
any lane-locked lanes clear plus 2.5
m clear width in the remaining lane.
The term lane includes auxiliary
lanes.
For one lane plus parking lane, water
is not allowed to spread past the edge
of the through lane.
For one lane, a minimum clear width
of 3.5 m is to remain in the lane.
At medians, the allowable spread of
water leaves 2.5 m clear width in the
traffic lane next to the median. The
term lane includes auxiliary lanes.
At intersections without left slip
lanes, the allowable width of spread
adjacent to the kerb is 1.0 m.
Chapter 11
At intersections with single left slip

leaves 3.5 m clear width in the slip
lane.
At intersections with dual left slip
leaves 2.5 m clear in outer turning
lane.
In situations where it is difficult to achieve
the required clear width of 2.5 m in cases
(b), (e) and (h) above, the clear width may
be reduced to 1.0 m for roads of lesser
importance.
This practice is not
recommended for reasons of consistency
and the use of a reduced clear width must
be specified in design brief and/or contract
documents or approved by the department.
Where pedestrians will cross the road,
allow no more than 0.45 m width of spread
in an ARI 1 year flood. The 0.45 m
requirement is based on the typical over
step / short jump of most people. Checks
should also be undertaken on the flow
velocity. Where the risk of injury is
reasonably foreseeable, velocities should be
limited by:
dg.Vavg 0.4 m2/s.
Where:
dg = flow depth in the channel
adjacent to the kerb (m); and
Vavg = average velocity of the flow
(m/s).
There is also a water depth-velocity
relationship which is applicable for both
minor and major floods in the channel next
to a kerb. This is for pedestrian safety in
longitudinal flows along the kerb and is
shown on Table 11.2.2.2.
January 2013
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11

11
Chapter 11
Notes:
1. Lane includes auxiliary lanes and any parking lane that has the potential in the future to become used as a through
lane for full or part time.
2. In situations where it is difficult to achieve the required clear width of 2.5 m, the clear width may be reduced to 1.0
m for roads of lesser importance (refer text in Section 11.2.2.1).
Figure 11.2.2.1(a) - Allowable Flow Widths on Roadways ARI 10 year Flood (crosssection views).
January 2013
11-4

Chapter 11
Notes:
1. Refer to Figure 11.2.2.1(a).
2. In situations where it is difficult to achieve the required clear width of 2.5 m, the clear width may be reduced to 1.0
m for roads of lesser importance (refer text in Section 11.2.2.1).
3. At pedestrian crossings check both width and velocity (refer text in Section 11.2.2.1).
4. See Section 11.2.2.2 for allowable widths in Major Storms.
Figure 11.2.2.1(b) - Allowable Flow Widths on Roadways ARI 10 year Flood (plan views)
January 2013
11-5
11

Chapter 11
11.2.2.2 Major Storm Flow Limits

The major storm is usually of an ARI of 50
to 100 years, depending on the local
authority. The ARI 100 year flood should
be used as a check flood at least, to allow
consideration of any detrimental effects.
Table 11.2.2.2 gives roadway flow limits
for a major storm, with particular reference
to floor levels of adjacent buildings,
pedestrian and vehicle safety.
At sags in State-controlled roads, additional

inlets and underground drainage should be
provided, if necessary, to limit ponded
water in an ARI 50 year storm so that there
is:
one lane in each direction of travel,
free of water, in a multi-lane road; or
a width of 3.5 m clear of water down
the centre of a two-lane road.
Table 11.2.2.2 - Roadway Flow Limitations - Major Storm

Situation
Where floor levels of adjacent
buildings are above road
level.
Where floor levels of adjacent
buildings are less than 350
mm above top of kerb.
- where fall on footpath
towards kerb is greater than
100 mm;
- where fall on footpath
towards kerb is less than 100
mm;
Where no kerb is provided.
Pedestrian Safety #
(a) no obvious danger
(b) obvious danger
Roadway Flow Width and Depth Limitation

Total flow contained within road reserve.
Peak water levels at least 300 mm below floor level of
adjacent buildings (i.e. freeboard of at least 300 mm)
Water depth to be limited to 50 mm above top of kerb.
Water depth to be limited to top of kerb in conjunction with a

footpath profile that prevents flow from the roadway entering
onto the adjacent property.
Above depths shall be measured from the theoretical top of
kerb.
dgVavg 0.6 m2/s

dgVavg 0.4 m2/s
Vehicle Safety
11
Maximum energy level of 300 mm above roadway surface for

areas subject to transverse flow.
Notes: dg = flow depth in the channel adjacent to the kerb ie. at the invert (m)
Vavg = average velocity of the flow (m/s)
#
Obvious danger is interpreted as areas where pedestrians are directed to or most
likely to cross water paths (such as marked crossings and corners of intersections).
Note: Table aligns with requirements within QUDM (2008).
January 2013
11-6

11.2.3 Kerb and Channel Flow

The cross section of flow in channels is
basically triangular and the actual width of
flow is governed by how far the water is
allowed to encroach on to the pavement.
The adopted channel cross section is shown
in Figure 11.2.3.
Chapter 11
ng = Mannings roughness of kerb

(refer Table 11.2.3);
np = Mannings roughness
pavement (refer Table 11.2.3);
of
dg = depth of flow at kerb invert (m);

dp = depth of flow at edge of
pavement (m);
dc = depth of flow at crown (m); and
S = longitudinal grade (m/m).
The normal form of the Izzard formula can
also be used for shallow v-shaped channels
where:
Source: QUDM (2008)

Figure 11.2.3 - Channel Profile for Flow
Analysis
The flow in a triangular channel is given by

the Izzard formula:
2.667
Q 0.375 F g S 0.5 d g
n
For composite flow as shown in Figure

11.2.3 where the pavement and channel
have different roughness and crossfall, the
formula becomes:
Q = 0.375.F.[(Zg/ng).(dg2.667- dp2.667) +
(Zp/np).(dp2.667- dc2.667)].S 0.5
Where:
Q = longitudinal flow in channel
(m/s);
F = flow correction factor (assume
0.9 triangular shaped flows);
Zg
Surface _ width
Depth _ at _ invert
Table 11.2.3 - Mannings Roughness

Coefficient - Flow in Triangular Channels
Channel lining
Concrete gutter (trowelled
finish)
n
0.012
Asphalt pavement:
smooth texture
rough texture
0.013
0.016
Concrete pavement:
float finish
broom finish
0.014
0.016
Brick and Pavement Blocks
0.016
Gutter with vegetation and

cracks
0.020
Sprayed Seal
0.018
11
Zg = cross slope gradient of kerb (part

of ratio);
Zp = cross slope gradient of pavement
(part of ratio);
January 2013
11-7

11.2.3.1 Kerb Types and Uses
11.2.4 Edge and Median

Drainage
Approved kerb types with channels are

shown in Standard Drawing 1033 (DMR
2009b). General kerb profiles or shapes are
shown in Figure 11.2.3.1(a).
In choosing the type of channel to be

adopted, consideration should be given to
the following factors:
The use of a concrete or asphaltic concrete

kerb at the edge of embankments, as shown
in Figure 11.2.3.1(b), is justified if, the
material forming the embankment will be
eroded by flow off the pavement or if for
property protection, it is necessary to
restrict runoff to particular locations.
Temporary protection must be provided
until the slope is completely stabilised by
grass.
The criteria for flow in the roadway due to
shoulder kerb treatment are as per Section
11.2.2. Flow calculations are by the same
method as Section 11.2.3.
The actual dimensions of a shoulder kerb
will be job specific. Installation of a
shoulder kerb / dyke could be a danger to
vehicles running off the side of the
carriageway. If safety is compromised,
other forms of erosion protection control
will have to be considered.
11
Chapter 11
Figure 11.2.3.1(b) - Edge Treatment at

Erodible Slopes
January 2013
11-8
Capacity: The channel should have

adequate capacity for the design
flow.
Erosion: Erosion control is a
necessary part of good drainage
design. Scour may occur unless the
channel is protected where velocities
exceed those likely to cause erosion
to the material forming the channel.
Erosion control involves the selection
of a suitable and economical channel
lining (including vegetative cover)
which will give the desiredprotection.
For further information on erosion control
see Chapters 7, 8 and 13. The type of
lining should be consistent with the degree
of protection required, overall cost
including maintenance, safety requirements
and aesthetic considerations.
Erosion
control in the form of grass growth may be
used in combination with other types of
lining. A channel may be grass lined on the
flatter slopes and lined with more resistant
material on the steeper slopes.
Maintenance:
Without
proper
maintenance, a well designed channel
becomes unsightly and will perform
unsatisfactorily at the design flow.
Maintenance methods should be
considered in the design of drainage
channels so that the type of channel
section adopted will be suitable for
the methods and equipment that will
be used-for-maintenance.

Chapter 11
Figure 11.2.3.1(a) - General Kerb Profiles or Shapes
For example, in the majority of cases a

concrete invert should be considered for V
shaped channels because of the difficulty in
maintaining the section with the
maintenance machinery available.
On
grades less than 1.5% and for most cross
sections, a concrete invert is essential in
assisting the discharge of low flow.
Maintenance operations are extremely
difficult with saturated conditions in the
vicinity of an unlined invert.
11.2.4.1 Design of Edge and Median
Drainage
It is preferable to allow the pavement runoff
to discharge across the shoulder and into
the channel but where the batter slope is
steep due to restricted width and erosion of
the slope is likely, a kerb should be
provided.
However, on high speed
carriageways, kerbs or steep batter slopes
should be avoided for safety reasons.
The pavement runoff is calculated using the
Rational Method formula (refer Section
11.2.1), but consideration must be given to
the different runoff coefficients for
pavement and the median surfaces.
The maximum velocities allowed in grass
channels so as to prevent erosion are given
in Table 8.8.1.3 and the minimum velocity
to prevent silting as a general rule should
not fall below 0.5 m/s.
Where a grassed channel is the preferred

treatment, the channel must have sufficient
hydraulic capacity to prevent spread of the
water onto the through pavement and also
the bottom of the channel should desirably
be at a lower elevation than the pavement
sub-base in cuts, otherwise protection may
be necessary by subsoil drains. Grassed
channels are further discussed in Chapter 8.
In very narrow and steep medians, concrete
drains may be required to provide sufficient
capacity. The hydraulic design of concrete
drains is outlined in Chapter 8.
In very restricted areas, special drainage
inlets and conduits may have to be
provided.
The inlets used to intercept flow in the
median should desirably be set flush with
the ground so as not to be hazardous to
mowing equipment and vehicles out of
control, and the bars set parallel to the flow.
A concrete apron should be used around the
inlet to accelerate the flow into it and to
prevent the grate from being overgrown by
vegetation.
If a slightly raised grated inlet with the top
above natural surface is adopted to
minimise debris collection, concrete aprons
should still be provided to allow mowing.
January 2013
11-9
11

11
Figure 11.2.4.1 - Median Inlets with Levees.
January 2013
11-10
Chapter 11

Complete interception of all median flow at

each inlet gives the most efficient design.
On grades, a levee across the median just
downstream of the inlet creates a sag
condition and ensures complete interception
(see Figure 11.2.4.1).
The levee should be of just sufficient height
to maintain the design head over the grate,
and have slopes 1 on 6 or flatter (1 in 20 is
desirable) for safety of vehicles out of
control. The height of the levee is usually
that of the ARI 10 year flood. Furthermore,
designers need to also ensure that any
overtopping of the levee will not force
stormwater onto the road surface. Where
this cannot be achieved, the road
geometrics may need to be reviewed /
modified.
The design procedure for inlets is given in
Section 11.2.8. The allowable depth of
ponding is determined as the depth to
contain the flow within the median.
11.2.5 Table Drains and Table

Drain Blocks
Table drains are located on the outside of
shoulders in cuttings or alongside shallow
raised carriageways in flat country. For the
location and cross sectional requirements of
table drains see relevant chapter within the
departments Road Planning and Design
Manual - A guide to QLD practice and
Austroads Guide to Road Design series..
Also, refer to Section 2.5.7 for the general
requirements of table drains and Standard
Drawing 1178 (DMR 2009b) for general
location and arrangement.
11.2.5.1 Table Drains
Flat-bottomed table drains are the preferred
type or shape. Refer Figure 11.2.5.1 for
general location and shape details. The base
Chapter 11
of the drain is not flat as the name suggests,

but is to be sloped away from the
carriageway (at least 3%). These drains:
spread the flow, reducing depth and
velocity (reduced scour potential);
keep flow and any ponding away
from the embankment;
allow easier access for maintenance;
and
allow safer passage through the drain
for errant vehicles.
As discussed in Section 2.5.7.1, flatbottomed drains are the preferred type or
shape. The use of V drains is to be
limited / confined to constrained sections.
For some projects, flat-bottomed table
drains can be used as a source of borrow
material.
Determination of depth and velocity of flow
within the table drain can be undertaken
using Mannings Equation.
The invert of the table drain should be at
least 150 mm below the bottom of the
pavement (i.e. subbase), and deeper where
subsurface drains discharge into the table
drain. Furthermore, the design water level
in the table drain should be below the
subgrade level of the road pavement. The
depth of the drain will depend upon the
design capacity required to safely convey
the stormwater.
Where the material between the table drain
and the road pavement is impermeable, the
table drain may flow up to a level which
provides 150 mm freeboard against
overtopping, or 150 mm below the level of
the outer shoulder, provided that this does
not flood any subsurface drain outlets.
January 2013
11-11
11

Chapter 11
Slope
Machine
Width
Figure 11.2.5.1 Table Drain Location and Shape
Extreme care is required on very erodible

soils or soils with highly dispersive
subsoils, as exposure of such material can
have disastrous consequences. Where scour
is likely because of the nature of the
material or because of the longitudinal
grading, some type of protection of the
drain invert is required. This protection
could take the form of rock lining or
concrete. In areas known to have dispersive
subsoil, soil chemistry should be analysed
to determine whether soil properties can be
economically improved to aid soil stability.
The terminal treatment at the bottom of a
steep table drain is also important so as to
dissipate the energy of the stormwater.
11.2.5.2 Table Drain Blocks
11
On vertical grades (excluding sags), cross

drainage culverts can be used to take table
drain flow from the upstream side of the
road formation to the downstream side. In
order for these culverts (generally of small
diameter) to reasonably operate, sufficient
head must be generated.
Table drain blocks are small earth
embankments (typically 1 m in length)
located within the table drain just
downstream of a culvert inlet. These blocks
January 2013
11-12
dam and divert the flow into the culvert

inlet. The design height of the block should
theoretically coincide with the depth of
headwater required for efficient operation
of the culvert, however the design height
should be no higher than where the
subgrade meets the side slope. Designers
need to also ensure that any overtopping of
the block will not force stormwater onto the
road surface.
The use of a table drain block for a
particular culvert must be specified on the
drainage plans and include its design
height.
A marker post (refer Standard Drawing
1358 (DMR 2009b)) should be placed on /
adjacent to table drain blocks to alert
maintenance personnel of their existence.
Designers of widening and overlay /
rehabilitation projects should check
previous project documents for use of table
drain blocks in order to check / preserve
existing culvert operation.
11.2.5.3 Adjoining Projects
Another important design aspect regarding
table drains is where new and previous
projects join. The impacts of discharge

from one project to the next must be

considered / incorporated. The shape and
grade of adjoining table drains should also
match. Where the shape and grade do not
match, a suitable transition or other
mitigating treatment must be designed to
ensure that scour does not occur and/or that
stormwater does not flow out onto the road
surface.
11.2.6 Diversion Drains and

Diversion Blocks
On vertical grades, the depth and velocity
of flow within a table drain can exceed
acceptable limits if no relief mechanism is
included in the design. The steeper the
grade, the quicker the limits are reached.
Diversion drains are required, at intervals
based on the grade of the road, to turn the
stormwater out of the table drain and away
from the road. On the upstream side of the
road, the diversion drain could either
discharge flow into a catch drain located
roughly parallel to the road and generally
near the boundary (drain discharges into a
culvert located further down the slope) or
onto the natural surface.
On the
downstream side of the road, the diversion
drain would normally discharge onto the
natural surface, allowing the stormwater to
naturally flow away from the road.
Normally, the shape of the diversion drains
should match that of the table drain,
however where V shaped table drains are
used, flat-bottomed diversion drains should
be used unless conflicting requirements
exist that limit the width of the formed road
such as:
minimising disturbance or loss of
existing roadside trees, and/or
Chapter 11
The channel of the drain should have an

excavated cross-sectional area at least equal
to that of the table drain discharging water
into it. Outlets should discharge onto
grassed areas rather than onto exposed soil.
They should be constructed either before, or
during the early stages of any road
construction.
Diversion blocks are earth embankments
that are located along the downstream side
of diversion drains and divert stormwater
flow from the table drain into the diversion
drain. The block extends from the road
formation for several metres along the side
of the diversion drain.
The height of the block typically starts
(against the road formation) at subgrade
level and should taper down to closely
match the natural surface at the end of the
block.
Refer Standard Drawing 1178 (DMR
2009b) for the general location and
arrangement of diversion drains and blocks.
Diversion drains and block are typically
constructed at a 45 angle to the road
however this can be adjusted in order to
reduce the slope within the diversion drain.
The initial grade (turnout grade) in the
diversion drain should approximate the
grade of the table drain to avoid energy
loss, and hence siltation and possible bank
failure. As the drain increases in length, the
grade in the drain should progressively
decrease.
Where the diversion drain
discharges onto the natural surface, the last
half of diversion drains length should
ideally have a surveyed grade of 0.2% to
slow the flow velocity.
reducing earthworks costs.
January 2013
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11

Recommended spacing of diversion drains

along the grade are:
120 m for slopes up to 2%;
60 m for slopes from 2% to 4%;
30 m for slopes from 4% to 8%; and
15 m for slopes greater than 8%.
If the diversion channel is built through /
under a fence (with landholder written
agreement / approval), it is essential that
landholders ensure that the outlet is kept
clear to allow free draining of the drain and
that departmental maintenance crews are
allowed easy access via an adjacent gate.
Depending on the fence type and
configuration, the impact of the fence on
channel flows will need to be considered.
Discharge from a diversion channel may
also be spread over a pasture to assist grass
growth.
In areas with known dispersive
subsoils, diversion banks (that extend
from the diversion block) are
preferred over excavated diversion
drains.
Where new and previous projects
join, designers are required to
appropriately consider the use and
effects of diversion drains and blocks
similar to the requirements of Section
11.2.5.3.
11.2.7 Batter Drains
11
Batter drains or chutes are structures that

are designed to convey runoff down the
face of a cut or fill batter and discharge at
either non-erosive velocities or onto a nonerodible surface.
Batter drains can be both permanent and
temporary. Temporary batter drains are
used during the construction period to
January 2013
11-14
Chapter 11
control water flow and to protect mulched

or newly seeded batters from the erosive
forces of concentrated flow.
11.2.7.1 Design Procedure
A four step process is provided for the
design of batter drains.
Step 1 - Dimensions
Batter drains should have a minimum depth
of 300 mm.
Hydraulic capacity of a batter drain is
normally defined by the allowable head
water level upstream of the drains inlet.
Step 2 - Foundations
The lining of the batter drain should be
adequately anchored to the foundations to
avoid slippage or separation, with a
maximum distance of 3 m between
anchorage points.
In some cases, prefabricated units may need
to be bolted together. It is important that all
bolt holes are sealed with a flexible sealant
to allow for flexural movement.
Step 3 - Inlet Design
The inlet area should be protected against
possible scour resulting from accelerating
flow velocities (usually more important on
temporary batter drains). This is to prevent
water from either undermining the top of
the batter drain, or being diverted along the
edge of the lining (the most common cause
of failure).
For temporary batter drains (i.e. drainage
chutes) and during the early revegetation
stage of permanent batter drains, sand /
gravel bags can be used to direct inflow
towards the centre of the chute.

Step 4 - Outlet Design

An energy dissipator will be required.
The outlet may consist of a bed of nominal
150 mm rock (minimum) placed with a
minimum bed thickness of 250 mm or at
least 1.5 times the maximum rock size.
Chapter 11
Catch drains and/or catch banks can also

protect embankments, disturbed areas and
stockpile sites from surface water.
These devices are generally located no
closer than 2.0 m from the edge of the
cuttings in order to minimize possible
undercutting of the top of the batter.
Typical dimensions of the rock bed are:

L = 6De metres long (minimum); and
W = T + 0.6 metres wide at the batter
drain outlet, expanding to T + 0.5L + 0.3
metres at the end of the dissipator.
Figure 11.2.8(a) Catch Drain
Where:
De = equivalent pipe diameter (m) of
the batter drain flow area, and
T = top width (m) of flow in the
batter drain.
Figure 11.2.8(b) Catch Bank
11.2.7.2 Design Notes

Batter drains should be lined each side with
a minimum 300 mm wide (turf) grassed
filter strip or rock to control side erosion
caused by splash. In areas where the total
disturbance is to be minimised, or where
introducing turf is undesirable, other forms
of erosion control such as geotextiles or
concrete may be preferred.
11.2.8 Catch Drains and Catch

Banks
Catch drains and catch banks are separate
devices, but can be used together. They are
generally located on the high side of
cuttings clear of the top of batters to
intercept the flow of surface water and
upper soil seepage water (refer Figures
11.2.8(a) & (b)). Their purpose is to
prevent overloading of the table drain and
scour of the batter face.
Catch banks are sometimes used instead of

drains to reduce effects of seepage on
stability of the batter slopes and also to
minimize disturbed ground (increasing
scour potential). However use of catch
banks alone means importation of suitable
embankment material.
11.2.8.1 Design Procedure for Catch
Drains
The design of catch drains and banks is
based on the same methodology as for open
channels (refer design process outlined in
Chapter 8). A freeboard of at least 150 mm
should be used.
Where site conditions or some other
constraint restricts the construction of a
channel
with
suitable
dimensions,
supplementary channel treatments such as
synthetic channel linings, rip-rap or
concrete inverts should be utilised to
withstand the higher velocities. Figure
January 2013
11-15
11

11.2.8.1 shows a typical concrete lined

catch drain.
Flow discharging from the catch drain
should not be allowed to cause or aggravate
erosion. Flow from a catch drain may be
discharged
to
an
existing
drain,
watercourse, or to a chute.
Figure 11.2.8.1 - Concrete Lined Catch

Drain
11.2.9 Road Batter Stabilisation

An integral part of surface drainage is the
design of erosion control measures to the
finished surfaces.
The downstream face of an elevated road
embankment across a floodplain will need
to be protected from the erosive forces that
occur during overtopping. The extent of
this protection will depend on the expected
tailwater level at the commencement of
overtopping. (refer Chapter 10).
11
Some roads are designed to be overtopped

and the erosive potential is not as severe as
those for floodways.
Rather than
overtopping, rainfall, wind and runoff from
the top of the road formation (unless kerbs
are in place) are the key agents for erosion.
Designers need to develop and assess
options and determine the most suitable
solution for the situation.
The types of protection measures available
for consideration are:
January 2013
11-16
Chapter 11
Revegetation;
Biodegradable blankets in association
with permanent revegetation (the
relevant specification is MRTS03
(TMR 2010c));
Chemical surface stabilisers and soil /
cement treatment (the relevant
specifications are MRTS03 and
MRTS16 (TMR 2010c));
Bank
protection
techniques
commonly associated with bridge
abutments (relevant standards are
MRTS03 and MRTS16 (TMR
2010c) and Standard Drawing 1117
(DMR 2009b) which also shows
other types of protection for bridge
abutments);
Benching to create permanent
drainage lines to reduce surface
drainage (relevant specifications are
MRTS03, MRTS04 and MRTS16
(TMR 2010c));
Kerbs at the top edges of the road
formations diverting runoff from
rainfall on the pavement and
shoulders to batter chutes (relevant
standards are MRTS03 (TMR 2010c)
and Standard Drawing 1033 (DMR
2009b));
Catch drains and catch banks used to
divert water to batter chutes or
completely away from the batter
slope (relevant standards are
specifications
MRTS03
and
MRTS16 (TMR 2010c) and Standard
Drawing 1178 (DMR 2009b)); and
Proprietary batter chutes.

11.2.10 Drainage Pits

Drainage pits are field inlets and gullies
collecting surface flows to the underground
drainage system and access chambers at
pipe junctions and for maintenance.
Inlet locations should be optimised to
collect the design surface flows with the
minimum number of installations and, of
course, to reduce surface water to an
acceptable width.
This requires computations for each area
contributing flow to the inlets. Areas may
comprise both road pavement and adjacent
urban, suburban or rural land.
Proprietary pre-cast pit segments and grates
or covers are available. The department has
standardised some of the more common
field inlets, gullies and access chambers as
Standard Drawings Nos.1307, 1308, 1309,
1310, 1311, 1312, 1313, 1321, 1322, 1442,
1443, 1444, 1445 and 1449 (DMR 2009b).
Four types of kerb inlets are in common
use, they are:
grate only e.g. field inlets and antiponding gullies on kerb returns;
side inlet these inlets rely on the
ability of the opening under the
backstone or lintel to capture flow.
They are usually depressed at the
invert of the channel to improve
capture capacity;
combination grate and side inlet
these inlets utilise the backstone
arrangement of the side inlet with the
added capacity of a grate in the
channel; and
special site specific designs for high
inflow.
The capacity of the various categories of
drainage inlet may be varied by the amount
Chapter 11
of depression allowed in the gutter adjacent

to the kerb opening.
A flush inlet is one in which the normal
channel section is continued to and past the
inlet without any alteration to its cross
section.
A depressed inlet is one in which the
crossfall of the channel is increased, so that
the grade of the channel line against the
kerb is depressed for the length of the inlet.
Depressed inlets provide greater efficiency
than flush ones and are shown on the
standard drawings with suitable transitions.
All pits should be as shallow as practical.
As indicated on standard drawings, pits
deeper than 3 metres will require a special
design.
This Manual does not include inflow
capacity charts for drainage pit / kerb inlets.
Charts approved for use on departmental
projects are:
Brisbane City Council charts,
available from Councils website;
and
Max Q charts for Drainway and
Stormway products, available from
Max Q and as printed in Volume 2
of QUDM (2008).
It is understood that there are pit / kerb inlet
configurations currently available that do
not exactly match any of the configurations
as presented in the above approved charts.
In these situations, the designer can use
engineering judgement and first principles
to match, as close as possible, an approved
inflow capacity chart to the proposed pit /
kerb inlet (citing: opening area, grade,
crossfall and approach flow), however the
selected chart must be accepted / approved
by the departments design representative
before use.
January 2013
11-17
11

Charts for other configurations / types of

pits may become available in the future.
Such charts should reflect the theoretical or
measured capacity of the inlet. Before use
on departmental projects, the supplier of the
charts must have them independently tested
/ verified and then submit them (incl
verification) for approval to Principal
Engineer (Road Design Standards), Road
Planning & Design Section, Engineering &
Technology Division.
11.2.10.1 Provision for Blockage
Blockage of drainage pits (either at the
grate or within the system) needs to be
considered as it reduces the capacity of the
underground pipe network (part of the
minor system) and therefore increases the
flow within the major system (refer Section
2.5.4).
This generally increases flood
levels.
Table 11.2.10.1 indicates the
percentage of blockage that is to be applied
to the theoretical inflow capacity of inlets.
11.2.10.2 Kerb Inlets in Roads
Kerb or gully inlets are used where
vehicular traffic is expected, to reduce the
flow width on roadways as well as to drain
low lying areas.
The standard departmental Concrete Gullies
shown on Standard Drawings Nos 1311 and
1312 (DMR 2009b) have a combined inlet
with a precast side entry (lintel) and grated
pit. Precast lintel details are shown on
Standard Drawing No. 1313 (DMR 2009b).
11
In general, kerb inlets should be provided /

considered at the following locations in
kerb and channel:
January 2013
11-18
Chapter 11
(a) In the low points of all sags in kerb and

channel.
(b) On grades, to ensure compliance with
the flow width limitations discussed in
Section 11.2.2.
(c) At the tangent point of kerb returns or
small radius convex curves (kerb radius
less than 15 m) such that the flow
width around the kerb return (i.e.
beyond the kerb inlet) during the Minor
Design Storm does not exceed 1.0 m
measured from the invert of kerb and
channel. This limitation will also be
applicable at important vehicular
turnouts or footpath crossovers, where
high traffic volumes are anticipated,
such as at entrances to shopping
centres.
(d) Immediately upstream of a potential
pedestrian crossing, set-down point
and/or bus stop such that the flow
width does not exceed 450 mm from
invert of kerb and channel during the
Minor Design Storm.
(e) Immediately upstream of any reversal
of crossfall (for example, application of
superelevation) to prevent flow across
the road during the Minor Design
Storm. The extent to which such flow
onto the pavement is permissible
depends upon the catchment area
involved and the risk of vehicle
aquaplaning.
The question of
aquaplaning is addressed in Section
11.3.

Chapter 11
Table 11.2.10.1 Provision for Pit Blockage

Percentage of Theoretical
Capacity Allowed
Condition
Inlet Type
Sag
Kerb inlet
Grated
Combination
80%
50%
[See Note 2]
Continuous Grade
(On-Grade)
Kerb inlet
Longitudinal bar grated
Transverse bar grate or longitudinal
bar grate incorporating transverse
bars
Combination
80%
60%
50%
90% [See Note 3]
Notes:
1. This table does not prevent the setting of project specific, alternative blockage factors for site specific inlet
designs. Alternative factors must be specified in design / contract documentation.
2. In a sag, the capacity of a combination inlet should be taken to be the theoretical capacity of the kerb opening,
the grate being assumed to be blocked.
3. On a continuous grade the capacity of a combination inlet should be taken to be 90% of the combined theoretical
capacity of the grate plus kerb opening.
(f) Where superelevation or reverse

crossfall results in flow against traffic
islands and medians. Kerb inlets shall
be provided along the length of the
island or median as necessary to meet
the flow width limitations as stated in
Section 11.2.2 and at the downstream
end of the island or median to minimise
the flow continuing along the road.
Where sufficient width of island or
median is available, grated kerb inlets
should be recessed so that the grate
does not project onto the road
pavement. Alternatively side entry
inlets with no grate should be installed.
(g) Where it is anticipated that a parking
lane may become an acceleration,
deceleration or turn lane in accordance
with Section 11.2.2.
(h) Consideration should be given to the
positioning of kerb inlets relative to the
side property boundaries. In residential
and industrial locations, a kerb inlet
located near the side property boundary
may cause difficulties with driveway
access. In commercial areas and those

where there is likely to be a high
volume of pedestrian traffic, kerb inlets
should be located to avoid set down
points or locations where pedestrian
movements are likely to be highest.
(i) On any higher abutment end of bridge
approaches on a grade to minimise
flow on to the deck.
For kerb inlets on grade;
Kerb inlet capacity is controlled by
the crossfall of the road pavement
and the longitudinal grade.
Bypass flow from a kerb inlet must
be accounted for in the design of the
downstream kerb inlet which
receives the bypass flow. There is no
limitation to the amount of flow
which may be bypassed from a kerb
inlet provided that the flow width
criteria discussed in Section 11.2.2
are satisfied. Note that a number of
road flow capacity calculations may
be required, using actual crossfalls at
January 2013
11-19
11

the intersection, to check that all

bypass flows are contained within the
1.0 m flow width limitation at kerb
returns, under Minor Storm Flow
conditions.
Where bypass flow from a kerb inlet
is required to follow a kerb return at
an intersection it may be necessary,
where the longitudinal grade is steep,
to check for the effect of
11
Chapter 11
superelevation upon flow spread. A

procedure for the calculation of
superelevation is given in Chapter 8.
The procedure detailed in Figure
11.2.10.2(a) is recommended for
determining the location of kerb
inlets on grade.
Figure 11.2.10.2(a) Procedure to Determine Kerb Inlet Positions on Grade

Notes:
1. Changes in catchment area may result in changes in time of concentration for a catchment.
2. The above procedure is iterative.
3. Selection of the initial trial kerb inlet location may be based on changes in road grade (e.g. steep to flat),
physical restrictions in road (e.g. median or Residential Street Management devices), or by driveways, entrances or
intersections etc.
Source: QUDM (2008).
January 2013
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Chapter 11
Kerb inlets in sags must have sufficient

inflow capacity to accept the total flow
(including bypass flows from upstream)
reaching the inlet. Ponding of water at sag
inlets should be limited to the widths
discussed in Section 11.2.2 particularly at
intersections where turning traffic is likely
to encounter ponding water.
Where the longitudinal grades on either side
of the sag are different, or where the flow
from one direction is dominant, the location
of the effective sag may move from the true
sag and a hydraulic jump may form beyond
the sag. Care should be taken, by the
provision of extended or additional inlets,
to ensure that capture capacity is
maintained and that the water level does not
cause flow over the footpath into the

adjacent property.
A procedure for
checking whether this effect is occurring
has been proposed by Black (1987) and is
detailed in Figures 11.2.10.2(b) and
11.2.10.2(c).
At intersections;
Consideration shall be given to the
steepness of grade of the road and the
possibility of momentum carrying water
past the stormwater inlet(s), across the road
and
into
properties
opposite
the
intersection. Solutions to such problems
may require extra inlets to be installed.
HJ = Hydraulic Jump
Figure 11.2.10.2(b) Sag in a Road with Supercritical Approach Flows

11
January 2013
11-21

Chapter 11
Figure 11.2.10.2(c) Limiting Condition for a Sag Inlet to Act as an On-grade Inlet
(n=0.013)
Where two falling grades meet at an

intersection, every endeavour should be
made to locate the low point of the kerb and
channel at one of the tangent points of the
kerb return.
Where both grades are steep it may not be
practical to locate the low point at a tangent
point. In this case, kerb inlets should be
provided at both tangent points, with
additional inlets provided upstream of the
tangent points, if necessary, designed to
limit the flow width beyond the kerb return.
An anti-ponding kerb inlet (grate only)
installed within the width of the channel nominally 450 mm long by 300 mm wide
with no kerb inlet should be provided at the
low point.
11
The location of a kerb inlet, or a grated inlet

that protrudes onto the pavement within a
kerb return is considered unsatisfactory
because of the risk of damage by and to
vehicles.
11.2.10.3 Opening Size for Kerb
Inlets
Drainage pit inlets can present an important
safety issue that designers must consider.
January 2013
11-22
Considerable debate exists regarding the

recommended maximum clear opening for
kerb inlets to provide safety for small
children. Even though past history has
shown the likelihood to be low, the
consequences of a child being swept down
a flooded kerb and into a stormwater inlet
can be extreme.
After consideration of the various
arguments presented to the QUDM
Reference Group during the development of
the 2008 release of QUDM, the
recommendation for 125 mm maximum
clear opening was accepted.
The
also accepts this recommendation.
It
should be noted the 125 mm opening still
presents a risk of a small child partially
entering (i.e. feet first) the inlet.
A maximum clear opening of 88 mm is
required where it is necessary to exclude
the entry of the torso of child (based on test
procedures in AS 4685.1-2004). Such
consideration applies in parks, schools and
childcare centres.

11.2.10.4 Design Loads

Australian Standard, AS 3996-2006
specifies design loads for access covers,
road grates and frames. They are to be
designed to support, without structural
failure, the specified minimum ultimate
limit state design loads.
The Class D loading is used where normal
vehicular traffic (includes heavy duty
commercial vehicles) may be expected.
The standard departmental access chamber
tops and roadway gullies are designed for
this loading.
Class B loading is used for units designed
for a footway loading.
Class C loading is used for units in
locations where slow moving (light duty
commercial) vehicles are expected such as
light maintenance vehicles (light trucks and
driven
grass
cutters
/
mowers).
Departmental field inlets, Types 1 and 2 are
in this category.
11.2.10.5 Bicycle Safe Covers and
Grates
AS 3996-2006 also specifies two test
wheels with pneumatic tyres to ensure the
covers and grates are bicycle safe.
At all times where there is a possibility of
bicycles, the designer should ensure that
bicycle safe covers and grates are specified.
11.2.10.6 High Efficiency Grates
The term high efficiency hydraulic grates
refers to non-bicycle safe grates with wider
bar spacing (the bar may be a flat
section).
As indicated on the drawings, such grates
should only be used in locations where
bicycles are prohibited or not likely to have
Chapter 11
access. The opening between the flat

sections should not exceed 52.5 mm.
Of a different design, the high efficiency
vaned grate with water deflectors shown on
Standard Drawing Nos 1321 and 1322
(DMR 2009b) is bicycle safe.
11.2.10.7 Field Inlets
Field inlets are used to drain low lying areas
and located in areas where vehicular traffic
would not be expected (except for
maintenance). Such locations are medians,
drainage easements, table drains and catch
drains.
Entry of water is from the top only in Field
Inlets Type 1 (Standard Drawing No. 1309
(DMR 2009b)).
The frame and grate of Field Inlet Type 2
(Standard Drawing No. 1310 (DMR
2009b)) is raised to allow side entry of
water as well to a depth of 175 mm before
water reaches the top of the grate. It is,
therefore, more efficient than the Type 1
Inlet and less prone to obstruction.
However, it should only be used where the
possibility of pedestrians, bicycles and
vehicular traffic is remote.
The following discussion has been
extracted from QUDM (2008) with some
minor modification.
Field inlets (also known as drop inlets)
should be provided in footpaths and
medians etc. as necessary, to drain all low
points.
Where there is considerable pedestrian
traffic adjacent to a field inlet e.g. in a
footpath, a grate with close bar spacing
should be used - recommended bar spacing
is provided in section (d) below. Elsewhere
a grate with wide bar spacing is preferable,
January 2013
11-23
11

Chapter 11
because of the reduced risk of blockage by

debris.
In all situations an allowance for blockage
of 50% of the clear opening area of the
grate should be made.
(a)
Inflow Capacity
The inflow capacity of a field inlet depends

upon the depth of water over the inlet. For
shallow depths the flow will behave as for a
sharp crested weir. For greater depths the
inlet will become submerged and inflow
will behave as for an orifice.
It is
recommended that the capacity of the inlet
be checked using both procedures and the
lesser inlet capacity adopted.
Under weir flow conditions
11.2.10.7(a)) the equation is:
(Figure
Q g BF 1.66.L.h 3 / 2
Where:
Qg = flow into field inlet (m3/s);
BF = blockage factor = 0.5;
1.66 = weir coefficient;
L = weir length (m) (see note below);
and
h = depth of water upstream of inlet
(relative to weir crest) where flow
velocity is low (i.e. velocity head is
insignificant) otherwise use the
height of energy level above the weir
crest (m).
11
Note: The length referred to in this case is

the effective weir length. Thus for a grated
inlet adjacent to a kerb, the side along the
kerb should be ignored. For a side inlet the
length referred to is the length of the inlet.
Figure 11.2.10.7(a) Field Inlet Under

Weir Flow
Under orifice flow conditions (Figure

11.2.10.7(b)):
The orifice flow equation depends on the
pressure gradient across the orifice. The
standard orifice flow equation applies when
atmospheric pressure conditions exist
downstream of the grate, such as would
exist if the design Water Surface Elevation
(WSE) is 150 mm below the grate (as per
Table 7.16.1 of QUDM (2008) and Figure
11.2.10.7(b)).
The following equation is based upon a
pressure change coefficient of Kg = 2.75:
Q g BF 0.60. Ag 2 g .h
1/ 2
Where:
Qg = flow into field inlet (m3/s);
BF = blockage factor = 0.5;
0.60 is a constant = (1/Kg)1/2 =
(1/2.75)1/2;
Ag = clear opening area of grate (m2);
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81
m/s2);
h = depth of approaching water
relative to the orifice (m); and
Kg = pressure change coefficient for
the grate.
January 2013
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Chapter 11
(c) Safety Issues

While inlet screens / grates shall comply
with the requirements of AS 3996-2006,
safety risks should be reviewed in
circumstances where a field inlet is located
within areas accessible to the public. The
maximum spacing of bars must be in
accordance with the following:
Figure 11.2.10.7(b) Field Inlet Under
Free Orifice Flow
The pressure change coefficient (Kg) can

vary significantly for unusual grate designs.
The coefficient used in the equation for
orifice flow is based on a typical open mesh
grate. It is noted that the pressure change
coefficient for the old cast iron City Grate
has been adopted as 2.23. Designers of
unusual hydraulic structures should seek
expert advice or review reference
documents on orifice flow.
If the field inlet is fully drowned (i.e. no air
gap exists below the grate and thus the
hydraulic pressure below the grate is not
atmospheric) then an estimate must be
made of the head loss through the structure
as per a normal Hydraulic Grade Line
(HGL) analysis. Such calculations require
considerable experience and hydraulic
judgement.
Guidance on head losses
through screens is provided in Section
7.16.14(c) of QUDM (2008).
(b)
Freeboard considerations
Where the inlet is contained within a pond

formed by earth mounds or similar,
freeboard should be 20% of the depth of the
pond with a minimum of 50 mm under
minor storm conditions. However where
overflow must be avoided the design storm
shall be the major storm event.
Horizontal inlet screens maximum

spacing is 125 mm, however if there
is a risk of a child being swept by
stormwater towards the screen, then a
maximum clear opening of 88 mm is
required between bars. This spacing
excludes the entry of the torso of
child and is based on test procedures
specified in AS 4685.1-2004.
Vertical or inclined inlet screens maximum spacing is 125 mm.
Other safety considerations include the
following:
Possible tripping hazard of a
horizontal grate / screen (e.g.
particularly if not set flush with the
ground);
Flow velocity through the screen /
grate should be sufficiently low
enough to prevent a child from being
held against the screen / grate by
hydraulic pressure.
Raised, horizontal screens are generally not
acceptable adjacent to footpaths, bikeways
or public areas where significant numbers
of people gather as these inlets may
represent an unacceptable safety risk. In
such circumstances, flush screens should be
used, or possibly large dome screens if such
screens are likely to be clearly visible and
not represent a safety risk. Alternatively,
marker posts or fencing may be used.
January 2013
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11

Chapter 11
11.2.11 Access Chambers
The geometry of pipes at access chambers

is critical in respect of hydraulic head loss.
The main principles to be followed to
minimise head loss are:
Access chambers, or manholes in older

literature, are placed in pipelines or
drainlines:
to provide access for maintenance;
Minimise changes in flow velocity

through the chamber.
at changes of direction, grade or

level; and
Minimise changes in flow direction.
at junctions.
Consideration should be given to the
placement of an access chamber at an
obstruction or penetration by a conduit or
service, to facilitate the removal of debris.
The maximum spacing for access chambers
is 100 m for pipes less than 1200 mm
diameter and 150 m for pipes 1200 mm or
larger. They should also be located a
maximum of 100 m upstream of the outlet
of all pipes discharging into tidal waters
Standard departmental access chambers
1050 to 2100 mm in diameter are shown on
Standard Drawings Nos 1307 and 1308
(DMR 2009b).
The tops of access chambers in roadways or
paved surfaces should be flush with the
finished surface. Although designed for
wheel loads, the tops of access chambers
should be located away from wheel paths, if
possible, to minimise damage to pavements.
The tops of manholes elsewhere should be
25 mm above natural surface and tapered
down to its surrounds.
11
In cases where precast chambers are used,

the connecting stormwater pipes should not
protrude into the chamber and should be
sealed and finished in accordance with an
approved construction detail.
The following discussion has been
extracted from QUDM (2008) with some
minor modification.
January 2013
11-26
Avoid opposed lateral inflows, i.e.

all incoming pipes should ideally be
contained within a 90 degree arc, but
certainly less than 180 degrees.
Limit the deflection from inflow to
outflow for pipes smaller than 600
mm diameter to 90 degrees, or 67.5
degrees for pipes 600 mm and greater
in diameter.
Avoid vertical misalignment i.e.
drop pits, unless deliberately
intending to induce high head loss.
Additionally, where change in pipe
size occurs, it is preferable to align
inlet and outlet pipes obvert to
obvert.
Where practical, direct inlet pipes wholly
into the barrel of the outlet pipe (Figure
11.2.11(a)). It is noted that for various
reasons, inflow pipes often need to be
directed towards the centre of the pit
(Figure 11.2.11(b)), however, this will
increase losses.
Rounding the entrance to the outlet pipe at a
radius of one-twelfth of the outlet diameter
will help to reduce losses (Figure
11.2.11(c)).
Where practical, the change of direction of
flow should occur at or near the
downstream face of the chamber.
Head losses resulting from surface inflows
(Figure 11.2.11(d)) are reduced if the
design water level in the chamber is well
above the outlet pipe obvert.

Chapter 11
Figure 11.2.11(d) Inlet Chamber

showing Water Level well above Outlet
Obvert
Figure 11.2.11(a) Inflow Pipe Directed
at Centre of Outflow Pipe
11.2.12 Access Chamber Tops

Where an access chamber is located within
a carriageway, the chamber top, or access
point, should be positioned to avoid wheel
paths and should be finished with the top
flush with the finished surface.
Figure 11.2.11(b) Streamlines

Resulting from Inflow Pipe Directed at
Pit Centre
Elsewhere, access chambers should be

finished 25 mm above natural surface with
the topsoil or grassed surface around the
chamber graded gently away. On playing
fields they may be finished 200 mm below
the finished level, but only when located in
a straight line between two permanently
accessible chambers.
11.2.13 Reduction in Pipe Size

A reduction in pipe size along a pipeline /
drainline is not permitted as the
discontinuity between the different pipe
sections can catch debris causing
blockage which inturn reduces the capacity
of the system and/or can cause failure of the
system.
Figure 11.2.11(c) Bellmouth Entrance

to Outlet Pipe
For some projects where the inflow to an

existing pipe network has been reduced and
the network requires extension, a reduction
in pipe size (for single barrel pipelines
only) may be permitted provided that an
access chamber is placed between the
different pipe sections in order to allow
access to remove any debris. Each case
January 2013
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11

Chapter 11
must be assessed individually and written

approval to reduce the pipe size in a
pipeline must be given by the departments
design representative. Table 11.2.13 lists
the recommended maximum reduction in
pipe size.
avoid displacement of the chamber

lid / screen.
Table 11.2.13 Maximum Allowable

Reduction in Pipe Size
Upstream Pipe
Diameter (mm)
Less than 600
675 to 1200
Greater than 1200
Allowable Change
in Diameter
No change
ONE pipe size
TWO pipe sizes
Notes:
Any reduction must be approved, see Section 11.2.13.
The above recommendations are based upon the
nominal sizes of pipes as manufactured in
accordance with AS 4058-2007.
11.2.14 Surcharge Chambers

This section has been extracted from
QUDM (2008).
Prior to incorporating a surcharge chamber
into a drainage line, the following should be
considered:
The potential for a person (that has
been swept into the upstream
drainage system) being trapped
inside the surcharge chamber unable
to exit the chamber or the outlet pipe.
Potential surcharge of the upstream
system and flooding problems caused
by debris blockage of the outlet
screen.
11
Structural integrity of the chamber,

outlet screen, top slab and concrete
coping, and its ability to withstand
high outflow velocities and high
pressure forces caused by debris
blockages. There is a need in many
cases to ensure the surcharge screen
is securely anchored to the top slab,
and the slab to the chamber walls, to
January 2013
11-28
Safe maintenance access to allow

removal of debris trapped within the
surcharge chamber.
The hydraulic analysis of surcharge
chambers is presented in Section 7.16.14 of
QUDM (2008).
11.2.15 Pipeline Requirements

11.2.15.1 Pipe Joint Types
The description and requirements for types
of pipe joints are detailed in Section 9.2.1.
11.2.15.2 Geometric Tolerances and
Cover Requirements
The geometric tolerances for cover
requirements are detailed in Section 9.2.2.
11.2.15.3 Minimum Pipe Size
The minimum diameter of any pipe in a
drainage system should be 375 mm.
11.2.15.4 Box Sections
The requirements for use of box sections
are detailed in Section 9.2.4.
Furthermore, where box culverts are
constructed
on
a
skew,
special
consideration is required where units join
pits and access chambers.
11.2.15.5 Location in Urban Areas
This section has been extracted from
QUDM (2008) with some modification and
provides general guidance for the location
of pipe networks in urban areas (local
authorities would generally follow this
guidance).

Minor pipes connecting one kerb inlet or pit

directly to another is acceptable at the top
of the drainage system and these pipes may
be located under the kerb and channel.
For pipelines greater than 600 mm it is
recommended that the location for pipelines
in the road pavement - other than a kerb
inlet to kerb inlet connection - be 2.0 metres
measured towards the road centreline from
the invert of the kerb and channel, however
access chamber tops or access points should
be located to avoid wheel paths.
Where sufficient verge width is available
stormwater pipes may be located in the
verge to suit the services allocations of the
relevant authorities / owners.
In divided roads, drainage pipelines may be
located within the median, normally offset
1.5 metres from the centreline (as street
lighting poles are normally on the
centreline).
11.2.16 Splay Pipes

The use of splay pipe components to
construct bends in pipelines is not
permitted, particularly between pits / access
chambers.
Refer Section 9.2.11 for possible relaxation
of this requirement when not between pits /
access chambers.
11.2.17 Structural Requirements

of Pipelines
The structural requirements for pipelines
are detailed in Section 9.2.6. However, for
pipe networks in urban areas, Trench
Installation is typical.
All other structural aspects should be
referred to the departments Bridge Design
Section / Structures Branch located within
the Engineering & Technology Division or
Chapter 11
suitably prequalified structural engineering

consultant.
11.2.18 Flow Velocity Limits

The velocity of stormwater in pipes and box
sections should be maintained within
acceptable limits (refer Table 11.2.18) to
ensure that:
some self cleaning of the pipe or
box section is maintained (See
Section 2.8); and
scouring and erosion of the conduit,
(particularly the invert) does not
occur.
In steep terrain, the velocity of flow should
not be greater than the absolute maximum
velocity of 6.0 m/s under pipe full
conditions. To achieve this requirement, it
may be necessary to construct access
chambers with drops to dissipate some of
the kinetic energy of the flow, or to limit
the pipe diameter.
Notwithstanding the above suggested
velocity limits, hydraulic considerations
may require the velocity be controlled to
well below the Desirable Maximum
and/or the pipe size increased to minimise
structure losses and the slope of the
hydraulic grade line.
11.2.19 Pipe Grade Limits

To conform with the requirements of
Section 11.2.18 and construction limitations
the maximum and minimum grades as
detailed in Table 11.2.19 are recommended
for design purposes.
11.2.20 Discharge Calculations

The following section has been extracted
from QUDM (2008) with some minor
modification.
January 2013
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11

Chapter 11
If the major (surface) system does not have

the capacity to carry the difference between
the design peak flow and the calculated
pipe flow (based on normal ARIs) then
additional inlets and hence larger pipes are
required to ensure that the surface system
operates within the specified limits.
The system objectives must seek to limit

flooding and to ensure a reasonable level of
pedestrian and vehicular traffic safety and
accessibility. These objectives are met by
ensuring that major and minor storm flows
are managed within specified limits and by
designing both major and minor system
components in conjunction.
Table 11.2.18 Acceptable Flow Velocities for Pipes and Box Sections
Absolute
Minimum [1]
(m/s)
Desirable
Minimum [1]
(m/s)
Desirable
Maximum [2]
(m/s)
Absolute
Maximum [2]
(m/s)
Partially full
0.7
1.2
4.7
7.0
Full
0.6
1.0
4.0
6.0
Flow Condition
Notes:
1. Minimum flow velocities apply to ARI design storm based on selected maintenance period (see Section 2.8), and
apply to all pipe materials.
2. Maximum flow velocities apply to concrete pipes. For other pipe materials, refer to manufacturers advice.
Source: Based on QUDM (2008) with modification.

Table 11.2.19 Acceptable Grades for Pipes Flowing Full
11
Pipe Diameter (mm)
Maximum Grade (%)
Minimum Grade (%)
300
375
450
20.0
15.0
11.0
0.50
0.40
0.30
525
600
675
9.0
7.5
6.5
0.25
0.20
0.18
750
900
1050
5.5
4.5
3.5
0.15
0.12
0.10
1200
1350
1500
3.0
2.5
2.2
0.10
0.10
0.10
1650
1800
1950
2.0
1.7
1.5
0.10
0.10
0.10
1.4
1.3
1.2
0.10
0.10
0.10
2100
2250
2400
Source: QUDM (2008)
January 2013
11-30

The general principles or objectives are:

The drainage system as a whole is
provided to mitigate flooding and to
ensure the safety and convenience of
pedestrians and vehicles.
The
minor
drainage
system
comprising underground pipes and/or
surface flowpaths is designed to
provide for the safety and
convenience of pedestrians and
vehicles.
Where flood immunity cannot be
provided
under
major
storm
conditions via overland flowpaths,
the capacity of the underground pipe
system and the inlets leading to it
need to be increased in order to
reduce surface flows to acceptable
levels.
Under normal conditions the capacity of the
underground pipe system should not be less
than its minor storm flow conditions while
the system is operating under major storm
conditions. The exceptions would be when
tailwater levels downstream have a
significant effect on the systems hydraulic
grade line, or the surface gradient is
considerably flatter than the pipe gradient,
thus causing the HGL. to rise above the
ground surface.
The underground system should be
designed with a suitable allowance for
blockage at kerb inlets as described in
Section 11.2.10.1. In this way the full
design capacity of the underground system
can be taken into account under both major
and minor storm conditions.
Chapter 11
11.2.21 General Design Procedure

A general design procedure is detailed in
Section 7.15.3 of QUDM (2008) and
provides a sound basis and understanding
for the design of pipe networks required for
departmental projects. It is recommended
that designers should refer to this procedure
for the initial design assessment.
11.2.22 Hydraulic Calculations

The detailed hydraulic grade line (HGL)
method is recommended for the analysis of
underground stormwater pipe systems. It is
further recommended that this be based on
an analysis proceeding from downstream to
upstream through the system.
Section 7.16 of QUDM (2008) provides
guidance, understanding and the hydraulic
calculations required to undertake the
design of a pipe network for departmental
projects. All subsections of Section 7.16
QUDM (2008) apply except for Section
7.16.10 where Section 11.4.17 of this
manual applies.
11.3
Aquaplaning
For road users to be able to stop or steer

their vehicles, the tyres must grip the road
surface. Grip is achieved by means of
friction generated in the areas where the
tyres make contact with the uppermost
particles of the road surface. If the friction
available is insufficient to resist the forces
generated by acceleration, braking or
cornering manoeuvres, the tyre may slip
over the road surface. In dry conditions,
surface friction is generally at a level that
supports most normal manoeuvres,
however the level of friction available
decreases when a road surface is wet or
flooded (adapted from Austroads (2005)).
January 2013
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11

Many factors exist, including tyre tread and

pressure, road surface and geometry,
vehicle speed and depth of water over the
surface that influences effective, lateral and
longitudinal friction between the tyre and
road surface. When a loss of grip or
traction occurs, the effect on a moving
vehicle is either skidding or aquaplaning,
both of which represent a major driving
hazard.
Aquaplaning is the least
understood, yet most dangerous condition.
The information, analysis method and
criteria presented in this section is primarily
intended for geometric road design
purposes, to identify and minimise
aquaplaning potential. This section can
also be used for incident investigation
purposes.
11.3.1 What is Aquaplaning?

Aquaplaning or hydroplaning occurs when
the vehicles tyres are separated (partially
or fully) from the road surface by a film of
water and which results in loss of control of
the vehicle. The effect of aquaplaning on
vehicle handling is directional instability,
with the worst case being a complete loss of
directional control. Furthermore, as contact
with the road surface is lost, braking
becomes impossible.
11
Notwithstanding the above definition, it is

technically more accurate to define
aquaplaning
as
the
build-up
of
hydropressure beneath a tyre to the extent
that it partially or fully exceeds the capacity
of the tyre to absorb it, thereby reducing the
contact area between the tyre and the
pavement.
There are three types of aquaplaning as
identified by Horne (1968). The two main
types of aquaplaning are Viscous and
Dynamic:
January 2013
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Chapter 11
Viscous Aquaplaning
Viscous aquaplaning can occur at
low speeds where the texture of the
road surface is low (i.e. it is tending
towards smooth). It requires minimal
water depth to occur as the
mechanism is dependent on the
viscosity of water, which prevents it
from escaping from under the tyre
footprint. This type of aquaplaning is
most likely to occur during braking,
such as at an intersection or at traffic
signals, and its occurrence can be
exacerbated if the vehicle is running
on tyres with limited or no tread.
Viscous aquaplaning can occur at
water film depths as low as 0.01 mm.
Almost any condition of pavement
wetness, and even the lowest vehicle
speeds, may trigger the onset of a
viscous aquaplaning condition. The
single most important variable which
controls
and
regulates
the
phenomenon is the microtexture at
the tips of the pavement asperities
(Moore, 1975).
Dynamic Aquaplaning
Dynamic aquaplaning is the partial or
full separation of tyre and pavement
which
occurs
under
flooded
conditions. Flooding is said to occur
when the thickness of the water film
on the pavement surface is such that,
at a given speed, the combination of
tyre
tread
and
pavement
macrotexture
is
incapable
of
discharging the bulk water from the
contact patch. It may equally occur
if the tyre is free rolling or locked.
Dynamic aquaplaning will occur
once the vehicle has exceeded a
critical speed (a function of the tyre
pressure), at which time surface

water in front of the tyre, acting as a

wedge, can penetrate the tyre
footprint and reduce the surface
contact area. At high speeds only a
small portion of the tyre footprint has
dry contact. Under full dynamic
aquaplaning, virtually no part of the
tyre will have any contact with the
surface and, even though the vehicle
is travelling at great speed, the tyre
can be fully locked.
Once
aquaplaning has occurred, vehicle
speed must be reduced significantly,
and to well below the critical speed,
for dynamic aquaplaning to cease
completely.
Full dynamic aquaplaning is likely to
be rare based on current vehicles
operating within existing speed limits
and with tyres in good condition.
Partial dynamic aquaplaning is more
likely to occur. Loss of control may
then occur with change in speed and
direction as high demands are placed
on either longitudinal or lateral
friction.
The third type of aquaplaning is called
tyre-tread rubber reversion, however this
only occurs when heavy vehicles such as
trucks or aircraft lock their wheels when
moving at high speeds on wet pavements
with macro-texture but little micro-texture
(refer Section 11.3.5). Rubber reversion
aquaplaning is not discussed further.
It is important to understand that
aquaplaning and skidding are not the same
condition. In a skid, the tyre still has
contact with the road surface; there is no
separation between the tyre and road. On
straight sections of road, a skid generally
results from hard braking or acceleration.
On curves, the vehicle may skid or slip over
the surface and track wider than the
Chapter 11
steered path or a yaw condition may occur

where the vehicle will skid / slide sideways,
usually with the vehicle ending up on the
inside of the curve. A partial aquaplaning
situation is essentially part aquaplaning,
part skidding.
Aquaplaning potential is assessed via a two
part process:
1. Determine water film depth (particularly
in the anticipated wheel paths) for a flow
path across the pavement; and
2. Based on operating speed of the road
section, check estimated water film depth
against acceptable depths limits.
These steps are discussed in detail in
Sections 11.3.7 & 11.3.8, however the
following sections (11.3.2 to 11.3.6)
provide relevant information to help the
designer understand aquaplaning and
reduce aquaplaning potential.
11.3.2 Causal Factors

Key factors which influence (or cause) the
occurrence of aquaplaning are:
road geometry;
road surface texture, porosity and
rutting;
operating speed;
rainfall intensity;
water film depth;
tyre tread depth, vertical load, width
of tyres and tyre pressure; and
driver behaviour.
Some of the above causal factors influence
others, but the listing gives an indication of
the problem of defining strict rules for
design.
Road geometry and road surfacing are the
two key factors that road designers have the
January 2013
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11

most control over. Road surfacing is an

important design consideration and the
selection of the most appropriate surfacing
is crucial.
Road surfacing is further
discussed in Section 11.3.3. With reference
to Section 2.3.2.2, aquaplaning is
considered more of a geometrics issue than
a drainage issue. The reason for this is that
the shape of the road surface has a direct
influence on the flow and build up of
stormwater runoff across the surface, which
in turn directly influences aquaplaning
potential. Therefore when water film depth
exceeds accepted limits, the problem is best
solved through adjustment of the road
shape, or more correctly geometrics
(alignment & crossfall).
There has been much research carried out
on the subject but more is needed.
11.3.3 Road Surfacing

Road or pavement surface properties are not
dependent solely on engineering factors,
and cannot be determined in isolation. The
required properties have to be developed in
the context of and within the constraints of:
driver behaviour;
environment;
vehicle characteristics;
regulatory environments (delineation,
signs, speed, constraint of driver
behaviour);
road alignment and layout;
maintenance regime; and
11
available funding.
It should be taken into account that
pavement surface properties cannot be
developed to compensate for extreme
weather conditions, excess speed and/or
deficiencies in areas such as poor alignment
January 2013
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Chapter 11
(geometrics). Also, there is no one model

or formula that can be used to compare
varying combinations of road safety
components (vehicle characteristics, driver
behaviour, environment, road alignment,
pavement surface properties and so on).
In dry conditions the maximum friction for
a particular surface is provided by a tyre
with no tread running on a smooth
pavement surface. This is demonstrated by
racing cars operating in dry conditions and
the significance of when to decide to
change to wet weather tyres (grooved
treads) when rain threatens.
The required tyre and pavement surface
characteristics are very different when the
pavement is wet. To make provision for
water on the pavement surface, the
following has to apply:
(a) A design rainfall intensity has to be
adopted as policy because it is not
possible to design the road to
accommodate all rainfall intensities.
(b) The road alignment and drainage has
to be designed to shed the water from
the design rainfall intensity to meet a
maximum permissible water film
thickness.
(c) Pavement surface
required to:
macrotexture
is
(i) Reduce
the
potential
for
aquaplaning by providing drainage
paths for the water to escape from
beneath the tyre, in addition to the
drainage paths provided by the
grooves in the tyre;
(ii) Contribute to friction between the
tyre and road through hysteric
deformation of the tyre (i.e.
providing resistance to the tyre
through deformation of the tyre

when it is passing across the

macrotexture and the recovery of
the initial shape of the tyre);
(d) Pavement
surface
microtexture
(asperity) has to be provided to enable
the tip of the stone to penetrate any
water film and provide adhesion with
the tyre.
Tyres must have a minimum groove depth
to provide a drainage path for the water to
escape. Sufficient tyre pressure is also
required such that the stress between the
tyre and the pavement surface is sufficient
to enable the tyre to displace the water and
achieve direct contact.
With reference to point c) above and Figure
11.3.3, Macrotexture can be affected by the
size, shape and spacing of coarse aggregate
particles in the surfacing material; the
presence and pattern of grooves purposely
manufactured in concrete surfaces; or the
connection between surface and internal
pores in the materials.
Macrotexture
influences water drainage capacity, which is
important in removing water from the road
- tyre contact patch, and allows the vehicle
tyre tread to deform, so creating the
hysteresis forces.
Chapter 11
of the aggregate particles in the upper layer

of the surfacing material, or by fine
particles such as sand in asphalt and
concrete
surfacings.
Microtexture
influences wet and dry skid resistance at all
speeds, interacting with the vehicles tyres
to generate the adhesive friction forces. It
is important to note that very high
microtextures can significantly increase the
rate of tyre wear experienced at a location.
When a road surface is wet, the water film
on the road surface reduces the intimate
contact needed between the tyre and the
microtexture, leading to a reduction in
available friction, i.e. it is dependent on the
extent to which the microtexture is able to
penetrate the water film. The surface
tension properties of water also result in a
water film forming more readily on smooth
aggregate,
further
highlighting
the
importance of the microtexture.
Microtexture is gradually polished away by
the action of traffic (particularly where high
stresses are imparted to the road surface by
acceleration, braking and cornering
manoeuvres and/or heavy vehicles).
Macrotexture also has an effect on water

spray generated from the road surface. In
general terms, the greater the macrotexture
provided, the greater the reduction in water
spray.
The terms surface texture and texture
depth are often used by practitioners and
these are simply descriptors of the
macrotexture of the road surface.
Figure 11.3.3 - Key Texture Elements of

Pavement Surfaces (Source: Austroads
(2005))
With reference to point d) above and Figure

11.3.3, Microtexture is the very fine
surface texture of the aggregate used in the
surfacing material. The fine texture is
provided either by the crystalline structure
11.3.3.1 Pavement Surface Types

The department uses several different
surface types for roads. The following
discussion presents general information
January 2013
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11

regarding the various surfaces, in relation to

aquaplaning. To select an appropriate road
surfacing for any project, designers must
refer to other guides as issued by the
departments Pavements and Materials
Branch, Engineering & Technology
Division.
Sprayed Seal
Sprayed seals (aggregate size > 10 mm)
generally provide the best texture depth of
all currently used surface types. The stone
aggregate also provides good microtexture
unless it has a low Polished Aggregate
Friction Value (PAFV).
Open Graded (OG) Asphalt
Open Graded Asphalt will easily achieve
good texture depth and could be considered
as the second best surface type with respect
to texture. Open graded asphalt also allows
some water flow within the pavement due
to the voids within the mix (refer Figure
11.3.3.1).
Some specialists consider that for vehicle
speeds up to 110 km/h it would be unlikely
that there will be much of a film of water
under vehicle tyres as the water will be
forced into the pores of the OG asphalt and
come out elsewhere.
Furthermore,
anecdotal evidence exists that shows OG
asphalt surfaces produce significantly less
11
Chapter 11
spray than other asphalt surfaces. This is

thought to be as a result of the surface being
able to better absorb and dissipate surface
flows from under the tyre. More research is
required to quantify the use of the asphalt.
Dense Graded (DG) Asphalt
It is extremely difficult to achieve good
texture depths for dense graded asphalt
pavements for traffic speeds over 80 km/h.
Unlike OG asphalt, DG asphalt does not
allow flow within the mix (refer Figure
11.3.3.1).
Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA)
Stone mastic asphalt has relatively high
binder content and gap grading with the
finer sizes. This tended to give texture
depths similar to DG asphalt, however the
latest departmental specification for SMA
can give better results (intention is to
achieve 1.1 mm). Unlike OG asphalt, SMA
does not allow flow within the mix (refer
Figure 11.3.3.1).
Concrete
Depending on the surface treatment of the
finished
concrete
surface,
concrete
pavements can have poor to good texture
depth.
Figure 11.3.3.1 - Schematics of Aggregate Skeletons for Asphalt Mix Types (Source:
Austroads Part 4b)
January 2013
11-36

11.3.4 Tyres
Tyres are beyond the control of the road
designer and therefore not discussed in
detail. However it is important to note that
the minimum legal tread depth in
Queensland is 1.5 mm which represents
approximately 80% wear of the tyre.
Section 11.3.5 shows that tyres at the legal
limit of tread offer little grip at speed and
with minimal water on the surface.
Tyre manufacturers are developing tyres to
improve their wet weather handling. One
such tyre, designed specifically to reduce
aquaplaning potential, is shown in Figure
11.3.4. This tyre has a large central void
and clear channels in the tread to improve
flow to the side of the contact patch.
Figure 11.3.4 - Tyre Designed to Reduce

Aquaplaning Potential (Source:
Goodyear website)
11.3.5 The Road-Tyre Interface

To enable a vehicle to be driven on a
roadway, adequate surface friction must be
available to accommodate the forces
required for it to safely complete its
manoeuvres. This friction is generated at
the road-tyre interface. This interface is
more commonly known as the contact patch
Chapter 11
and represents the area where the rubber of

the tyre is in contact with the road surface
material.
It is important to note that rubber does not
conform to the classic laws of friction. This
is because the material is viscoelastic and
its frictional properties depend on
temperature and rate of deformation.
Therefore, the frictional behaviour of
rubber needs to be considered differently.
Gillespie (1992) and others describe the two
primary mechanisms responsible for the
friction coupling at the road-tyre interface
as surface adhesion and hysteresis (refer
Figure 11.3.5(a)).
Surface adhesion arises from the shearing
of the intermolecular bonds between the
tyre rubber and the aggregate in the road
surface. The adhesion component is the
larger of the two mechanisms on dry roads,
but is reduced substantially when the road
surface is wet. Adhesion is provided by the
microtexture of the pavement surface.
The hysteresis (or deformation of the tyre)
mechanism represents energy loss in the
tyre rubber as it deforms when sliding over
the aggregate in the road. Hysteresis is not
affected so much by water on the road
surface. The deformation of the tyre is
largely provided by the macrotexture of the
pavement surface.
On dry roads, both peak and slide friction
decrease with velocity.
Under wet
conditions, even greater speed sensitivity
prevails because of the difficulty of
displacing water in the contact patch at high
speeds (Gillespie 1992).
January 2013
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11

In wet conditions, as the tyre rolls over the

pavement surface, the water on the surface
is displaced from the contact patch via three
paths:
the area in front and to the side of the
tyre;
Chapter 11
the voids created by the tread of the

tyre (refer Figure 11.3.5(b)); and
the voids under the tyre created by
the macrotexture of the surface (refer
Figure 11.3.5(c)).
Figure 11.3.5(a) - Mechanisms of Road Tyre Friction (Source Gillespie (1992))
11
Figure 11.3.5(b) - Tyre Tread Voids

(Source: M Gothi (2005))
Figure 11.3.5(c) - Pavement Surface
Voids below Top of Aggregate (Source:
M Gothi (2005))
January 2013
11-38

The degree of contact that can be

established between the vehicle tyre and the
road surface is largely determined by the
following factors:
depth of the water film present on the
surface;
surface texture depth (and the
capacity of the surface to shed water,
which is also a function of the
efficacy of any positive drainage
provided at the location);
tread depth, width and pressure of the
tyre; and
vehicle speed.
The depth on the water present on the
surface is also important as the less water
on the surface, the less water there is to be
displaced. Therefore good drainage of the
surface is required.
Good surface texture depth and tread depth
provide capacity for water on the surface to
be pushed or squeezed away from the
contact patch. The time for the surface
water to flow into the voids created by the
tread and texture, as the tyre passes over, is
considerably less than the time for the
surface water to be pushed in front and
then to the side of the tyre. Reduced tread
depth and reduced texture depth of the
surface reduce available void capacity
which restricts the flow of water away from
the contact patch.
Vehicle speed is critical as the higher the
speed, the faster the rotation of the tyre, and
the less time available for the water on the
surface to be displaced from the contact
patch.
At low speeds, surface water
displaces via the paths discussed earlier. As
speed increases, the small wedge of water
continues building in front of the tyre. A
point is reached where the surface water
Chapter 11
does not have the time to displace. The

wedge of water develops enough
hydropressure to lift the tyre and allow the
water to pass under the tyre separating the
tyre from the road (refer Figure 11.2.5(d)).
Gothi (2005) showed a graphic
relationship (refer Figure 11.2.5(e))
highlighting the effect of speed and tread
depth on the reduction of the contact patch.
Figure 11.2.5(e) illustrates the reduced
voids of the tyre tread (@ 50 km/h)
between a new tyre and a tyre approaching
the legal minimum depth. Also, the figure
shows that a worn tyre (> 50% wear) at 90
km/h is partially aquaplaning as the contact
patch is substantially reduced / almost non
existent.
11.3.6 Skid Resistance

Skid resistance is a very complex topic.
The available and required skid resistance is
influenced by the interaction of many
variables, including:
driver behaviour
driver expectations
vehicle characteristics
tyre characteristics
climatic conditions
traffic mix and volume
pavement surface characteristics
(microtexture and macrotexture)
water film thickness (drainage)
surface contaminants
road alignment
vertical)
(horizontal
and
lane and carriageway width

cross-fall, and
signage.
January 2013
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11

The pavement surface is just one of a large

number of contributory factors. The three
main areas of control which relate to the
pavement surface, and which many road
authorities use internationally to address the
issue of skid resistance are:
(a) in-service skid resistance (friction)
(b) aggregate polishing resistance, and
(c) surface texture depth.
An interesting point worth noting is that
research has found that the level of skid
resistance provided by some surfacing types
in the early period after placement, e.g.
some asphalts and materials incorporating
Chapter 11
polymer-modified binders (PMB), can be

less than the level that would normally be
anticipated from the individual or combined
properties of the constituents.
It is
suggested that the reason for this early life
phenomenon is the binder coating on the
uppermost surfacing aggregate is taking
time to be worn off, and is masking the
potential microtexture of the aggregate.
While the binder coating on the uppermost
surfacing aggregate remains, it could have
the potential to act as a lubricant to any
skidding mechanism in dry weather
conditions.
Figure 11.3.5(d) - Water Wedge at Separation (Source: Foucard (2005)
11
January 2013
11-40

@ 50km/h
Chapter 11
@ 70km/h
@90km/h
New Tyre
Tread Depth =
8mm
Worn Tyre
50% Wear
Worn Tyre
Tread Depth =
1.6mm
Figure 11.3.5(d) - Tyre Tread Depth Influence: 1 mm Water Depth

Source: M Gothi (2005)
While there is an implied relationship

between aquaplaning potential and skid
resistance of the pavement, there is
currently no established direct relationship
between them. Therefore, skid resistance
test results can only provide background
information when assessing aquaplaning
potential at any given location.
11.3.7 Assessment Water Film

Depth
Several theoretical and empirical methods
and formula exist to predict the depth or
thickness of the water film over the surface.
11.3.7.1 Adopted Method

The method adopted by the department is
the one developed by Gallaway et al (1979)
for the Federal Highway Administration.
The metric version of the equation adopted
is given below:
0.103 T 0.11 L0.43 I 0.59

T
S 0.42
Where;
D = water film depth above top of
pavement texture (mm) ;
T = average pavement texture depth
(mm) (refer Section 11.3.7.3);
January 2013
11-41
11

Chapter 11
L = length of drainage path (m) (refer

Section 11.3.7.4);
I = rainfall intensity, adopt 50 mm/h
(refer Section 11.3.7.5); and
S = slope of drainage path (%) (refer
Section 11.3.7.4).
Several versions of this formula have been
published however the key difference is
generally the units used for the slope
variable.
In 1986, Austroads (then
NAASRA) published the formula with an
incorrect constant (0.135 instead of 0.103)
which is an incorrect conversion of units.
Figure 11.3.7.1 provides an example of
several drainage paths based on road
surface contours, about the superelevation
change when exiting a right hand curve.
Path A crosses the road from one side to the
other where the 3% superelevation is
applied. The contour spacing is uniform
(constant slope) and slope would be slightly
flatter than 3%. Where the superelevation
starts to roll-down, for example, when
exiting a curve, drainage paths start to
change and slopes can flatten off (contour
spacing increases), as shown by Path B.
Paths D & E indicate drainage paths over
normal crossfall situations. Path C is of
interest and possible concern. The path
starts to cross the road and then, due to the

superelevation rotation, turns back. This
situation can create long drainage paths
with a flat section in the middle, as
indicated by the large spacing of the
contours. Assessment of this path must
check water film depths at both the end of
the flat section and end of the drainage
path, in the vicinity of the anticipated wheel
paths.
11.3.7.2 Basis / Limits
The Gallaway formula is an empirical
formula based on the following experiment
parameters:
drainage lengths up to 48 ft (14.6 m);
rainfall intensities up to 2 in/h (50.8
mm/h);
slopes up to 8%; and
several surfaces tested (incl. sprayed
seals, asphalt and concrete).
The flow path tested was over a simple,
planar surface and the formula does not
contain a term for hydraulic resistance of
the pavement.
11
D
Figure 11.3.7.1 Aquaplaning Example (Road Surface Contours)
January 2013
11-42

The research found that:

increasing surface texture resulted in
a decrease in water depth for a given
rainfall intensity, cross slope and
drainage length. This effect was
more pronounced at the flatter cross
slopes and lower rainfall intensities;
and
greater drainage lengths increased
water depths however, the rate of
increase in water depth became
smaller as drainage length increased.
Gallaway concluded that water depth as a
function of cross slope, texture depth and
rainfall intensity can be reliably predicted
for drainage lengths up to 48 ft (15 m) and
probably considerably beyond. While it is
suggested that the formula can be used for
flow path lengths greater than 15 m, no
evidence proving or disproving the use of
the formula over longer paths has been
found. Therefore the use of Gallaway
formula is still considered appropriate.
It should also be noted that the method is
one dimensional and only assesses depth of
flow along a single (zero width) flow path.
Flow velocity and width or spread of the
flow over the pavement surface is not
assessed. Some situations can occur where
water runoff from off the road surface can
flow onto the road and/or where runoff
from one flow path crosses a boundary and
joins another flow path. The Gallaway
formula is unable to assess these situations
properly and cases such as these should be
referred to Principal Engineer (Road Design
Standards), Road Planning & Design
Section, Engineering & Technology
Division.
Chapter 11
11.3.7.3 Texture Depth

The term texture depth refers to the
average depth of the macrotexture of the
road surface (refer Figure 11.3.7.3).
Figure 11.3.7.3 - Texture Depth
Suitable values of Texture Depth (T) for

various surface types can be determined
using Table 11.3.7.3 which provides a
range of texture depths from values
researched by the RTA (1994) and Dash
(1977) and measurements taken on typical
Queensland pavements.
Lower values
within the table can be assumed to represent
worn surfaces.
To consider future surface wear or possible
change of surface type, design should check
flow paths using T = 0.40 mm and any
difference with the proposed surface
assessment must be risk assessed and
mitigated if appropriate.
For incident investigation purposes, actual
test measurements are usually obtained and
should be used. Where testing is not
available, use Table 11.3.7.3.
11.3.7.4 Drainage Path
The length of the drainage path is relatively
simple to determine using contours of the
road surface (as shown in Figure 11.3.7.1).
It is important to:
include the contours of intersections,
turnouts and entry / exit ramps;
assess areas where superelevation is
applied; and
assess hilly and/or winding roads.
January 2013
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11

Chapter 11
Table 11.3.7.3 - Road Texture Depth

Wearing Course Surface
Texture
Depth*
(mm)
Dense graded asphalt

10 mm or larger
0.40.8
Dense graded asphalt, 7 mm
0.3-0.5
Open graded asphalt**
>0.9
Stone mastic asphalt
>0.7
Fine gap graded asphalt
0.20.4
Slurry surfacing
0.40.8
Spray seals, 10 mm or larger
>1.5
Spray seals, 7 mm
0.6-1.0
Grooved Concrete
1.2
Exposed aggregate concrete
>0.9
Tyned concrete
0.40.6
Hessian dragged concrete
0.30.5
Broomed concrete
0.20.4
* Texture depth is usually measured by

the sand patch test using either sand or
glass beads (Department Test, Q7052008).
** As high as 2 mm when new, but clogs
up and needs cleaning.
However, incorrect (or less accurate)

answers are generally given as the slope
doesnt represent the full flow path slope
that well.
The best single slope representation of a
flow path which contains two or more
slopes is the Equal Area Slope (also
known as a Weighted Average Slope) and
this slope is to be used for the variable S in
the Gallaway formula. To help explain this,
if the flow path is predominately flat with
some steep sub-paths, then the Equal Area
Slope will be relatively flat. Alternatively,
if the flow path is predominately steep
with some flat sub-paths, then the Equal
Area Slope will be relatively steep.
Figure11.3.7.4(a) illustrates the difference
between the Point-to-Point Slope and Equal
Area Slope for a predominately flat flow
path and how the Equal Area Slope better
represents the slope of the flow path.
If the water film depth is required at several
points along the flow path, then the Equal
Area Slope needs to be determined from
each point of analysis back to the start of
the flow path.
The procedure to determine the Equal Area
Slope from a point of analysis back to the
start of the flow path is as follows:
1.
Plot the profile of the flow path (long

section).
Source : (RTA 1994) and (Dash 1977).
11
The slope of the drainage path used to

develop the Gallaway formula was over a
simple, planar surface. Unfortunately, in
reality, the full drainage path often contains
several sections or sub-paths, each with a
different slope. The Point-to-Point Slope
or Average Slope, as determined by
calculating the slope from the point of
analysis straight back to the start of the flow
path, has been used for some time.
January 2013
11-44
2.
Working in metres, calculate total area

under profile.
Divide area by length of profile then
multiply by 2.
3.
4.
Start at 0 (ie. point of analysis) and

move upstream to start of flow path.
This calculates the vertical ordinate of

the equal area triangle = Equal Area
Ordinate.
Plot this new ordinate (at highest point

of flow path) and join back to point of
analysis.

Chapter 11
Figure 11.3.7.4(a) - Point-to-Point vs. Equal Area Slope
Point of Analysis
Equal Area Ordinate
Figure 11.2.7.4(b) - Equal Area Slope
11
January 2013
11-45

Chapter 11
Figure 11.3.7.4(c) - Equivalent Length Method
5.
Now calculate slope of this line the

Equal Area Slope.
Express as a percentage (%).
Figure 11.2.7.4(b) illustrates the Equal Area

Slope over a flow path containing several
sub-sections.
Another method, known as the Equivalent
Length Method has been developed / used
recently to assess the flow path. This
method attempts to assess the flow path,
sub-path by sub-path, determining the water
film depth at each point the slope changes.
The basis of this method is as follows, with
reference to Figure 11.2.7.4(c):
The water film depth over the first
section or sub-path (A-B) is
determined based on the slope of that
sub-path (S1).
An equivalent length sub-path,
based of the slope (S2) of the next
sub-path (B-C) is then back
calculated using the water film depth
determined in the preceding step (at
Pt. B).
11
The equivalent length is then added

to the length of the next sub-path (BC) and this total length is used to
determine the water film depth at the
end of the next sub-path (at Pt. C),
based on the slope of that path-path
(S2).
January 2013
11-46
Review of this method by the department

shows that it tends to over-estimate the
water film depth as it does not properly
account for the change in flow due to the
change in slope (a fundamental flaw) - it is
very erroneous when slopes steepen. This
method is not to be used.
11.3.7.5 Rainfall Intensity
Several research papers and Austroads
Guide to Road Design recommend the use
of rainfall IFD (refer Chapter 5) charts for a
particular site and an Average Recurrence
Interval (ARI) of 1 year (typically) to
determine the rainfall intensity to be used to
determine the water film depth over a road
surface. Across Queensland, this approach
would recommend the use of rainfall
intensities up to 100 mm/h (and even
higher).
However, research and other
design documentation (Yeager 1974,
NAASRA 1986, Ibrahim & Hall 1994,
HCM 2000, Dash 2006) suggest that drivers
tend to slow as rainfall intensity increases
and visibility decreases. This slowing
typically occurs at about 50 mm/h however
some drivers start to reduce speed at rainfall
intensities as low as 25 mm/h. As speed
decreases, the potential for aquaplaning also
decreases.
The department has adopted and used the
rainfall intensity of 50 mm/h to determine
water film depths for some time now and it

Chapter 11
is considered appropriate to continue to use

this intensity until further research / review
supports change.
11.3.8 Assessment
Aquaplaning Potential
Efforts to quantify the probability of an
accident occurring due to aquaplaning for a
given rainfall intensity and pavement
conditions are made difficult due to the
following factors:
Groups of vehicles following each
other in lanes may pump the lane
dry to varying degrees;
Tyre tread thickness, vertical load
and width vary considerably because
of the many types of vehicles; and
The number of drivers slowing down
or not at the rainfall intensity needs
to be quantified.
Furthermore, there are some non-design
issues that can affect aquaplaning potential,
such as:
Signing for
conditions;
changed
weather
Driver education programmes to

raise awareness of aquaplaning
issues; and
Cleaning of open graded asphalt.
Despite the above statements, guidelines are
needed to assist designers and others to
assess the potential for aquaplaning. The
following brief discussion provides
information to assist understanding of the
assessment criteria / limits provided in
Section 11.3.8.1.
In 1970, Staughton & Williams (NAASRA
1986) stated that it is possible to infer that
for vehicles travelling below about 80
100km/h with tyres in good condition, full
aquaplaning is not likely to occur (partial

aquaplaning however may occur). While in
1978,
Welleman
(NAASRA
1986)
produced very similar results, he also found
that increasing water depth reduces friction
coefficient, with the greatest reduction
occurring up to a depth of 4mm. Beyond
4mm, full aquaplaning may result,
depending on tyre condition and vehicle
speed.
In 1986, the NAASRA publication Guide to
the Design of Road Surface Drainage stated
that it is not completely possible to define
recommended design limits for water
depths, however:
Critical depth to cause hydroplaning
occurs at about 4mm and above; and
Partial hydroplaning may commence
at depths of about 2.5mm.
Designers should also consider:
Likely speed conditions under chosen
rainfall; and
Duration of water flow and depth on
pavement after cessation of rain.
What happens immediately after rainfall
ceases is important to consider as Yu &
McNown in 1963 (Ross & Russam 1968)
reported that runoff increases immediately
after cessation of rainfall and Andrey &
Yagar in 1991 (Ibrahim & Hall 1994) found
that collision risk returns to normal
immediately after rain stops.
11.3.8.1 Assessment Criteria
The following criteria are to be adopted for
geometric road design and incident
investigation purposes. Where situations
do not comply, the aquaplaning potential is
considered too high and review of design is
required.
January 2013
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11

Road surface geometry should be

such that drainage path lengths are
limited to about 60 m.
Time of flow for any drainage path
(refer Section 11.3.10) should be
limited to no more than 10 minutes.
A maximum water film depth of 2.5
mm (desirable) to 4.0 mm (absolute)
applies to:
o sections where the operating or
design speed is 80 km/h or higher;
o the approaches to and exits from
intersections and roundabouts;
o intersections and roundabouts;
o steep downhill sections;
o the merge section for entry ramps
/ overtaking lanes / climbing
lanes;
o the diverge section for exit ramps
/ overtaking lanes / climbing
lanes; and
o superelevated curves (particularly
those approaching limiting curve
speed).
A maximum water film depth of 5.0
mm (desirable and absolute) to all
other situations.
11
Every effort to comply with desirable limits

and to achieve both length and time of flow
requirements should be made. To assist,
superelevation may need to be applied
using more than one point or axis of
rotation (i.e. one or more lanes
independently rotated). On high speed,
wide flat pavements, it can be difficult (near
impossible) to achieve the 2.5 mm desirable
limit, however experience has shown that
depths of about 3.25 mm are achievable.
January 2013
11-48
Chapter 11
It should be noted that the approach to an

intersection or roundabout is defined as the
stopping sight distance (on a wet surface) to
the end of the anticipated queue.
11.3.8.2 Basis / Limits
It may first appear that by adopting both a
texture requirement and a water film depth
requirement, an authority would be
doubling up on its control of aquaplaning.
That is, one may ask why a texture
requirement is necessary if water film depth
requirements are satisfied. However, a
texture requirement is still necessary for the
following reasons:
It is possible for a pavement to meet
a water film depth requirement, but
still have very low texture. In this
case, although aquaplaning may not
be a likely occurrence (assuming the
tyres are in good condition), skidding
may still be possible in the wet as
both the adhesion and hysteresis
components of skid resistance may
be low.
It would be difficult and impractical
to regularly survey the entire road
network and determine water film
depth. Data required would include
gradient, cross-fall, transverse profile
(i.e. rutting), carriageway width,
longitudinal slope length and texture
depth.
11.3.9 Quick Assessment

Review of a flow path, such as those shown
in Figure 11.3.7.1 may show one or two
flat sub-paths (refer Drainage Path C).
Provided that these sub-paths are about 15
to 20 m in length, designers can use the
Gallaway formula over the section, in
isolation of the whole flow path, to

determine the water film depth. If the water

film depth is close to or exceeds acceptable
limits, then further calculations are not
required and review of the geometrics can
commence. If the water film depth is less
than acceptable limits, then full analysis of
the flow path, as per Sections 11.3.7 and
11.3.8, is required to confirm acceptable
depths.
11.3.10 Time of Flow

As stated in Section 11.3.8, it can be
important for designers to consider the time
of flow on the road surface after rainfall
ceases. For road surface flows, the time of
flow (time of concentration) for any given
flow path can be estimated using the
Kinematic Wave equation.
The equation adopted (Book 8, AR&R
(IEAust 2001)) is given below:
6.94 L n *
I 0.4 S 0.3
Chapter 11
Since the equation involves rainfall

intensity, it must be solved together with
the relationship between duration t and
intensity I. This can be done iteratively or
directly by preparing a table of values of
t.I0.4. An example of the use of this
equation is provided in Book 8 of AR&R
(IEAust 2001).
Where evidence exists that suggests flow
over the road surface continues well beyond
the estimated time (as determine using
Kinematic Wave Equation), further
investigation is required as water flow from
adjacent surface catchment or from off the
road may be contributing. In these cases,
advice should be sought from Principal
Engineer (Road Design Standards), Road
Planning & Design Section, Engineering &
Technology Division.
11.3.11 Puddles / Wheel Ruts
0.6
Where;
t = overland travel time (min);
L = length of drainage path (m);
n* = surface roughness (similar but
not identical to Mannings n);
I = rainfall intensity (mm/h); and
S = slope of drainage path (m/m).
This equation only applies to planes of flow
which are homogeneous in slope and
roughness.
For any drainage path
consisting of several sub-paths, each with a
different slope, it is recommended to use
the equal area slope for S in the equation.
This gives a reasonable estimation of the
time of flow, however if a more accurate
time is required, designers are referred to
Book 8 of AR&R (IEAust 2001).
Wheel ruts may produce long puddles

(parallel to vehicle travel) or alter the flow
path of road surface drainage. The road
crossfall and grade and the wheelpath width
may influence the potential for ponding in
wheelpath ruts.
It is important when assessing existing
roads for aquaplaning potential, particularly
for incident investigations, to determine the
depth of flow in wheel ruts. This depth can
be determined by using the method as
presented in Figure 11.3.11, which is based
on the average wheel rut width of 760 mm
(RTA 1994).
Crossfall in this equation is measured at
right angles to the road centreline and no
allowance is made for grade.
January 2013
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11

Chapter 11
Figure 11.3.11 - Puddle Depth Formula
11.3.12 Guidance to Reduce

Aquaplaning Potential
Aquaplaning may be a greater problem
where braking, hard acceleration or change
of vehicle direction occurs as these
manoeuvres place additional demands on
friction over that of normal driving.
Particular braking situations are:
If an unacceptable water depths result from

the procedure detailed in Sections 11.3.7
and 11.3.8, the designer must consider
methods of shortening the flow path such
as:
altering the crossfall;
adjusting the rate of superelevation
development;
the approaches to intersections and

roundabouts;
altering either the horizontal or

vertical alignments (or both); and
the diverge for exit ramps;
introducing more crown lines.
on steep downhill sections; and

Particular hard acceleration situations are:
at the merge section of entry ramps /
overtaking lanes / climbing lanes.
at the diverge section of overtaking
lanes / climbing lanes.
11
when entering / exiting roundabouts.
Particular change in direction situations

are:
intersections and roundabouts;
on superelevated curves (particularly
those approaching limiting curve
speed); and
January 2013
11-50
It is important to consider the interplay of

longitudinal grading and crossfall to
prevent water film depth developing to or
beyond set limits (refer Section 11.3.8.1).
Any identified problems should be solved
and mitigated through amended geometric
road design.
A drainage solution to
aquaplaning should be only considered as a
last resort option. If a drainage solution is
required, specialist advice is highly
recommended in the development /
assessment of design options.
Aquaplaning has occurred occasionally on
existing roads. One treatment of existing

surfaces involves reconstructing the road

surface crossfall to allow surface water to
drain more quickly / reduce length of flow
path. However, the redesigned road surface
crossfall needs to comply with the
requirements in the departments Road
Planning and Design Manual - A guide to
QLD practice and Austroads Guide to
Road Design series.
Where modifying the crossfall of existing
roads to reduce the risk of aquaplaning is a
problem, the use of open graded asphalt as
an overlay should be considered. This
should be an overlay of OG14 open graded
asphalt, generally 40 mm thick (depending
on compaction requirements) on top of a
tack coat over the existing pavement. Use
of open graded asphalt at other locations
where the calculated water film depth is
marginally above the allowable maximum
may also be appropriate.
For concrete roads, problem locations
which have been found to need rectification
are usually but not always confined to
transitional areas of superelevation.
Surface texture is applied to hardened
concrete by carbide grinding, diamond
grinding and/or grooving, sand blasting or
water blasting.
11.4
Subsurface Drainage
The purpose of subsurface (or subsoil)

drainage is to control the moisture content
of the pavement and the surrounding
material in order to maintain pavement
strength and serviceability throughout the
design life. This section has largely been
taken from Austroads Guide to Road
Design - Part 5 (2008).
Subsurface or subsoil drains are provided in
order to avoid the following types of
premature failures:
Chapter 11
loss of subgrade strength and shape

due to an increase in moisture
content in moisture susceptible
materials;
overload of the subgrade due to
hydrostatic transmission of live load
through a saturated pavement; and/or
layer
separation
and
formation in the pavement.
pothole
11.4.1 Moisture in Roads

Some moisture is always present in the
subgrade and unbound paving materials due
to capillary moisture movement controlled
by the environment.
If this becomes
excessive, the subgrade and pavement can
be weakened appreciably. Consequently, it
is important to minimise ingress of water
into the pavement and subgrade.
Control of subsurface water is the
key to longevity of the pavement.
The main mechanisms by which moisture
can enter a road subgrade and/or pavement
are shown diagrammatically in Figure
11.4.1 and include:
Longitudinal seepage from higher
ground, particularly in cuttings and in
sag vertical curves;
Rise and fall of water table level
under a road;
Rainfall infiltration through the road
surfacing;
Capillary moisture from the verges;
Capillary water from a water table;
Vapour movements from a water
table;
Lateral movement of moisture from
pavement materials comprising the
road shoulder;
January 2013
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11

Water flowing or standing in table

drains, in catch drains, in median
areas, within raised traffic islands, or
adjacent to the road (not illustrated);
Leakage of water supply and
drainage lines (not illustrated); and
Passage
of
water
through
construction joints in pavements, and
back and front of kerb and channel,
between old and new pavements and
Chapter 11
behind bridge
illustrated).
Figure 11.4.1 - Sources of Moisture (Adapted from ARRB (1987))
January 2013
(not
It is important to note that in some flood

plains and low lying areas, a permanent,
high-level water table may exist. Subsoil
drains may be ineffective in such areas,
particularly where it is difficult to provide
an outlet. In some cases, such drains could
act in reverse and provide a means of access
for water to the pavement.
11
11-52
abutments

In these circumstances, the most effective

measure which can be taken to control
subgrade moisture conditions is to raise the
subgrade above the surface of the ground.
A height of 1.2 m above the water table is
suggested (Earley 1979). This is usually
impossible in urban street construction, in
which case the pavement design should take
into consideration the soaked conditions. In
some situations, a cement or bituminous
stabilised subbase and/or base may be used.
Reference should be made to the
departments Pavement Design Manual.
Roads on a thick layer of soft, compressible
clay also need special consideration and
geotechnical advice should be sought for
requirements such as preloading and other
possible drainage mechanisms.
11.4.2 Control of Road Moisture

The three basic techniques for controlling
moisture are:
Layer protection: For example, seal
coats, plastic sheeting and other
impermeable barriers placed at
various levels in the pavement
structure. The durability of this type
of moisture control is suspect, and if
the barrier lets some moisture in,
pavement failure is likely.
Rendering Subgrade Insensitive:
Lime or cement stabilisation are
examples of this technique. The
advantage is that the load capacity of
the stabilised material does not
significantly decrease with increasing
moisture content. The disadvantages
are additional expense and a
significant reduction in permeability
(provided that cracks do not
develop).
Chapter 11
Subsurface drainage: Removal of

moisture from the pavement structure
via a subsurface drainage system. A
correctly designed and maintained
subsurface drainage system is the
only way of ensuring a stable
moisture condition.
This section is concerned only with the
subsurface drainage technique.
11.4.3 Types of Subsurface

Drainage
Subsurface drainage systems are generally
installed in a road either to remove water
from the subgrade and pavement materials
or to intercept water before it reaches the
road structure.
The former type is known as a pavement
drain, and the latter is called a cut-off drain
or a formation drain.
Consideration of the permeability and
capillary moisture characteristic of the
material surrounding the pavement is a
major factor in assessing the need and type
of subsurface drainage required.
Suitable drainage systems for various
conditions are presented below.
(a) Drainage for Surface Infiltration
Figure 11.4.3(a) illustrates the type of
subsoil drainage suitable for a permeable
base and surface contained in relatively
impermeable material.
Figure 11.4.3(b) illustrates an embankment
with the permeable base and surface on a
relatively impermeable subgrade. A free
draining layer is provided in the shoulders
below a low permeability material.
A variation is to carry the full permeable
base course over the full width of the
shoulders.
January 2013
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11

(b) Groundwater
A static water table may be lowered by
using either drainage trenches shown in
Figure 11.4.3(c) or a horizontal filter
blanket shown in Figure 11.4.3(d).
The horizontal filter blanket will also act as
an intercepting barrier for capillary
moisture in some situations.
Chapter 11
subsurface flow into a drainage pipe before

it can enter the road structure. The trench
should be excavated to at least the depth of
the permeable strata.
Upward flow from a pervious aquifer is
usually controlled by constructing a
horizontal filter blanket in the base of the
excavation as shown on Figure 11.4.3(f).
If water flows along an inclined permeable

layer, as shown in Figure 11.4.3(e), a trench
should be constructed to divert the
Figure 11.4.3(a) - Drainage for Surface Infiltration with Subsoil Drains
11
Figure 11.4.3(b) - Drainage for Surface Infiltration with Free Draining Layer
January 2013
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Chapter 11
Figure 11.4.3(c) - Drainage Trenches to Lower Water Table
Figure 11.4.3(d) - Horizontal Filter Blanket to Lower Water Table
11
Figure 11.4.3(e) - Trenches to Intercept Flow through an Inclined Permeable Layer
January 2013
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Chapter 11
Figure 11.4.3(f) - Permeable Filter to Lower the Effect of Head from a Permeable Aquifer
(c) Standard Drains

Subsoil drains, described in Standard
Specification MRTS03 (TMR 2010c), are
shown in Figure 11.4.3(g). The depth of
these drains may be increased to suit the
particular installation.
Subsurface drain pipes may be surrounded
by a single stage filter, or by two stage
filters. Filter materials can consist of
aggregates (ranging in size from sand to
cobble size), geotextiles or combinations of
aggregates and geotextiles. The level of
filtering will be determined by the
prevailing soil types and any environmental
requirements on the discharge. In some
cases a second stage filtering may be
required and this can take the form of a
geotextile wrap either around the pipe or
around all the filter material.
11
A more recent form is the geocomposite

edge drain sometimes known as a strip filter
or fin drain. These are prefabricated with a
polymer core wrapped in a geotextile. They
can be installed in much narrower trenches
than traditional pipe-based drains.
Material requirements are contained in
MRTS03 (TMR 2010c) including those for
sheet filter drains, trench backfill, fibre
January 2013
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reinforced concrete pipes, corrugated steel

pipes, polyvinylchloride pipes, and plastic
pipes (perforated and unperforated). See
also Section 11.4.4 on filter materials.
The departments Standard Specification
MRTS04 (TMR 2010c) is also relevant.
Figure 11.4.3(h) shows typical subsoil drain
outlets and cleanouts in an urban
environment. Standard Drawing No. 1116
(DMR 2009b) provides further details
including treatments for rural environments.
The outlets of subsoil drains discharging
into gully pits, manholes, or culvert
endwalls are preferred. Outlets discharging
to natural surface should be made
accessible for maintenance operations and a
concrete headwall should be constructed
together with a small area concreted or
rockpitched around it as shown on the
standard drawing. To aid finding the outlet
a timber marker post should be maintained.
Accurate records of the position, depth and
type of subsoil drains which are installed
should be maintained.

Chapter 11
the surrounding material, but at the same

time fine enough to keep that material in
place.
In addition the filter should be stable under
flow situations and should itself be
prevented from washing into perforations or
joints in drainage pipes.
These requirements can be satisfied in
various ways, usually by either granular
materials or synthetic filter fabrics
(geotextiles).
Notes: 1 Minimum cover for various compactors

unless approved otherwise:
Hand held compactors - 100 mm
Compactors < 15 tonnes 200 mm
Compactors > 15 tonnes 200 mm
2. All dimensions are in millimetres.
Figure 11.4.3(g) - Standard Subsoil

Drains
11.4.4 Requirements of Filter

Materials
This section contains extracts from the
Guide to the Control of Moisture in Roads
(NAASRA 1983) and applies to most
drains.
A filter material is required in any
permanent subsurface drainage system to
prevent fine soil particles from washing into
the system. For satisfactory performance a
filter material must be more permeable than
Filter materials are not usually necessary in

temporary drainage systems or where the
surrounding soil is known to be very stable.
Examples of stable material are fractured
rock, fissured or jointed heavy clays or
other weathered materials and naturally or
artificially cemented materials. Care should
be taken to determine whether fissured or
jointed materials are sufficiently stable
under adverse conditions to warrant
dispensing with a filter material. Water
flowing from joints should be examined for
suspended particles, and the susceptibility
of the material to erosion in the disturbed or
undisturbed state determined.
Standard Specification MRTS27 (TMR
2010c) describes the material requirements
and work to be carried out for the relevant
Geotextiles in drains and trenches and
drainage blankets, and Geotextiles under or
within embankments.
The design of granular filter material is
described in Subsurface Drainage of Road
Structures (ARRB 1987).
11
January 2013
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Chapter 11
Note: The pavement base course may be more permeable than the subbase.
Relative permeabilities should be considered in locating the drains,
Figure 11.4.3(h) - Subsoil Drain Outlets and Cleanouts
11.4.5 Design Procedure

The steps involved in designing a
subsurface or subsoil drainage system are:
1.
2.
11
3.
Decide on an appropriate materials

testing and site investigation program
for the project.
After groundwater investigation, carry
out hydraulic design of cut-off drains
(Section 11.4.9).
At the road grading stage, ensure that
fills are high enough to inhibit
capillary rise (Section 11.4.17) and to
allow for subsurface drain outlets, and
that cuts can be properly drained.
January 2013
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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Arrange for pavement design. The

pavement depth must be known to set
subsurface drain levels.
Obtain a copy of the road geometry.
Select the appropriate locations of
subsurface drains from Section 11.4.6.
If subsurface drains can be placed
parallel to the road surface in the
vertical plane, subsurface drain
detailing can follow stormwater
drainage design.
Where the longitudinal grade of the
road is very flat (less than 0.5%
grade), and there is a need for
independent grading of subsurface
drains, both drainage systems could be

designed concurrently if appropriate to

do so.
9. Identify cut-to-fill lines and locate the
transverse drains.
10. Detail the locations of inlets and outlet
pits where these do not coincide with
stormwater pits.
Drainage facilities should be designed and
constructed recognising that periodic
inspection and repair will be required and
provide for the safety of maintenance
personnel as well as for road users.
Investigation of potentially cracked or
failed underground pipes should be carried
out using a remote television camera to
reduce the risk to inspection personnel.
11.4.6 Location of Subsoil Drains
Chapter 11
Subsurface drains should be placed along:

the low sides of pavements;
both sides of the pavement near any
cut-to-fill line;
both sides of a kerbed pavement;
the high side of pavement where
seepage is evident, or where water
may enter from batters, full-width
pavement, service trenches or
abutting properties; and
joins between an existing pavement
and a pavement widening where
pavement depths or permeabilities
could create a moisture trap.
In medians, subsurface drains should be
considered along the:
Where moisture ingress is unlikely, heavy

commercial traffic is light, and similar
pavement designs in the vicinity of the
project
have
already
performed
satisfactorily without subsurface drainage,
then subsoil drains for new projects may be
omitted. It is difficult to describe all
circumstances that warrant the installation
of subsurface drains, but where soils are not
free draining (i.e. clays, silts, loams) or
where there is a likelihood of water ponding
near the pavement, subsurface drains should
be considered.
low side of a dished median where

the median drain invert level is less
than 0.2 m below subgrade level of
the adjacent pavement;
While provision of subsurface drains

without design may appear excessive, it is
prudent to provide drains extensively on
main roads where soils are not free
draining. Omission of subsurface drains on
main roads has caused premature pavement
failure and considerable expense in
installing them afterward. The following
guidelines are offered where seepage is not
obvious.
Figure 11.4.6(a) shows typical locations of

subsoil drains in a divided road in a cutting.
The width and nature of the median
determines the number of subsoil drains
required.
low side of a kerbed median where

the cross-slope is 10% or more;
sides of a median with a fixed
watering system or wider than 6 m;
and
centre of flat grassed medians
without fixed watering systems and
less than 6 m wide.
Grassed medians can provide a means by

which water can enter the pavement or
subgrade. Medians should therefore be
constructed of a material of low
permeability (eg. a compacted soil
aggregate as recommended for shoulders)
January 2013
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11

Chapter 11
except for 100 mm of topsoil to grow grass.

Provision of an impermeable membrane
under the median should be considered
also.
entry of water from grassed medians, or

where there is a significant difference in
level between roadways, or where
permeable subsoil surface strata exists.
However, where median planting other than

grass is required for aesthetic or headlight
screening reasons, the low permeability
material or impermeable membrane will
inhibit growth and should not be used.
Figure 11.4.6(b) shows typical locations of

subsoil drains in a low embankment or
transition zone from embankment to cut.
Longitudinal subsoil drainage should be

provided where there is a possibility of
Figure 11.4.6(c) shows a typical example in

a cutting where subsoil drains are often
required.
See Note
Note: If invert of median drain is not much lower than pavement layers and/or the possibility of seepage from median
back under pavement exists, a subsoil drain should be considered here.
Figure 11.4.6(a) - Location of Subsoil Drains (Divided Road)
High Side
Low Side
11
Figure 11.4.6(b) - Subsoil Drains - Low Embankment or Transition from Embankment to
Cut.
January 2013
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Chapter 11
11
Figure 11.4.6(c) - Subsoil Drains in Cuttings
January 2013
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Chapter 11
11.4.7 Transverse Subsurface

Drains
a herringbone pattern if necessary to

achieve the minimum grade.
Transverse, strip filter subsurface drains, as

shown in Figure 11.4.7, should be
considered:
on the upstream side of cut-to-fill
lines;
along changes of pavement depth or
permeability; and
at both ends of bridge approach slabs.
11.4.8 Cut-off Drains

Subsurface cut-off
considered:
drains
should
be
along both sides of cuts where the

road is known to be below the water
table, or where seepage is
encountered during construction, or
where seepage is expected in wet
weather;
transversely at any seepage areas,
and further downgrade if required.
The transverse drains may be laid in
11.4.9 Design of Cut-off Drains

Simple analysis consisting of homogeneous
layers of differing permeability rarely
applies to natural conditions. Fissures,
joints, faults and bedding planes in soil or
rock structures can have large hydrostatic
head differences over short distances that
may vary rapidly. Strategic placement of
piezometers and standpipes is therefore of
the utmost importance. Theoretical models
can give good results only if the ground
conditions input during design, are close to
those in the field.
Road surfaces are more permeable than
generally imagined, and the quantity of
water entering a pavement (infiltration
rate), may be estimated by multiplying the
infiltration coefficient (refer Table 11.4.9)
by the two year, one hour rainfall intensity
over the surface area.
11
Figure 11.4.7 - Transverse, Strip Filter Subsurface Drain
January 2013
11-62

Once the infiltration rate is estimated (in

m/s), and the coefficient of permeability has
been determined by laboratory testing, the
quantity of water entering the road or the
inflow is determined by applying Darcys
law:
qm kAi
Where:
qm = flow rate entering the surface
(m3/s);
k = permeability or infiltration rate
(m/s);
A = area of pavement (taken as one
metre square in this application); and
i = hydraulic gradient, i.e. head of
water divided by length of drainage
path (m/m).
A hydraulic gradient of unity is suggested
for rain falling on a surface. With a
hydraulic gradient of unity the inflow as
calculated from the above equation is equal
to the infiltration rate multiplied by the
surface area of the pavement.
Table 11.4.9 - Surface Infiltration

Coefficient
Chapter 11
However, to avoid the system failing due to

partial blocking of the drain, the drain
should be designed to carry at least three
times the expected flow. Generally, the
diameter of subsurface drains should be no
less than 100 mm. In some cases a
combined stormwater and subsurface
drainage system may be used.
11.4.11 Materials
Subsurface drains are manufactured from a
range of materials but all require some form
of perforation to allow subsurface water to
enter the pipe.
Corrugated polyethylene agricultural drain
is the cheapest material. Pipes with a
diameter of 90 mm are regarded as the
minimum for roadwork.
Smooth polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe is
used to convey flows across pavement, or
may be used where longitudinal gradients
are flatter than 0.5%. Since this material is
expensive, herringbone grading of
corrugated pipe is typically applied. Pipe
sizes generally range from 100 mm
diameter to 300 mm diameter.
11.4.10 Size of Drain
Prefabricated polyethylene (PE) drain, also

known as strip or fin drain, may be laid in
batters or parallel to the pavement to
intercept groundwater. It may be used
across a pavement if the trench is backfilled
with no-fines concrete. This material has
less
hydraulic
capacity
than
the
corresponding diameter of pipe, so this may
have to be checked. Depths of the fin
drains are typically 200 mm to 450 mm in
depth.
The grade line of the drain is generally

known. There are a number of design
charts available which can be used to size
the drain given the slope and the volume of
water that the drains are required to carry.
Concrete pipes are

groundwater flows
available in plastic
common use range
mm in diameter.
Surface type
Infiltration
coefficient
Sprayed seal
0.2 0.25
Asphalt
0.2 0.4
Cement concrete
0.3 0.4
Unsealed shoulders
0.4 0.6
typically used where

require diameters not
pipes. Pipe sizes in
from 300 mm to 750
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11

Perforated corrugated steel is typically used

for deep cut-off drains where the soil and
groundwater are not highly corrosive. They
require specific structural design.
11.4.12 Access to Subsurface

Drains
Inlets and outlets for subsurface drains
should be located clear of the traffic lanes.
Where the inlet must be located in the
shoulder, a pit with a trafficable steel cover
should be used. The inlet should not be
located in a position where it would be
possible for stormwater to enter the
subsurface drainage system.
Figure 11.4.3(h) shows typical subsoil drain
outlets and cleanouts in an urban
environment. Standard Drawing No. 1116
(DMR 2009b) provides further details
including treatments for rural environments.
Pits for subsurface drainage should be
spaced not further than 150 m apart for ease
of inspection and cleaning of the pipes.
Maximum spacing between a cleanout and
an outlet should generally not exceed 120 m
to facilitate inspection and flushing. In
cuttings where groundwater is not present,
the distance to the outlet of a pavement
drain may be much greater, but
intermediate pits should generally be placed
at a maximum spacing of 120 m.
Where groundwater occurs in a cutting, the
seepage should be conveyed from the
subsurface drain into an impervious
collector pipe to minimise water penetration
of pavement remote from the problem area.
11
Outlets should be in areas that are easily

accessible and, where possible, visible to
personnel standing on the road surface. An
outlet should not hinder road maintenance
January 2013
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Chapter 11
activities such as cleaning unlined table

drains or grass cutting.
Outlets should be provided with some form
of erosion protection commonly referred to
as a splash zone. Typically, this consists of
either:
a masonry or concrete apron; or
an area of large aggregate to dissipate
the outflow energy.
11.4.13 Lowering of Ground

Watertable
The lowering of a static watertable is
achieved through the use of a system of
vertical cut-off drains below the road
pavement as shown in Figure 11.4.13.
Table 11.4.13 is used for a preliminary
assessment of the effectiveness of a
proposed
trench
drainage
system.
However, if the subgrade permeability is
less than 100 nm/s then vertical drains on
both sides of the roadway are unlikely to be
effective in lowering a water table. An
alternative solution to subsoil drainage
should be adopted, such as pavement design
based on saturated subgrade strength.
11.4.14 Schilfgaardes Method

Schilfgaardes method (Austroads 2008a)
can be used to determine the drain spacing
that will lower the water table by mo m
(see equation below). The accuracy of the
solution is extremely dependent on the
accuracy of k and f (i.e. permeability and
drainable pore space of the subgrade). The
geometry of the drainage problem and the
effect of a typical subsurface pipe
arrangement is shown in Figure 11.4.14(a).

Chapter 11
Figure 11.4.13 - Typical Groundwater Drainage System
Table 11.4.13 - Effectiveness of Trench Drainage Systems

Amount of lowering in (m) after different periods midway between two 1
Coefficient
metre deep trenches
of
permeability
(initial watertable 1 m above bottom of trenches)
k (nm/s)
Trench spacing 3 m
Trench spacing 10 m
Trench spacing 20 m
3 months
3 months
3 months
1 year
1.00
1.00
1 year
1.00
1.00
1 year
10000
1.00
1.00
1000
1.00
1.00
0.93
1.00
0.48
0.93
100
0.94
1.00
0.23
0.65
0.06
0.23
10
0.25
0.68
0.03
0.10
0.00
0.03
1.0
0.03
0.11
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.1
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Source: Adapted from Golden (1979) (as reproduced in Austroads 2008a)
The Schilfgaarde Equation is:

1
k d e m o d e m t 2
L 3 j
2 f m o m
Where:
L = spacing between drains (m);
j = geometrical factor (determined
from Figure 11.4.14(b);
k = saturated permeability (m/s);
de = equivalent depth of drain to
impervious barrier (m). Differs from
d because of convergence of the flow
lines;
d = height of drain above impervious
barrier (m);
mo = depth of drain below original

watertable (m);
m = depth of drain below lowered
watertable (m);
mo m = distance watertable is
lowered (m);
t = time to lower water table (sec);
and
f = drainable pore space, expressed as
a fraction of total volume drained at
600 mm tension (typically clays
range from 0.03 to 0.11, well
structured loams from 0.10 to 0.15
and sands range from 0.18 to 0.35).
The solution requires that a starting
estimate of L (drain spacing) be input with
known values of d, mo, m, k, t and f. The
January 2013
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11

equivalent depth, de is estimated from

Figure 11.4.14(b). This is then used to
calculate the following convergence factor:
d e d e mo
Chapter 11
recalculated and if different from the initial

guess, a further iteration of calculations is
commenced with the revised equivalent
depth.
The convergence factor is then used with

Figure 11.4.14(c) to estimate j. L is
Figure 11.4.14(a) - Geometry of the Drainage Problem and Effect of Subsurface Drains
11
Figure 11.4.14(b) Equivalent Depth for Convergence Correction
January 2013
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Chapter 11
Figure 11.4.14(c) Dependence of Factor j on Depth to Impervious Layer
11.4.15 Draining an Inclined

Aquifer
The design of a subsurface drainage system
which intercepts an inclined aquifer as
shown in Figure 11.4.15 is relatively
straightforward. Darcys law governs the
discharge from the aquifer.
Darcys law is:
qm kAi
Where:
qm = flow rate per unit length of
trench (m3/m);
k = permeability of the aquifer (m/s);
A = area of aquifer (taken as
thickness of aquifer in this
application, since the discharge
required is per unit metre of length);
and
i = slope of the aquifer (when the
piezometric heads within the aquifer
are equal) (m/m).
To ensure that the subsurface drainage

systems intercept all of the seepage, the
permeability of the filter material and the
width of the trench need to be checked.
This implies that the piezometric head must
drop to zero within the trench filter
material.
The principle is shown
mathematically below.
The ratio of the permeability of the aquifer
material divided by the permeability of the
filter material is:
tan B tan A k a k f
Where:
tan (B) = can be approximated by
W/T (width of the trench divided by
the thickness of the aquifer);
tan (A) = can be approximated by the
slope of the aquifer (shown as s in
Figure 11.4.15;
ka = permeability of aquifer material
(m/s); and
kf = permeability of filter material
(m/s).
January 2013
11-67
11

The nomenclature used is shown in Figure

11.4.15.
There are two values, which can be altered
by the drainage designer (W or kf) to
balance the permeability ratio equation.
However, trench width is normally fixed to
a standard value (typically 300 mm) and so
it then becomes a case of selecting filter
material to ensure that the ratio tan (B)/tan
(A) is less than ka/kf.
11.4.16 Design of a Filter Blanket

to Lower a Water Table
Where a pavement is to be placed within or
below the natural groundwater level it may
be necessary to lower the water table. This
can be achieved by placing a horizontal
filter blanket below the pavement. The
design of the filter blanket should be
undertaken using analytical procedures such
as flownet procedures and finite element
methods. These analytical procedures are
beyond the scope of this document and are
usually undertaken by a geotechnical expert
11
Chapter 11
(refer to Guide to Road Design - Part 7:

Geotechnical Investigation and Design.
(Austroads 2008b).
11.4.17 Capillary Rise in Soils

Where a shallow formation is proposed
over saturated ground, or fine-grained
embankments crossing swamps, the height
of capillary rise of the groundwater should
be calculated to ensure that excess water
does not enter the pavement. The rise in
capillary water can be calculated using:
hc
10C
eD10
Where:
hc = capillary rise (mm);
C = an empirical constant that
depends on the shape of the grains
and varies from 0.1 to 0.5 cm2 (for
perfect spheres, C = 0.1 cm2); and
Source: Adapted from ARRB (1987)

Figure 11.4.15 - Trench Excavated Through an Inclined Aquifer
January 2013
11-68

Chapter 11
D10 = Allen Hazens effective grain

size based on the sieve opening in cm
that 10% of the material passes. The
value is obtained from the grading
curve; and
e = void ratio.
The void ratio can be determined using:
VV
V VV
Where:
VV = total volume of voids (units).;
and
V = total volume (units).
11
January 2013
11-69

Appendix 11A
Worked Examples
Appendix 11A
Worked Examples
11
A
March 2010

Appendix 11A
Worked Examples
Appendix 11A Amendments Mar 2010

Revision Register
Issue/
Rev
No.
1
11
A
March 2010
ii
Reference
Section
-
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Initial Release of 2nd Ed of manual.
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010

Appendix 11A
Worked Examples
Aquaplaning Example
This example describes the process to determine the water film depth at key points along a
design pavement surface and to assess the aquaplaning potential.
The example commences after obtaining the road surface contours over a superelevation
transition section of the road and several drainage paths identified.
The tasks for this example is, given the data below, estimate the water film depth at key points
along the path and assess any aquaplaning potential.
Refer to Section Chapter 11.3.
Project Data
Design speed = 100 km/h;
Surfacing is Dense Graded Asphalt; and
Road surface contours and cross section - refer figures below.
DP3
DP2
DP4
Shoulder
DP1
Shoulder
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March 2010
11A-1

Appendix 11A
Worked Examples
Part of Type Cross Section
Step 1.
Review the contour plan. Four drainage paths have been identified:
For drainage path 1 (DP1), this path, while some 26m long, flows from one side to the
other and is not the critical path.
The remaining three paths (DP 2 to 4) all start on one side, travel towards the other side
and then turn to drain off the same side as they started.
The longest path is considered the critical path, therefore drainage path 2 (DP2) will be
analysed.
Extract drainage path profile for DP2:
Ht (m)
Distance
(m)
Start
6.68
0.0
start of flattest section
6.05
24.2
end of flattest section
5.75
17.7
Outer Wheel Path - inside lane
5.55
10.5
Outer Wheel Path - middle lane
5.40
6.4
Outer Wheel Path - outside lane
5.20
7.2
Point
Step 2.
Calculate the water film depth (D) for the longest drainage path (DP2).
11
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March 2010
11A-2
0.103 T 0.11 L0.43 I 0.59

S 0.42

Appendix 11A
Worked Examples
For Texture Depth T, refer Section and Table 11.3.7.3. For this example, the pavement is dense
graded asphalt, therefore use 0.5mm for T.
The Rainfall Intensity I, adopted for analysis is 50 mm/hr - refer Section 11.3.7.5.
For Drainage Path Length L, and Drainage Path slope S, refer Section 11.3.7.4. The slope to
each point assessed is the calculated Equal Area Slope (Se) as per the procedure shown in
Section 11.3.7.4. Summary of calculations is presented in the following table.
Chainage
Dist
(m)
Ht
(m)
Ht Diff.
Total A
(m2)
EAO
(m)
Se
(%)
6.68
24.2
24.2
6.05
0.63
7.62
0.63
2.60
41.9
17.7
5.75
.30
17.54
.837
2.00
52.4
10.5
5.55
.2
26.97
1.029
1.96
58.8
6.4
5.40
.15
35.31
1.201
2.04
66.0
7.2
5.20
.2
47.79
1.448
2.19
Where:
Total A is the total area under the profile.
EAO is the Equal Area Ordinate.
Se is the Equal Area Slope from the start of path to point of assessment.
With all variables determined, calculate the water film depth at each point:
0.103 0.5 0.11 66 0.43 50 0.59

0.5
2.19 0.42
(equation for last point)
= 3.68 mm
Summary of calculations for all points assessed:
Chainage
Water Film Depth (mm)
24.2
2.03
41.9
3.08
52.4
3.47
58.8
3.60
66.0
3.68
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11A-3

Appendix 11A
Worked Examples
Step 3.
The assessment criteria for aquaplaning potential over drainage path 2 (DP2), is discussed in
Section 11.3.8.
The criteria that applies to this section is a maximum water film depth of 2.5 mm (desirable) to
4.0 mm (absolute).
It can be seen that all three outer wheel path points exceed the desirable limit, but are below the
absolute limit of 4 mm.
Step 4.
Every effort to comply with desirable limits should be made, therefore review of the geometrics
is required - refer Section 11.3.12 and the Road Planning & Design Manual for guidance.
It should be noted that on high speed, wide flat pavements, it can be difficult (near impossible)
to achieve the 2.5 mm desirable limit, however experience has shown that depths of about 3.25
mm are achievable.
End of Example
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March 2010
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