The Adaptive Significance

of Human Variation
Today, biological anthropologists view human variation as the result of the
evolutionary factors weve already named: mutation; genetic drift (including founder
effect), gene flow; and natural selection (the latter is especially seen in adaptations to
environmental conditions, both past and present). As weve emphasized, cultural
adaptations have also played an important role in the evolution of our species, and
although in this discussion

CHAPTER

Modern Human Variation and Adaptation

stress In a physiological context,

any fac- tor that acts to disrupt
homeostasis; more precisely, the
bodys response to any fac- tor that
threatens its ability to maintain
homeostasis.
homeostasis A condition of
balance, or stability, within a
biological system, main- tained by
the interaction of physiological
mechanisms that compensate for
changes (both external and
internal).
acclimatization Physiological
responses to changes in the
environment that occur dur- ing an
individuals lifetime. Such responses
may be temporary or permanent,
depend- ing on the duration of the
environmental change and when in
the individuals life it occurs. The
capacity for acclimatization may typify
an entire species or population, and
because its under genetic influence,
its subject to evolutionary factors
such as natural selection or genetic
drift.

84

were primarily concerned with biological issues, we must still consider the
influence of cultural practices on human adaptive responses.
To survive, all organisms must maintain the normal functions of
internal organs, tissues, and cells within the context of an ever-changing
environment. Even during the course of a single, seemingly uneventful day,
there are numerous fluctuations in tempera- ture, wind, solar radiation,
humidity, and so on. Physical activity also places stress on physiological
mechanisms. The body must accommodate all these changes by compensating in some manner to maintain internal constancy, or homeostasis, and all
life-forms have evolved physiological mechanisms that, within limits, achieve
this goal.
Physiological response to environmental change is influenced by
genetic factors. Weve already defined adaptation as a functional response to
environmental conditions in populations and individuals. In a narrower sense,
adaptation refers to long-term evo- lutionary (that is, genetic) changes that
characterize all individuals within a population or species.
Examples of long-term adaptations in humans include some
physiological responses to heat (sweating) or excessive levels of ultraviolet
(UV) light (deeply pigmented skin in tropical regions). Such characteristics
are the results of evolutionary change in species or populations, and they
dont vary as the result of short-term environmental change. For example,
the ability to sweat isnt lost in people who spend their entire lives in predominantly cool areas. Likewise, people born with dark skin wont become
lighter even if theyre never exposed to intense sunlight.
Acclimatization is another kind of physiological response to
environmental condi- tions, and it can be short-term, long-term, or even
permanent. These responses to envi- ronmental factors are partially
influenced by genes, but some can also be affected by the duration and
severity of the exposure, technological buffers (such as shelter or clothing),
and individual behavior, weight, and overall body size.
The simplest type of acclimatization is a temporary and rapid
adjustment to an environmental change (Hanna, 1999). Tanning, which can
occur in almost everyone, is an example of this kind of acclimatization.
Another example (one youve probably experi- enced but dont know it) is the
very rapid increase in hemoglobin production that occurs when people who
live at low elevations travel to higher ones. This increase provides the body
with more oxygen in an environment where oxygen is less available. In both
these examples, the physiological change is temporary. Tans fade once
exposure to sunlight is reduced, and hemoglobin production drops to original
levels following a return to a lower elevation.
On the other hand, developmental acclimatization is irreversible and
results from expo- sure to an environmental challenge during growth and
development. Lifelong residents of high altitude exhibit certain expressions of
developmental acclimatization.
In the following discussion, we present some examples of how humans
respond to environmental challenges. Some of these examples characterize
the entire species. Others illustrate adaptations seen in only some
populations. And still others illustrate the more short-term process of
acclimatization.