AS BASED
ON
Prof.
W.
T.
Translated by A. E. KROEGER.
HARRIS.
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SCIENCE OF RIGHTS.
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BY
JOHANN GOTTLIEB
FICHTE.
TRANSLATED BY
A. E.
KROEGER.
EDITED BY
T.
HAEEIS,
COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION.
LONDON
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER &
:
CO., LTD.,
EDITOR S PREFACE
work is a translation by Mr. A. E.
from
the original edition of Das System der
Kroeger
Sittenlehre nach den Principien der Wissenschaftslehrc,
von Johann Gottlieb Fichte (Jena imd Leipzig, 1798),
together with an appendix containing a chapter on
Ascetism, or practical moral culture, translated from the
present
volume
of Fichte s
in that year.
This work, together with the Philos<phy
of Right, translated by Mr. Kroeger, and already pub
lished
&
Co.,
and protect
The
individual against attacks upon his freedom.
which
civil
institutions
are
and
State
the
family,
society,
or the institutions founded to realize morals
the
make
Fichte
conscious
of
is
Anyone who
method.
their
a few minutes
competent
methods
comparatively easy
to
think
A
for
reflects
to
of mind-activity.
of
objects
It is
belonging
to
EDITOR S PREFACE.
vi
nature
is
sciousness.
subjective
his
by
philosophy
searching
co-efficient
of
in
the
investigation
knowledge.
He
history of
into
the
discovered
make
in
introspection
the
form
of
observation.
objective
two modes
of
thinking
involve
different
fundamental
categories.
Objective observation thinks in
of time and space and external causation.
take
form
of self-activity,
and
the
form
Introspec
its
objects
the
It is evident
is
not
it is
completed without introspection, for this operation enters
as a factor in
knowing all living beings, such as plants,
EDITOR S PREFACE.
vii
or animals,
and men.
unconscious.
is
difference of
at
mastery of the
critical
its
higher
order of introspection, reach a series of necessary truths
belonging within the sphere of rational psychology.
Any candid student of the History of Philosophy, who
has given
much time
to
claims
made
introspection.
mathematical
he
is
forced
the higher
of
he
into
Newton
sees
agreement;
the mathematical author he is studying.
or
Leibnitz,
the insight
So
it
is
of
in
EDITOR S PREFACE.
Vlll
With
that
philosophy,
the
as
positive
great
with
it
mathematics,
results
are
is
attained in
true
some
with the
for
the
first
speculative
hundred pages
first
of
nature
for space
kit space
in
pure mind or
Fichte
of
the
book.
He
fact of consciousness.
is
To him
new determinations
originate
link in a chain of
it is
in the world.
It is not a
causality
of existence for
of
which
it
alone
is
responsible.
The idea
to
responsibility is the key to all questions relating
are not responsible for that which we do
freedom.
We
EDITOR
sible.
this
S"^
PREEA CE.
ix
responsibility
are partly of the conviction that their mental difficulties
are merely subjective.
They are unable to square their
intellectual conviction with their common- sense convic
tion,
practical position
intellectual sceptism
Kant shows
is
to
one,
and that
due to weakness
of insight.
the
is
correct
in his Third
Antimony
the
that he admits
Antimony.
mination
^for
its
of
succeeding
validity upon a
events
by prior events
of
rests
freedom.
higher causality
a causality that originates in self-determination
there could be no perseverance of causal influence, and
Without
would
consequently no chain of causality. Everything
of
side
the
to
and
nothing
belong to the side of effect,
a
without
for
This would be self-contradictory,
cause.
cause there could be no
effect.
Kant found
see
that
science
i
of
rights
of
morals.
Fichte
EDITOR S PREFACE,
movement
initiated
by Kant completes
its
German
union with
W.
WASHINGTON, D.C., December,
1896.
T.
HAREIS.
CONTENTS
Pages in
J.
G. Fichte,
1-12
INTRODUCTION
PART
I.
13-62
BOOK
I.
(Original pages
1 -70.
17
63-156
BOOK
II.
67
PART
II.
157-205
BOOK
III.
206-253
BOOK
IV.
254-365
BOOK V.
THEORY OF DUTIES
APPENDIX
ON ASCETISM
...
...
N.B.
The work
is
217
269
373
INTRODUCTION
How
this
being can ever become an object of representation
curious change will never be explained by anyone who
does not find a point wherein the objective and subjective
:
point
of,
With
it
be self-consciousness,
we always have
Only
from myself, the object
the diremption.
the conscious,
of this consciousness,
am
I at all
mechanism of conscious
ness rests upon the manifold views of this separation and
reunion of the subjective and the objective.
conscious of myself.
The
ivhole
2.
view
is
of theoretical philosophy to
such a harmony.
It is the business
to assert
harmony
point,
of our representations
sentable,
consciousness
so
why
it.
3.
The
doctrine of
morals
is
As
practical philosophy.
it
conform
to
results
Hence,
it
becomes
4.
^
I find
From
my
INTRODUCTION.
Whoever
of
At present we merely
it
sake of
What
is
no consciousness
manifoldness does
and how do
activity contain,
this
representation
I arrive at this
for the
of
manifold
my
?
sentation
of
the
matter,
directed,
by
this
of
this
me
sentation
of
is
my
may mean
namely, that
change which
I
am
/
is
something
myself
which
am
externally
empirically
to be the last
ground
of the
to occur.
which Imoivs
itself
of
this
knowing,
or,
in
it
THE SCIENCE OF
ETHICS.
knowing
Such an explanation
We
We
possible.
it;
and our
our sensuous
5-
posit
:
come
myself
as
I distinguish
to
make
the distinction
How
to determine the
Probably the
answer to the
first
question.
I do not know without
knowing somewhat ;
do not
INTRODUCTION.
know
an objective.
tion
is
If a
consciousness
is
posited;
possible at all.
likewise the relation of the dirempter, of the subjective
The latter, the objective, is to exist
and objective.
itself independently of the subjective; whereas
the former, the subjective, is to be dependent upon and
receive its material determination through the latter.
through
at
all.
separated only in
consciousness, because this separation is a condition of
and it is only
the possibility of all consciousness
of
pendent
consciousness,
but
are
am
to
say
I,"
does
its
being for
its object,
Even
if
already compelled
to
separate
through consciousness.
arise
try
merely
but
;
likewise
also
my
this
separation
only
through
"
saying thus,
which
is
I."
We
discover
am, and I
am
because I
know
of myself.
It is possible
6
is
to result
of
a,
result
of
is
be,
we
gation.
(5.
not
and no
other.
We
of
consciousness
the
subjective
also
appears,
may
very
At present, however, we
perceive, activity in general.
stand at the origin of all consciousness, and the repre
sentation which we have to investigate is therefore
necessarily a perception
i.e.,
INTRODUCTION.
Now what
And how
determined activity.
does this signify ?
it become a determined activity ?
Solely
does
through opposing to
it
ji
resistance,jopposing
it
through
ideal activity;
and
and
you perceive
No
necessarily resistance.
appearance of resistance, no
of activity.
appearance
Let not this be overlooked.
and
does appear
is
The law
itself,
which gives
rise
an immediate consciousness.
this,
that I
It
is
mediated
why
the
and not
through
as merely a cognizing
subject,
as
represented as the opposite of activity hence,
as
some
not
act,
something, which merely is, but does
ance
is
to remain in
thing quiet and dead, which merely strives
existence, and which, therefore, does certainly resist (with
a measure of power to remain what it is) all influences
in 110 wise attack
of freedom
it, but which can
upon
sciousness of myself.
perception of
my
by the positing
of
resistance
as
such.
Hence
this
resistance,
it,
my
causality,
and which we
to result from,
and
to be
by a
being.
We
their union,
to
cate which
posit
when
is
I ascribe
activity to
The schema
of
activity
in
myself
general,
as
an
agility,
INTRODUCTION.
only
so
form
of its activity is
concerned, appertains
as
far
form
the
concerned, for,
above that the material or the content
minedness
to
is
be
say
we have shown
is
another
in
of
relation
the deter-
determined
itself.
We
have thus also replied to our second questionI come to assume that an objective results from
a subjective, a being from a conception ? and in doing so
have deduced the principle of all practical philosophy.
For this assumption arises because I am absolutely
how do
bound
Absolute activity is
causality of the conception.
the one predicate, which immediately and absolutely
belongs to me and causality, through the conception, is
sensuous
is
representation
of
self-activity ,
Freedom is
and arises
to ourselves.
io
fact
is
my
We
thus obtain a
is
to
upon
new
mentioned as involved in
the representation of our activity, a characteristic which
it was not
necessary to point out before, and which we
have here, at the same time, deduced. But it is to be
well observed, that this previous originating of a concep
is only posited, and
pertains only to the sensuous
tion
view of our
is
self-activity.
itself
It
objective being, which is against our presupposition.
that in the course of connected consciousness the
is true,
conception
of
determined
purpose appears
the
as
conditioned
of
not
some objective
through
cognition
this view cannot be entertained here, at
the origin of all consciousness, where we take our
starting-point from activity, and where this activity is
being.
But
absolute.
INTRODUCTION.
Both ends
of the
connected by
whole world
u
have thus been
of reason
us.
this self-determin
From
is
How
this possible,
it
signify
Nothing, but
sentation of a will
is
causality,
But
to me a will.
/ who am to have causality upon
becomes
it is
and
it is
impossible for
we have
me
to think a causality
Hence
described in
is
the sub
its
origin;
upon that
likewise matter
itself.
in so far as I think,
also separated
Hence the
will
12
But
as not the same as the body.
appears, therefore,
another
but
is
distinction
and
nothing
this diremption
objective.
9-
hence, as
it
is
world
regarded as having changed, the
is
The
which
thing,
qualitativeness of
my
Nature,
causality
is
as the
precisely the same
the
Both are
matter.
same,
and
Our
into
investigation has therefore returned
is closed.
Its result
is,
in short, as follows
The only
absolute,
INTR OD UCTION.
upon which
all
be considered as united
As a
subject
and object
causality upon
contained in this appearance
(as
Ego).
which
is
is
my
self-determination.
PART
I.
fr
-h
BOOK
FIRST.
is
of
man an
asserted
that
there
manifests
do
to
impulsion
itself
certain
in
things
the soul
utterly
condition
of
man, in
so
far
as
such an impulsion
in his self
When
that impulsion
observation as a fact
is
is
as
may
discovered by him
and
it
certainly
is
such;
common knowledge is
particular duties; which
the
standpoint of ordinary consciousness, and
possible from
his
of
is sufficient
a moral behaviour.
Secondly.
with
within him.
If
it
will be
higher standpoint.
Now, how
this
is
of the
we
it,
assume,
is
as can indeed
and
manner
in
which some
that
rationality, is
scientific knowledge of the
us,
The
something whereof we speak.
grounds
it is,
as
of
these
deduced,
grounds being
development
from the highest and absolute principle of Egoness, and
shown to be a necessary* result thereof, is a deduction. It
is therefore our present task to furnish a deduction of the
of
this
19
present
science
of
morality
of
is
connected
the
with
the
deduction.
knowledge through
present
is derived from
principles of the latter
/science, and shows how the particular science of morality
/proceeds from the general science of knowledge, and thus
becomes a separate philosophical science.
This deduction
for
nature
is
necessarily our
far,
and since
own unchangeable
itself.
else,
and must
Nor is
differently in man before and after its deduction.
the science of morality a science of wisdom
as, indeed,
were impossible, since wisdom is rather an art than a
but morality is like all philosophy a science of
In its peculiar characteristic, however, it is
knowledge.
the theory of the consciousness of our moral nature in
general, and of our determined duties in particular.
So much concerning the significance and the object of
our intended deduction.
One more preliminary remark
for its proper
comprehension a remark made necessary
science
20
of trans
cendental philosophy.
The procedure of our deduction will be as follows
From
we
shall
deduce the
condition
temporarily regard
as
it
mere assumption
the
for
means, a science of
constructing, by
purpose
or not, and the
succeed
The
may
attempt
morality.
correctness of the assumption will riot have been proven
until the required science has actually been established
of
its
21
we
This we pretend to do on no
reply
remain altogether in the region of thinking,
and the ever-continuing misapprehension of transcen
To
this
account.
We
That
being in itself is still considered to be thinkable.
impulsion within us, what else is it than a thinking
which forces itself upon us than a necessary conscious
ness ?
Can we then ever proceed from a consciousness
of
mere
consciousness
to
the
a requirement within us
in the deduction is a
The
itself?
object
Do we
this
requirement,
that there is such
We
cannot go beyond
itself.
Eor the
22
This necessity of
only a necessary consciousness.
itself
forces
consciousness
immediately upon us on the
on the transcen
consciousness
of
ordinary
standpoint
is
The
standpoint we investigate its grounds.
whole
the
as
well
as
system of
following deduction,
is to be erected upon it, furnishes only
which
morality
a part of this necessary consciousness, and would be
very incorrectly apprehended if taken to signify any
dental
thing
else.
CHAPTER
I.
PROBLEM.
apart from
is
to
say,
all
A. SOLUTION.
EXPLANATION.
First.
What
I find myself?
The
easiest
you are
manner
yourself.
thinking in this,
You
to
your thinking.
But the
object
which
you think
is
in this
your thinking.
think again not a wall, however, but yourself.
As sure as you do this, you posit the thinking and the
Now
is
Applying
24
I
finds
What
The found
is
so
far
as
find
am
conscious of
no other activity
precisely as
independently of
it is,
my taking hold of
it.
It
was without having been taken hold of, and would have
remained as it was although I had not taken hold of it.
My taking hold of it was altogether accidental for it, and
did not change
it
in the least.
Thus, at
least,
do
appear
showing how
in
it
may
standpoint of speculation.
to the perceiving subject
;
to force itself
is
he
is
something
he is to recognize as himself.
What
Third.
willing,
What
and can
willing
it signifies,
is
difficulty.
as follows
are
the
grounds
of
it,
we do not
discuss
here.
We
25
substance
is
for
me
Hence
my
or I find myself
self,
have not an
imme
Now
to
there
latter,
the
willing]
is
and
never
this,
itself
and
become
PROOF.
now
First.
of
its
On
The
significance
this
26
described
and
to him.
Second.
On
of an objective
thinking there
The truth
itself.
of
that
of
we become
afterwards
as such,
i.e.,
our thinking
do this
is
conscious
of
our thinking
as a doing,
;
genius, without
to
objective,
that
it
thought.
Only in so far as the thought is the same as
the thinking do I hold the thought to be my self.
But
in the present case
we
27
thinking.
is
am
and
Ego simply by
is
i.e.,
in so far as
it is
to
object, is
itself
(not a
mere con
my
find
self,
is
my
willing.
Only in so far as I find myself
find myself, and in so far as I find myself
I necessarily find
myself willing.
self
willing do
KEMARK.
It is
I find
myself
"I
sciousness
diate,
is
but in
and
will itself
become a necessary
dition
self -consciousness.
of
am
that
I,
or as I
am
necessarily
may
be said
of
this
exist
its
in
and
for
me.
And
thus
it
28
appears
on the
science of morality
all
is
based
philosophy.
able
PROOF.
It
is
of a willing in general,
speak
undetermined
is
we speak
actual
ing
shall
anything
else
All
is
my
willing is
therefore conditioned by the perception of an external
object, and in willing I do not perceive myself as I am
in and for myself, but merely as I may become in a
SOLUTION CONCLUDED.
true essence, I
istic in willing.
is
my
pure being.
my
29
EXPLANATION.
This proposition
is
itself signifies
else.
Whatsoever
dependent, conditioned, or
be cognized, in so far as
is
through another
may
if
a ball
is set
grounded
it
is
thus,
upon which
Thus, for
can certainly have
movement, of the point from
in motion, I
An
absolute
first,
and in
itself
as
not primary.
it cannot be
cognized
mediately through another, but only immediately through
itself.
It is what it is because it is so.
In so far, therefore, as the willing is absolute and
primary,
it
This absoluteness
when we
it
is,
therefore,
Ego
which remains
That
willing, in the
it,
knowledge
yet
us incomprehensible
truth
as
is
that
when we
no further explicable,
explicable
is
truth, according to
to
say,
which
all
as truth,
other truth
any theoretical
interest.
consider myself
Faith.
In
the thing in itself), but generally does not know it.
our philosophy each one makes himself the absolute
or
basis,
of
his
philosophy:
31
hence our
But we can
who
are
How
most
this
it
in
conception (which is
has received here, the
difficult of
all conceptions in
philosophy, although
doubtless receive the highest clearness in the
progress of our present science, the whole object of
it
will
which
is
we make use
ILLUSTRATION.
There
of a rational
me now
Let
being but of it I do not speak here.
ask what is the first ground (not
condition) of
;
of the
spring?
determining
moments
32
itself to
being appears to
But
this
is
itself).
and hence we
what
is
this
remainder
itself to react, or
the real
ground
the conditions of
its
(The very
between this original tendency in
spring, and the same in the rational being,
essential distinction
the steel
arrive
at
comprehension
of
its
willing,
its
pure
and thus
absolute
ness.
this thinking,
must
which
fests
it
itself
the same.
of the
is to
33
jwilling.
name cannot
required knowledge be infused into him.
make it clear, for the whole conception has never been
thought before, much less named. But to give it a name,
we
will call
it,
absolute
At
is not
only a mere ~power, or facvUy~ ^or a
faculty is not actual, but is merely that which we think
in advance of our actuality, in order to be able to receive
suasion.
it
to think here is
when
for
the
conditions
of
RESULT.
The
activity;
and
it is
this
tendency
"which
is
thought,
when
34
the
Ego
is
itself
without relation to
anything external.
BEMARK.
CHAPTEK
WE
II.
is,
in
and
for itself;
or,
itself
the
This
(contemplates
Ego
is
is
we need
therefore only
by
this,
that the
is,
self
the Ego, and vice versa, no selfEgo without a being of that whereof
consciousness of
consciousness of the
existence.
is
is
is
its
essence.
36
We
PROBLEM.
To become
now proceed
EXPLANATORY.
self-evident that we are conscious whereof we
whether
we speak philosophically or otherwise.
speak,
Thus in the preceding chapter we became conscious of
something. The object of our consciousness was pro
duced through free self-determination of our thinking
faculty by means of an arbitrary abstraction.
It
is
But
at present
we
for us
originally,
i.e.,
of
independent
same object
all
exists
philosophising,
we have
just
now
How
were
this
universal reason
Why,
then, do
we
seek what
we already
possess
We
have
it
37
obtain
To the non-philosopher
it
may seem
OUR ORIGINAL
BEING.
Ego
this
power
is
posited.
external grounds.
Now
which we
itself
because
it
and
intelligence,
is
Ego
independent.
from
itself,
and posits
38
EXPLANATORY.
Let
from
me
itself.
is
all
is
to constitute its
contemplation of
something outside
it.
of the
plating
same one
plating.
itself
the conception.
The Ego, as
absolute power with consciousness, tears itself loose from
the Ego, as the given absolute without
power and con
real
power
of
sciousness.
well to dwell
necessity,"
am
willing to
remove
it
with in
this inevit-
39
able necessity.
steel spring, at
the connection
ception of freedom, instead of facilitating
of freedom with the spring, rather asks you to think
itself to
is
resist,
Now,
let
me
when you
We
and
try to make this clear;
the
with
do
to
since you found it impossible
anything
blind
a
thing dependent upon
thought of a free thing as
of
the latter?
will
you
shall acquire
an
What
The nature
of
the
thing
is
its
fixed
being, without
internal
40
necessarily think the other also, and you will surely not
say that the thing exists in advance of its own nature,
and determines
its
own
nature.
from a being
your contemplation
is
We
find
freedom
such thinking.
have, therefore, discovered the ground
all
deny
to the object of
why you
another being.
From
for
is
to be called _force._.
is
41
<could
permanent,
something
= producing
[Agilitat
remaining,
activity],
etc
not posited as
is
but
and only as
as
agility
agility, of the
intelligence.
/
To be posited
as free,
to
own
its
It doubtless
free
is
What
nature.")
involves the
Tloes that
its
of
thought
to be before it is determined
it is
determinedness.
with
its
real being,
The conception
latter.
being,
and the
Our
latter is
assertion
is,
is
/Somebody might
(in the
it
subsume
higher than
its
being
under something
as a being;
42
is
and
an intelligence in
and that hence the above proposition may also
be reversed as follows
only that which is free can be
thought as an intelligence an intelligence is necessarily
for,
general,
free.
The Ego,
EXPLANATORY.
Freedom
is,
explanation
and yet
it
of little value
/For that ex
not
answer
the
how a
planation
higher question
condition or being could have an absolute beginning, or
how such an absolute beginning could be thought; by
did
the
abstract from all being, as such (or from the fact), and
to start from that which is
higher than all being, from
and
contemplating
thinking, or from the acting of the
43
"
is
the
originally
it is
all
that
it
and
originally is
in the contemplation
What
originally depends, after all, upon the conception.
make
first
must
soever the Ego is to become, the Ego
be through the conception, and whatsoever the
Ego will be in the future it most surely will have made
Hence the Ego is its
itself through the conception.
itself to
own ground
and absolutely
in every respect,
posits itself
For the
the
under
comes
activity
tendency to have
But
seen.
have
as
we
of
the
intelligence,
authority
as each one must discover
the intelligence, as such, is
in contemplating himself as intelligence, and as cannot
can,
be
strictly
proven.
absolute
be
demonstrated to anybody
absolutely determining
a mere pure activity, in opposition to all permanent
and posited being, however finely conceived hence it is
itself
Hence
also
is
such control;
is
is
is
therefore
under
under
to
be
**|
CHAPTEE
III.
tendency at
sight
all,
of
utterly
and that
the
real
we thus appeared
character
of
this
to
lose
tendency.
for
PEOBLEM.
conscious
of
To
see in
its
tendency to absolute
self -activity,
as
such tendency.
EXPLANATORY.
we proceeded by absolutely
postulating a reflection upon the objective Ego under
consideration
undoubtedly justified in so doing, since
the Ego is necessarily intelligence, and an intelligence un
In our previous chapter
object of
a thought of
the
45
Ego
the
itself a reflection.
we can
the
SOLUTION.
A. The posited tendency necessarily manifests
as impulse in the whole Ego.
itself
EEMAEKS.
Now
activity.
an impulse which
permanent, and
manifestation
ineradicable,
both
is
posited as essential,
impels,
expressions
and
express
this
its
is
precisely
the
same,
Now,
if
we think
merely objectively,
is,
is
it
steel spring.
The
46
from the impulse, like the effect from its cause. Nay, we
may even add, in thought, the intelligence, but in such a
manner as to have it dependent upon the objective qualitativeness; and the impulse will be accompanied by a
yearning, or the deed by a resolve, with the same
if the conditions are but given
with which
necessity
the deed resulted from the impulse.
We
which we made
use of above.
Perhaps
it
may
The
still clearer.
this
identity as himself
which
Without
Of
must make
objective,
of
the
no thinking
whatsoever is possible.
Hence we never think both
(the subjective and the objective) together, but always
one after the other, and through this very thinking of
the one after the other, we always think the one as
identity.
47
are
it.
points out an
which we
stated,
shall call
comprehend
X.
itself
it is
absolutely
= X.
in
reflecting
upon
itself,
is
it
is
reflecting or subjective.
Now
We
48
B.
From
KEMAEKS.
Kei iiiig
in
]i(>rnl
is
the
i;<
mere
iinnmdi?it.(>
relation of
will.)
This can be
in the
made
clearer as follows:
The
objective
Ego
is
it
in
un
is
the
subject of any
internal agility, whereas in representation this conscious
ness certainly arises in regard to the form of the
In representation, I certainly do
representation.
produce the represented, but I certainly produce
not
the
act
of
49
It is true that
we
meet a determinateness
shall soon
of
But at present we
feeling from this determinateness.
are not speaking of any determinateness of the
merely
= X. Can a
objective, but of the ivhole Ego
feeling result
from this determinateness ?
incomprehensible to us, as
we have
seen.
But
in order
Now
since
it
the
is
in
so far
subjective.
The Ego
as
intelligence,
therefore,
From
is
a thought.
is
immediately
determination of
Hence:
necessarily a thought.
(It has
absolute
whatever
that
it
brings forth
its
50
and
together.)
therefore proceed to determine this thought,
in doing so first investigate it in regard to its form.
We
we
reflect
upon at
a being
present, appears either as determined through
namely, when the thought is to be an actual object,
in which case the thought results in our consciousness as
it
is
we say
it
results
from this
as it is
or as deter
in
Our
must be
philosophy.
It
51
we have
that
this thought,
we have proven.
indeed,
It
is
remarked that
to be
also
relation of
this
the
it.
branch of philosophy
is
to recur
to it hereafter.)
because
it is
is
thought as
thus thought.
This
content,
it
is
it
is
is of
thought simply
particular impor
(for
which attempt
and
is
is
and absoluteness
thinking
is
the absolute
our
being
is
lifeless things,
a determined consciousness.
upon
external being by
means
intelligence immediately
intellectual
contemplation.
It
is,
indeed,
the
properly
only one
52
which
and
originally
every
man
philosophical abstraction.
The
actually
occurs
in
transcendental
contemplation, which
of all students, is the mere form of
requires
philosopher
this actual intellectual contemplation, is the mere con
of the inner absolute spontaneity of the same,
the
intellectual
templation
with utter abstraction from its determinateness. Without
this actual contemplation, the philosophical contemplation
our thinking is originally determined
were not
possible
originally
2.
We
and not
abstract.
now proceed
to describe that
thought in regard
to its content.
is
objective.
unchangeable permanency.
arrive at a
thought:
Let us
now think
subjective.
but
The subjective
completely
This is to deter
our previous chapter.
described
the
condition
and
to
objective.
mine,
produce,
In other words, the thought just now established (that
the intelligence must propound to itself a law to realize
described in
53
the
That
other.
Ego
if
occurs
the
Ego
tive; but
merely
is very important.)
(This
necessity
of
thinking.
all thinking
necessity, which, indeed, is not possible, since
our self; but it is merely
"starts from a free thinking of
manner; such
is
thinking.
to be observed that this thought grounds
an
impulse, and hence musb retain the
upon
character of an impulse, which character is that of a
The content of the deduced thought may,
postulate.
It is
still
itself
therefore,
be described, in
we
short,
as
follows:
We
are
determine ourselves
and to determine
with
consciousness,
through conceptions
ourselves thus according to the conception of absolute
self-activity, and this thinking is the very consciousness
of our original tendency to absolute self-activity which
forced
to
think,
we were looking
that
for.
are
to
CHAPTEE
IV.
absolutely required
reason, which science
for
is
the
science
itself its
own
of
a system of
end.
of systematic development.
The
i.
absolutely
and
independently
54
its
own
ground.
It
is
(i.e.,
lutely nothing,
make
itself
by
own
its
activity.
This proposition
It is
55
is
himself.
!STow
merely to make
The
tell
it
rational being
is actually to be.
Hence you must ascribe to the
rational being, in advance of all actual (objective) being
thereof, some sort of an existence, as, indeed, we have
it
shown already
a rational being
ception of
thought
it
as
an
you must,
intelligence.
You
therefore,
have
it
as
intelligence
of being.
But now
tell
thing depends
me
for
upon
When
means
of
56
its
if
ground
from
it.
possible at the
thus
it
will
appear
since
to
57
being, and
which
we have
especially
here posited as representative of reason in general, under
the name of the original Ego, and the system of thinking
universal laws of
more
reason
to that
to every rational
rational being
and
self-determined
If
the
Ego thinks
from
this presupposition
that we start
then it necessarily thinks itself as free,
and which is of chief importance to us here it thinks
itself
this
it is
its
self-determination.
of
This
is
free in the
But
is
it
Hence,
results
jective,
power
in
the conception of
of self-determination.
my
through
objective,
/ My
in
results
freedom as
of
subjective, determined
the
thought of
the
is
it
an
is
immediate
Now, neither is
dependent upon
dependent upon
the thought of
first
to be
my
and
thought alone
subjective, nor
my
my objective,
original
absolute
;
not
my
my
sub
58
freedom..
when
One
is
one
is
the
When
itself
to
be a
Freedom does not follow from the law, nor does the
law follow from freedom. Both are not two
thoughts,
each of which were thought apart from the other, but
both are one and the same thought. It is a
complete
synthesis (according to the law of reciprocal determination), as, indeed, was stated above.
Kant, in various
places, derives the conviction of our freedom from the
This
is
to be understood
practical, reason
why we
going beyond
this
of
Now, by not
freedom in us, that
For the proposition,
appearance
appearance becomes reality for us.
I am free
freedom is the only true being, and the ground
of all other
being is a very different proposition from
the one, I appear to
myself as being free. It is, there
fore,
which
59
reason,
from
reality
it is from the
Ego that
must
philosophy
proceed.
2. The deduced
thought has been called a law. It has
also been called by Kant a categorical
imperative; and
the mariner in which we think in this
thought has been
called a shall-ing, in opposition to
and common
being
all
has
sense
found
itself
surprisingly
We
these designations.
shall
from
our
deduction.
proceed
well
expressed
in
It
thus
if
we want
to think it
correctly, since its essence
consists in thinking,
possible manners
which rule only
under a fixed
the
free
rule, the
conception of
can
intelligence
produce in
and might
and
without
uninterruptedly
excep
although with
full
freedom.
others, etc.
60
intelligence
How,
is
then,
it
is
ought to occur.
because it shall be.
"
It shall
it
Hence
"
"
and
an absolute and categorical shalling
a rule valid without exception, since its
subjected to no possible condition.
should,"
is
that rule
is
validity is
So far as this absolute shalling
inclination.
3.
also
It
of
Firstly, because, when we presuppose the thought
the law in general, and consider the Ego merely as free
for the
intelligence, the law becomes a law in general
Ego
only,
submitting
by the Ego
itself
to
that law,
61
through
discovering,
may
its
free
of the same,
rupted self-legislating or self-determining
there
ceases
and when this self-legislation
immorality
begins.
is
Secondly, because, so far as the content of the law
absolute
but
demanded
is
indepen
concerned, nothing
force
manner
it
seems
to
me
that
it
also
how
what
it is;
hence, as a doing.
itself
Now
otherwise than as
reason
is finite,
and
62
contemplation
which
it
involves.
and
to
determine an activity
is
to be practical.
is
means
for
is
practical,
realizing
it has
always been
namely, in so far as
is
absolutely practical.
its
own
absoluteness,
The
is
its
only find
it
in
himself
through
contemplation
will
are given
EEMARKS.
A.
this
itself
its
own
acting,
self-contemplating or
it is
63
This proposi-
finite.
morality
is
chiefly
related
to
the
so-called
acting
common
and working.
it
proposes
to
itself
as a
to its
freedom;
freely
of reason
as well in regard
immediately being
predeter
through Eeason itself.
Now, Eeason ought certainly to be able to dissolve
that which it has composed
according to its own laws
mined
as necessary
Thus
is
possible.
in our theory all parts
join together,
is
and the
on
condition
of
possible only
necessary presupposition
the results arrived at.
Either
admitted.
Only on
of a
presupposition
64
itself.
is
a contradiction of reason.
B.
The principle
thought
freedom
has of
it
is
is
it is
itself
its
sequence or as con
The content
of
this
thought
is,
that
the
free
being
shall
in a certain
act
its
C.
the
original
E";o
mrnation
We
65
But
objective
the
is
in itself
Ego
Was
objective, or without relation to a consciousness?
not the Ego whereof we commenced
in our
speaking
chapter related to a consciousness ? We doubtless
related it to our own philosophizing consciousness.
But
first
now
let
us relate
it
do we get
transcendental standpoint of
deduction is not dogmatic, but
We do not claim to evolve a
our
for
deduction;
our
idealistic.
transcendentally
thinking from a being in
itself, for the Ego is only for and in the knowledge of
the Ego.
Our claim, on the contrary, is to establish an
original system of thinking itself, an original connecting
of the assertions of reason with each other.
The
rational
being
because
determining
posits
it
self-determining because
is
itself
as
absolutely
self-determining, and
selfit
is
cance of
the same.
known
consciousness
only from
we
the
assert that
possible
Nor do
thought occurs amongst the facts
66
of
common
straction
other
consciousness
wherein
words,
that
in
the
generality
and
ab
It is
scious of such a law for our freedom in general.
at
that
we
arrive
abstraction
only through philosophical
is undertaken in
generality, and this abstraction
the
to
establish
able
be
order to
problem definitely. In
this
common
consciousness
We
only
presupposes a free acting of the intelligence.
When we think determined actual
assert, therefore, this
:
freedom
of this assertion in
which he considers to be
is
show him,
at least in his
acts, it will
judgment
be easy enough to
No
use of that application.
for
at
flame
which
the
consumes
one,
instance, gets angry
his house, but he does at the man who set the house on
that he always does
make
BOOK SECOND.
DEDUCTION OF THE REALITY AND
APPLICABILITY OF THE PRINCIPLE OF MORALITY.
PRELIMINARY.
it
in a certain respect.
It belongs
them through
this conception.
it
objects,
to
those
and there
we think
To hunt up the
reality of
make
this clearer
by some examples.
The conception
"being
THE SCIENCE OF
68
ETHICS.
conception I
arrive
first
at
Hence, through
the conception of a
two conceptions
of our
of
we have
men,
its cause, I
power, to treat
words
men have
the
rights does not compel physical acknowledgment
theoretical conviction that every effect has its cause
;
does
so.
At present we speak
is
cannot
mean
all determination
through objects
Hence, when we speak of its reality, we
that the
mere thinking
of it realises results
69
them
to describe
that
we
2.
"
shall
of the conception of
unless
world.
determined
or,
externally,
as
it
my
never
is,
do something
since
it
signifies: I shall
proposes to
me an
external actions
work
be,
produce
infinite end,
I shall in all
so as constantly to
draw nearer
to that end.
But
I
am
finite,
able idea.
relate
law requires
me
in this sphere ?
It is immediately clear that that
upon which I am to
must be of such a nature that I can act upon it, or
Let
that I must have the physical
J^ower to mould it.
act
us explain this.
70
THE SCIENCE OF
The
ETHICS.
it can be
thought by the intelli
and
can
be
so
gence,
thought as either being or not being
change
its
place.
all
sition established
knowledge).
related
Thus, for
to the
being
of
representation, when
the represented object, is held
instance,
The being
be accidental.
of
the
object,
71
we
judge,
of
might well be, although there were no representation
the
find
we
it; and this judgment we make because
of the
representation to be, in its form, a product
a pro
content
in
its
absolute freedom of thinking, but
it
may
result,
signify?
through
for this,
function as productive power of imagination
known
well
as
is
of
in a science
presupposed
morality,
not
does
and
of
science
fundamental
from the
knowledge,
;
are
apply merely to the objects of our world which
are
which
those
to
also
but
as
accidental,
thought
thought as necessary.
signify,
freedom
itself is
world.
Let us explain
but the
Non
this.
is
Our world
is
absolutely nothing
Ego,
ness of the Ego, and hence receives alj its determinations
is to
only through opposition to the Ego. / Now the Ego
r#
72
SCIENCE OF ETHICS.
of this sort of a
Examples
determination of an object
science of rights.
Because
the objects of our world as
establish
the proofs
these assertions
of
we have now
since
more ex
still
arrived
the very
ultimate and primary of all reason.
If the assumption that a
part of our external world
haustively,
at
commenced
ness
itself,
as
theoretical
the intelligence.
of
and through
itself,
it
rules;
it
external
are
free.
my
is
results in the
free being.
body
things.
ception of
command
You
practically,
shall treat every man as a
The same
My
73
Now
if
all
it
as
an
principle of morality
arrive at a
answered.
to
thus; and
final end.
we
We
idea of that
are to treat
it has this
should thus have arrived at the desired
which we ought
we
it
to do,
when we
We
of an absolute self-determin
which
our
soul is gathered together, as
whole
ing, through
it were, into one
We, moreover, become immedi
point.
of
conscious
the
ately
reality and of an actual sensation of
;
74
But
I reply,
its realization
that
it
is
not a
is
transcendentally spoken
this conscious harmony between a conception of an end
and an actual object outside of us, the ground of which
:
is
harmony
Let
me
to lie in the
clear
conception of
external somewhat/ but the
conception of an end, or
ground
of
we ask
the thing,
IS
75
CEPTION OF ITSELF.
How,
we were
if
to
receive the
WORLD,
ITSELF,
"
do."
when
is,
it
becomes
Hence a determined
of a sensation.
real,
an object
must
occur,
in virtue whereof it is posited, since all reality occurs for
me only on this condition.
willing, therefore, must,
in the present case, be accompanied by a feeling
relating
itself to that which I willed
and by this result we gain
feeling
My
much
at least so
But
feeling related to
We
thus
are
now
How
is
more definitely
extension of our limits connected
an actual
Every assumption
of a
further determination of
in
my
consciousness.
new
my
reality outside of
world, a change of
Now,
me
my
my
world
is
is
world
determined
THE SCIENCE OF
76
ETHICS.
my
original world,
as I find it independently existing; through oppo
sition to myself, as I find myself necessarily existing.
Hence a change in (a changed manner of viewing)
i.e.,
my
If
were,
through
myself
able
therefore,
my
will,
and
to
this
of
change something in
would necessarily
also
if
world
changed my
am determined
;
determined differently,
signifies
differently.
The problem,
What
is
/ change my self ?
If
we only
answer
my
which
is
solely
dependent upon
Ego
conception.
has torn
or, in
itself loose in
77
Now
impelling,
let
will determination to be in
mined by
this change.
Through
this
78
We
To remove
impelling
all
of our
to
see
This
must
ing
Freedom
is
a theoretical principle.
B. Freedom,
which our
first
to be
CHAPTEE
I.
PRELIMINARY EEMARK.
the propositions advanced in our first book are
merely formal, and have no material significance.
All
We
see that
shall,
we
arises, indeed,
formal philosophizing;
abstract but not concrete thought;
rise
to
all
reflection, as
mining
This was
pelled such a procedure, and since we were well aware
it,
all
propositions
etc.,
and that we
of
8o
It
likewise
appears
from
this
consideration
that,
a different
a gradual
templation
of
the
activity
there
are
various
conditions
and determinations
it.
EXPLANATORY.
Doubtless everyone
first
who
them
to signify
It is
Si
are to be understood,
The conception
of freedom, as entertained
arose
for us through abstraction
book,
or through
but
we
should
not have been at all
analysis
able thus to originate it, unless we had
previously had
possession of it as given or found.
Now at present we
are speaking of this
condition of the
experience.
by us in the
first
very
primary and
not of the philosophizing
Ego; and our meaning is, you
cannot find yourself as free without
finding at the same
time in the same consciousness an
object upon which
we
it is to
be observed
an absolute synthesis of
thinking, of a
an object, hence a reciprocal conditioned-
assert
power and
of
ness of one
thinking through another. Not, as if the one
were in time prior to the other, for both are the
thought
of the same
moment; nay, there is, even if we look
merely to the fact that both are thought, no
dependence
one upon the other to be
assumed, consciousness
being rather irresistibly impelled from the one to the
of the
/But if we look
we meet this distinction,
other.
to
how
82
an
object,
thought
is
is
related to
it,
determined relation.
PROOF.
of
actual
and determined
acts
as
possible
through
its
freedom.
An insight
acts as equally possible through
activity.
into the truth of this proposition requires nothing further
than to analyze our conception of a power of freedom.
my
A power, or
of
but a product
faculty, is absolutely nothing
since
to connect with it
83
We
merely
ascribe to the
by
Now
of activity,
We
The Ego
otherwise,
otherwise ad infinitum. Now,
whether the Ego chooses either of these
determinations, or
none of them, leaving
as it is, depends
solely upon the
for instance
= -X;
freedom of
its
or
still
thinking.
for
my
84
posit
myself
we do not
act
is
directed.
is
the
Ego
the
Ego
not the Ego, and yet it also is not nothing, but is some
what. It is an object of representation in general, leaving
is
In other words,
its reality or perceivability.
a ISTon Ego, a somewhat which exists outside of me
independently of
activity.
undecided
it is
my
is
tinuing to exist,
85
minations,
as
opposites,
one
in
and
the
same thinking.
But
through which
possible,
i.e.,
the
itself
thinking
relation
ISTon
to
Ego
in
its
form
but that
becomes
thought as
unchanged in
is
we
causality.
outside of us,
to prove.
CHAPTER
II.
SECOND PROPOSITION.
ascribe to itself
an actual
exercise of this
PRELIMINARY.
How
to ourselves possible ?
namely, that an object of
Its
does
not
this ascribing of it
is
free
one external condition,
shown
now
been
has
be
must
up
just
posited,
activity
We have now to establish an internal condition of it,
namely, that of our own state, wherein alone it is
possible.
An
explanation
Its
this
second
proposition
require.
theless involve
same
state
exercise
of
of
mind
of
that power)
is
it
an actual
presupposed
as
well
we have
all
said before,
and
87
will hereafter
PROOF.
The conception
of a
of
power
freedom
is,
as
we know,
representation
is
we cannot
clearly
knowing
their
distinction,
we must above
all
is
is
related to objectivity, so
related to willing.
Origin
to the objective,
is
etc.,
etc.
absolutely self-active,
my
attached,
Now
am
essence con
sist:
is
B8
be thus given
think willing as preceded by free, active
compre
hension of its end, or as preceded
by an absolute creation
:
We
of this
and
subjective.
state,
actually wills
easily
wills that
distinguishes
end; a
in
ordinary
consciousness from the mere representation of what he
might will. Now what is there contained in this willing ?
Absolute self-activity as in
thinking, but with another
character attached to
it.
Which, then, is this character?
the
relation
to
a
Evidently
knowing.
willing is not
itself to be a
knowing, but / am to know my willing.
Hence the distinctive character is the character of mere
My
89
The perception
of the actual,
i.e.,
in the case of
so
my
activity,
but
my
is
intellectual contemplation.
And now we
proposition.
The subjective
for
only
thus
is
is
the
subjective
an objective,
subjective,
as
the
THE SCIENCE OF
90
ETHICS.
Consciousness necessarily
conception of the Ego shows.
of
But in the mere
the
both.
with
connection
begins
representation of a willing
whereas
of
objective, or
its
the objective,
subjective
is
first
This
itself.
is
the
actual
state
we only have
a subjective,
more
certainly possible,
its
determined
of
the intelli
and hence
the intelligence
(existence)
in philosophical
already presupposed
originally it is not possible.
if
states,
is
but
abstraction;
freedom
is
necessarily
accompanied
by an actual
willing.
well
but
it
is
we have
thoughts just
now
shown thus
am
to
distinguished.
become conscious
ness
end.
is
The form
91
same moment. We only think the determinedness of the willing dependent upon the conception.
There is no priority of time here, but merely a logical
absolutely the
a priority of thinking.
priority
To state tersely all we have now explained. Originally
I contemplate
activity as object, and in so far neces
my
limited
quantum
is
of
that
activity.
activity
called willing,
This contemplated
and which is
from which, as the philosopher has to show, all conscious
ness starts, being made possible solely through it. But it
is a willing, and my willing, and an immediately perceiv
able willing solely in so far as the contemplated deter-
grounded, then
shown
in
my
it
is
necessarily grounded as
since besides willing
thinking;
we have
we have
my
the determinedness of
willing is necessarily thought,
as soon as a willing, as such, is persevered in.
CHAPTER
III.
I cannot ascribe to
step.
myself a power of freedom without finding myself as
Such was our first assertion. But now we add
willing.
moreover I cannot do this, cannot find myself as actually
Or to
willing without finding also something else in me.
state
it
in other
the course
of
perience and
words
a freely created
conception of an end.
Thus it appears that the conception of freedom is
mediately conditioned by the now to be deduced per
ception of an actual causality, and since that conception
conditions self-consciousness, self-consciousness must also
92
93
deduced, and
enough
to
all.
PROOF.
my
My
able or determinable.
mere inner
plation
Activity
not to
is
must be determined
signifies
means
Activity
of its
liniitedness,
fold
of
is
Activity
if
is to be possible,
determined through and by
hence through the mode of its
consciousness
to be
opposite;
activity,
or
are
this
many
condition
and
is
particular
mani
acts
possible.
limited,
ness
itself).
Now
everything that
is
sensuously to be con
moment
there
is
succession,
94
EEMARKS.
1.
also
which we
would
be,
therefore,
an
utter
feeling.
It
and
misapprehension
what, and
means
of intellectual contemplation.
lies in this
that I
through absolute
for myself, what I
The point
am, only
by a conception,
self-activity, regulated
is
the former.
2.
The Ego
is
think.
3.
non-Ego, no
95
out of a
number
and were
themselves to look
to
as a completed whole,
accustom
upon
Either the Ego is
as an organised reason, so to speak.
it is, and as it appears on the standpoint
that
everything
it
of ordinary consciousness
cal abstraction, or
it is
Consciousness
absurdities.
character, retained.
Our consciousness
starts
into the Ego, but the Ego which proceeds out of itself
Thus we have to express this relation
Info the non-Ego.
sensuous
through
contemplation/whereas, transcendentally,
find ourselves originally
it
should be expressed:
We
it
limits.
itself,
the
Ego must be
The Ego
is
the
first
principle of all
96
movement,
non-Ego
of all
us,
us,
and
of all deeds
life,
influences
it
does
it
own
upon
it.
do
so
resist
It
If
within
It affects us
sphere.
would not
and events.
not
unless
the
our
through
we
first
CHAPTEK
IV.
FOURTH PROPOSITION.
causality to itself
manner through
its
own
conception.
PRELIMINARY.
Our
proposition is unclear
causality of the rational being
and
ambiguous.
The
97
98
laws of thinking,
something in violation of the necessary
we cannot like
that
since we cannot even think it, and
but
wise create or annihilate matter,
merely separate and
connect
place.
it,
But even in
this
is
separating
is
for- instance,
that
man
of proceeding.
cannot
fly.
Why
Of course, man
walk
can
as
he
immediately;
cannot fly immediately
but through the means of a balloon he can certainly rise
into the air, and move about with a certain degree of
freedom and purpose. Moreover, shall we, because our
discovered the means
age cannot do what it has not yet
I will not suppose
?
do
it
cannot
inan
that
assert
to do,
should
man
not be able
to
do it?
99
feeling
Hence to say: I attain my end
actually entered me.
through a series of means, signifies between the feeling
from which I proceeded to willing, and the
feeling
required by that willing, a series of other
enters.
:
feelings
to say that this relation is a
necessary one, signifies
a determined required feeling follows a determined other
And
But each
say, I
feeling
is
have causality,
Hence the
assertion
expressive of
my
and
limitation,
my
signifies always
expand
of common consciousness,
:
to
limits.
trans-
we again
ascribe
causality to
ourselves?
This
is
the
of our present
investigation.
problem
PROOF.
A.
My
causality
is
tinuous series.
moment must
also
fill
up a time,
since,
by the
ioo
union
of
many
is not in the
of the
many
as separates.
on
account, that this distinction is actually made, since,
not
moment
a
becomes
it
through
only
the contrary,
not separating it any further. To say that
distinguishing,
is
moment
the
posited as filling up time, signifies, therefore,
in general of making the
the same as: the
possibility
distinction just described is posited.
That which occurs in the perception of our causality
But
the synthesis of our activity with a resistance.
our activity, as we have seen, is not a manifold, but rather
absolute pure identity and is itself to be characterized
to the resistance.
Hence, the
only through relation
manifold which is to be distinguished, must be a manifold
is
of the resistance.
is necessarily a manifold separated ex
discrete
a
or
manifold, for only on this condition
ternally,
does it fill up a time; it is thought as a series. How,
This manifold
of this manifold
then, is it in regard to the sequence
in a series; does this sequence depend upon the free
dom of the intelligence as such, or is it regarded as
For
determined
actual;
but,
in
the representation of
the actual,
the
happens
it is
Bill
oocurs in time.
101
"is
moment
is
conditioned
Hence
causality is represented as
thinking as such.
a series, the manifold whereof is the manifold of a resis
tance, the sequence of which is not determined through
my
my
pendently of
me
and hence,
is itself
a limitation of
my
causality.
We
in
activity, as
The
is,
resistance
my
produce
produce
neither manifold nor
my
and
nothing but the end and the means I only desire because
the end cannot be attained except through them.
This
whole relation itself is, therefore, a limitation of my
;
activity.
EEMARKS.
Let us explain more clearly the result of our present
investigation.
i
The idea of the
.
must
deduced
series is as follows
There
and immediately,
time,
if it
102
its will
attain this
order
no mediating links
must
Such first points there
be, if the Ego
causality.
These points, thought together,
is ever to become cause.
we call, as will appear soon, our articulated body; and
this body is nothing but these points represented and
necessary in
to
moments
first
of
for
if
system B.
With
each
moment
of this
system
number
of others.
Through
us
infinity.
The
object
is
signifies idealiter: in
in space, I
*
must
Translator
Note.
Or
as a plurality of first
men.
103
it
same
series.
The
real active
and
feeling
a change appearing to
ceptibly to the opposite, without
but
occur in the next adjoining point,
only at some points
distance.
/ The
reflecting
Ego
seizes
moments
ible
(if
line,
rise
their
being again made possible through
likewise remaining always the same.
This restriction of our causality to the use of certain
sciousness
3.
THE SCIENCE OF
to4
ETHICS.
separates all the non-Ego from the Ego, and thinks the
in its
From this standpoint it appears
purity.
utterly absurd to assume a non-Ego as a thing in itself
with abstraction from all reason.
Ego
which
it
is
thought.
In other words,
means lead
why
should pre
to the attainment
is
precisely
which
of
that
rational
beyond
and hence
To demand such an
contradict one s self.
There
its
being,
activity,
explanation would be to
however, other limitations of the rational being,
whereof the grounds can be shown
up.
Now, if these separate limitations, which as such occur
only in time, are gathered together and thought as an
are,
then
primary impulse
an impulse which can
only be directed upon
this, only upon a causality determined in such or such
a series, and
upon no other causality whatever and it is
such an impulse
Our whole
as well
absolutely.
itself.
It is
internal,
105
us./
the self-determination,
we act with freedom.
is
CHAPTER
V.
INDEPENDENTLY OF
US.
object.
PRELIMINARY.
It
been
has
shown already
(Chapter
I.)
that
the
respect.
causality
which we have
so,
according to
this question
might have
particularly
require
much profounder
106
investigation.
Even the
107
PROOF.
have previously
previous investigations.
and
my
it
limited.
is
being as
such has no
self-activity,
is
grounded upon
us, apart
of
firmed,
it
is
at
least
certain
that
we presuppose
my
end
But
the
my
to8
which doubtless
is
a defective circle of
ex
sciousness
moment
presents the
diffi
be
free.
this
Whence,
all
the same) come from, and how can it be
explained by the philosopher? (For we have seen that
the Ego itself explains it through the thought of a pre
here
of our
to
be
itself
the
desired
cognition,
all
and the
conscious-
must
start
109
the contradiction
But
is
actually solved.
of
it,
my
Science of Bights),
If we think the
Ego originally objective as it is found
in advance of all other consciousness
its determinedness
activity,
objectively, is Impulse.
activity.
Now,
activity,
taken
io
I
have said
if
we think
the
Ego
originally objective,
for, after
it
determinedness
intelligence.
of the in
Chapter
Book
III. of
1).
is
of that
Ego, as
it is
And
in
its
this
manner we
immediate consciousness,
at a necessary and
which we can attach the
arrive
other consciousness.
series
of
other
consciousness
all
to
reflection,
In other words,
etc., presupposes an
application
which again presupposes many other things.
hension,
all
contemplation, compre
of
freedom,
But
feeling
Now,
we
impulse
is
described above.
in
v
precisely the
The impulse
an
sentation.
is
also
in its
or as law of reason
it
/In
become an
feeling,
objective,
a feeling (noun) is
and is that
merely a subjective.
solves
the above difficulty
We could not assume an activity without
thoroughly.
cognition, since all activity was found to presuppose
a freely-produced conception of an end.
Again, we could
not assume any cognition without presupposing an activity,
since all cognition was deduced from the perception of our
feeling itself, is always
This
original
feeling
But
limitedness in acting.
which
is
impulse.
at present
we have something,
The
and in relation
first
to
it,
original
act
is
of its impulse.
II.
chained.
the object of
it.
It is not
am
I posited.
H2
Now,
if
as Ego, as is always
and
it;
constitutes
it
my
The ground
is
only
my
Ego.
of distinction of these
described relation
is
as follows
I,
my
predicates in the
in so far as I am free,
am
or,
still
myself who
I do determine
myself in
not the impulse which deter
determine myself.
if
it,
yet the Ego, to which both parts
one
and the same, and is posited as one
pertain,
only
and the same. I, who feel, and I who think I, who am
independent of
is
impelled, and
I,
who
my
is.
113
To be
with the
thought
it.
It is
only thus that the manifestation of my power becomes an
acting; it is only on this condition that self -consciousness,
Formaliter.
Both are
is
not
reflec
upon
us.
is
described
cisely feeling
that system of
impulses and feelings
is
to be thought as
ii 4
nature.
itself
this
upon
system
rests, is to
an impulse.
III.
my
compelled
and independently existing matter, and partly in so far
as this matter must have, also independently of my
that form which forces me to pass
activity, at least
in order to attain my object.
through determined links
to be nature, they are neces
are
both
as
far
so
in
Now,
in so far as the one is to be
but
as
;
equal
sarily thought
are
nature) and the other an external nature, they
my
thought as
the thinking
mediated, i.e., the one is thought through
all
of the other, which is indeed the general relation of
In
other
which are equal in one characteristic.
necessarily
opposited.
Both,
therefore,
are
opposites,
or derived
words, my nature must be originally explained,
have its
to
from the whole system of nature and shown
ground therein.
Concerning this
assertion,
well
known
from
and
let
me
We
115
by means
Or, under
ascribe a nature to us
constituted thus
nature to be ex
assumption
what condition
is it
This investigation
of a
nature
possible to
we have now
to undertake.
activity
external to
it,
there
ii6
also results
if
all.
Hence, the
nor goes
comes
neither
which
from,
something,
impulse
it is an internal activity of the
into, the external world
substrate directed upon itself.
Self-determination is the
we can think an
impulse.
impulse,
my
Hence,
is
it
in order
COROLLARIUM.
our judgment is what
in
latter mode, what he
and
the
Kant calls subsuming,
is this: The law of natural
distinction
The
~cs^reflectmg.
mechanism is nothing but the law of the successions of
reflections, and of their reciprocal determination (through
which alone time, and identity of consciousness in the
In the
first
mode
of proceeding,
its
of
of the
power
and
of cognition
But
mechanism
117
the
mode
of thinking
must be reversed
(precisely as the
not to be found
signifies
reflective
judgment
own
law, namely,
IV.
Nature
such,
is
my
But nature, as
itself.
characterised through opposition to freedom or
determines
its
essence
in
general; or
its
is
My
determinedness of
my
the determinedness of
is
originally, in fact,
nature as an impulse,
all
nature.
is
result of
ii8
to
me
am
in so far as I
intelligence
am
we have
of
is
nature,
self-
determining.
As
must separate
my
nature from
all
other nature,
sum
upon
each other.
Or
more
still
clear: Abstract
you may
this
chose.
quantum
ground
lies
separate part X.
In
there
is
there
is
is
its
an impulse.
119
Now,
if
in X.
That
other parts, and has only an impulse left for them.
this remainder is only impulse, and is precisely a thusdetermined impulse, has its ground therein, because
outside of the part there is still something else, and a
precisely thus-determined something
is a separate part for me, solely
Now at present
else.
because I have
made
it
me from
ing.
from Y another
nothing prevents me from separating
to Y as Y was related
related
be
Z
will
This
Z.
part
In short, in this mode of procedure there is
I can make
ultimate.
absolutely no primary and no
each part again a totality, and each totality a part.
to
X.
That which
is
constituted in such a
is
its
manner
as forces
determined through
self-determinedness
is
again
Each part
through themselves, we call an organic whole.
an
of the whole can again be considered as
organic
whole or as a part, and only the highest cannot be
such
regarded as a part. Nature in general is, therefore,
an organic
We
whole,
and
is
posited as such.
can illustrate
this
existence in a third.
120
manifests
existence in
its
itself.
Now, if a free being
then this conception is valid in all its
strictness, without the least modification
not as con
ception of an impulse, bat as conception of absolute
freedom. Freedom is directly opposited to natural mechan
to be thought,
is
ism, and
is
we speak
in no
of
character of nature,
namely, as a mechanism, must be
retained, together with the character of an impulse, and
causality-relation)
and freedom
as the opposite of
stantiality-relation), which
to explain the
mechanism
(or the
sub
third
much need
The
Something = A,
what
itself
it
is,
but that
it
is
-A
A
A itself, since
on
its
V.
I
must
consciousness,
manner,
first:
How
do
comprehend
at
121
all,
and
a fact that
it is
yet
which, after
is
all,
we
as a complete whole.
I have said
real whole,
:
Let
me
and
first
this determination is
dom
of
reflection, to
thinking.
is determined through a compulsion of reflec
whereas reflection is free in the representation of
Reality
tion,
the ideal.
must therefore be
if
we have
of thinking
may
my
this necessity
Wherever
?
mere
subsumplonger comprehend through
tion, there the law of reflective judgment enters, and the
latter is a mere reversion of the former.
Now, it might
well happen that our
of
judgment, once safely
power
of a determination of the limits arise for us
we can no
122
We
reflection
and
if
it is.
part of nature is through itself, and in itself, what
So says the simple conception of reflection. But accord
through and
through and
Hence each part of the totality is determined
.for itself.
all
other parts of the same totality, and each
through
conception of reflection, no part of nature
for itself what it is, but only the totality
is
is
had
its
measure
of reality,
X is
asserted to be given,
Leibnitz
Monads.
TR.
123
and call it A. If in
impulse and
from the
each
could
not
be
explained
reciprocally
reality
other, if the impulse did not impel to have a reality
which
lacked, and which belonged to A, or if the
particular part of X,
lacked not,
impulse did impel to have reality which
and which did not belong to A; then A could not
be explained and comprehended through itself.
My
comprehending would be shut off; I should not have
thus
arise,
and,
since
it
is
governed by necessity, a
would
But
~b
independent;
124
of all,
and
all,
to satisfy the
need
find
better
name
for it
an actual
myself
there are
of nature,
we
require that
it
for,
how
125
/But from
and
unexplainable. /
transcendental
of
philosophy,
point
it
knowledge,
explains
all
is
since
explained,
easily
the stand
of
science
it
be,
The only question is,
and what determined process of nature must necessarily
be assumed in assuming it ? According to our previously
established law, each thing which is a thing of nature is,
no thing is
is
through itself, and for itself, that which it
;
anything to another,
anything to
whereas that
is
it.
of
the principle of substantiality
of
natural mechanism is the principle
causality.
Now, according to our present principle, there is no
that principle of substantiality
possible element, to which
This
is
may
apply;
no element
is
self-sufficient,
and
for
and
and this
through itself independent each needs another,
another.
for
an
in
each
There is
other needs it.
impulse
If there is such a new principle, then the impulse thus
;
word.
It is the
and
is
it
126
well.
Only
let care
much
that
we
in
nature
may more
In
of
of nature.
it
but
it is
me
As
sure as I am, I
must
We
CHAPTER
VI.
I.
But
I FIND myself as an organized product of nature.
in such a product the essence of the part consists in
to maintain certain other parts in unity with
an
impulse
itself,
to the whole, is
is
following
But this tendency
other determined parts with itself.
can have no causality unless parts that mutually support
each other are united for only on this condition does an
:
It preserves
itself,
signifies
128
cancelled.
itself,
of organization.
The tendency
to
is
not, as seems
which desires existence
self-preservation
tence
it is
impulse is, at the same time, effect and hence, the apple
tree can never bear pears, nor the
pear tree apples.
To change kind in this manner is a check of the whole
;
impulse, originated
my
general to
my
lutely
The
relating of those
means
consideration.
belongs to
my
this
impulse
is
directed,
nature
not
law
129
involved in
is
of organization.
general
to
which
that
before
crave
is
my
thus determined
to
for me,
exist
it
even
it
it.
But
it
does exist
and must
for
me
because I
am
hungry.
It is the
plant
same with
is
all
not impelled
of
is
overlooked here,
it
will not
be understood
viz.,
when it
when we
130
II.
This
my
impulse
is,
me an
moreover, for
my
object of
As
this necessarily as described above.
certain as I reflect at all, am I necessitated to perceive
and
reflection,
I say, as certain as
this impulse, and to posit it as mine.
/ reflect, for reflection itself is no product of nature, and
cannot be such.
Itself in its
Through
one
s self.
this,
We
lack
the very
as
first
distinguished from
all
result of
reflection,
other products
is
the
of nature.
Ego
Im
or
No
They
and there
is
no third result
III.
As
I
am
This
determination.
also, in so far as it is
immediate object
is
my
Hence
character.
assigned to
me
of consciousness,
i.e.,
must
my
my nature
in so far as it is
also be
dependent
But
in
how
consciousness?
of
my
itself is
is
it
nature
causality
become
is
not
is
the
my
131
determined
the
lies
and
sharpdrawn
limit
between
and freedom.)
^ necessity
alluded
to.
gence, because
them for
them they know
;
is
/But
drinks with
he
digests.
In short,
it is
not within
my
it
it
within
my
control to
or not.
IV.
I reflect on
sciousness
cannot
my
what
reflect
on
at first
it
in consequence of the
universally valid
or, in other words, without
distinguishing
it
from another
object of
reality
\,
32
The manifold
investigation
the manifold
desire
proper
called
it,
^h&Jower^desi^.
The form
this
of
desire as such,
i.e.,
that
it
is
an
all,
and that
this
my own
but in
ground.
manifest
Thus
itself,
even in
a
since
free
enters
reflection
between
Hence
it is
by not
reflecting upon,
Y.
desire has for its object things of nature, either
My
me
or, to
place
them
me
(like
Now
me,
a relation, which
is
against the
presupposition.
Now
is
in space
and
fills
space
we
133
call matter.
We
call this
But
it is,
our body.
my
will,
whether I will unite things with me, or, place them into
a relation to me, or not.
Now this uniting and relation
body)
to
relates
is
and
my
body
must be
itself
More
relation to the totality of nature.
over, since this movement is to depend upon a free pro
movable in
its
rights.)
EEMARK.
nature
which craves
satisfied.
called
them
satisfy itself
Satisfaction for the
merely that
sake of
own
itself,
it
and
may
satisfaction
be
is
mQTQ enjoyment^
It is of
absoluteness of
if
we wanted
134
utterly wrongly
to
itself,
and,
by the nature
of
being
to him.
is
zation
135
unchecked,
is
is
feel well,
could
Now,
When
it reflect.
is
its
destruction,
feeling of satisfaction.
it is within our power of freedom to either follow
its
of
is
man
but
we have
to
con
One important
question.
My impulse as a being of
tendency as pure spirit are they two
different impulses ?
By no means. From the transcen
dental point of view, both are one and the same original
impulse, which constitutes my being, only regarded from
two different sides. For I am subject-object, and in the
nature,
identity
/M
and
my
and inseparability
regard^ my self as
object,
of
both consists
my true
being.
THE SCIENCE OF
136
ETHICS.
reflection.
The
flection,
is
_^^
called
it, is
spiritual, is directed
activity.
is
Hence,
to
it
mere passive
surrendering to nature.
But both constitute only one and the same Ego hence,
both impulses must be united within the sphere of con
;
sciousness.
its
purity,
i.e.,
its
ness through an
objects/whilst
abandon its enjoyment, for the mere sake of enjoyment.
Hence, as result, there will appear an objective activity,
pendence
of
attainable end
nature.
;
is
But
and hence,
an infinite, never
is
can only be our problem
this
it
state
Jww
must
act
in
137
final end.
result in a
CHAPTER
VII.
THE
final
my
production of
/reflect on myself,
i.e.,
is an impulse,
which, as
nature,
my -given
nature, as such,
on this
nothing but an im
Now, everything depends upon our completely
pulse.
must
determining this reflection. In order to do so, we
immediate object
examine
1st, its
of
my
reflection, is
its
form; 2nd,
content;
and
3rd, the
connection of both.
fact
as follows
to
me
in so far as I
as the
am necessitated
reflecting./
to assign somewhat
of both is, that
The connection
T,
am
Thus
expression of the freedom of the natural being.
described.
to
be
about
reflection
the
Concerning
posits
of this connection, common consciousness does
the
ground
From
the standpoint of
common
conscious
happen to be such a
the consciousness
and
a
such
with
nature,
given
being,
ness
it
would merely be
said
138
"
139
thereof
unanswered.
impulse
and,
my
vice
reflection is
versd,
original impulse
cannot speak of
through
is
my
any
reflection
of
myself
my
limited
of
On
of a
140
is
free
own
conception thereof.
Ego
Ego henceforth does
all
Hence
that the
This
is
determiner, be
of organization.
it
Hence
and the law which governs it, we can tell for all time to
come how the thing will manifest itself. / But that which
occurs in the Ego, commencing at the point where it
became an Ego, and providing the Ego truly remains Ego,
is not predetermined, and is absolutely undeterminable.
There is no law according to which free self-determinations
be calculated in advance, since they are
dependent upon the self-determination of the Intelligence,
which, as such, is absolutely free and altogether pare
occur or
may
activity.
series of
and
call it
A.
From
many
141
=
only one of them X results.
connect
all
links
Hence whilst in a series of natnre
closely,
in such a series of freedom the connection breaks off at
but not
no link
every link. In a series of freedom-determinations
and
absolute.
a
is
can be explained, for each
primary
but
In series of nature the law of causality is valid
;
in
i.e.
the freedom
series
the
is
law
of
substantiality rules,
is
itself substantial,
what
it
is
itself.
absolutely through
Beyond the stated reflection, natural necessity can no
am no longer a link
longer control me, for beyond it I
is an impulse,
of
nature
link
last
The
chain.
s
of nature
no
an
but only
causality in a
impulse, having, therefore,
spiritual
being
there
a principle utterly
nature, namely,
dom in this
is
is
It is
/ who
power which
of the Conception.
respect^j^iaM^eedom.
We
of
Whatsoever
I do,
formal
simply being conscious in so doing, I do with
freedom.
Hence a man might always follow merely
his natural impulse, and yet, if he only acted with
consciousness, and not mechanically, we should have to
ascribe freedom to him in the above significance of the
word, for the last ground of his act would be his con
sciousness of the impulse, and not the natural impulse
writer has as yet
itself.
(I am not aware that any
in
treated
the
42
complaints
of
our
COR LLARIUM.
No
he
is
ground
It does not follow from that fact that
opponents say
those states have no external ground at all, but merely
"
that
"It
we
them."
we
And
they proceed:
are not conscious
Now
those states have no causes."
are abso
here they become at once transcendent.
for us, I trust:
lutely unable to posit causes, signifies
Such causes are not. They continue: "For everything
of those grounds,
has
its
We
cause,
to be our
causes."
Here they
clearly pre
cannot do
his side a
contem
to cultivate them,
if
possible.
II.
According
to
the
foregoing I
am
free,
but do not
143
What
my
mining
the union of the reflecting and the reflected; and this
same determining Ego is in the same undivided act, and
In the con
in the same view, likewise the determined.
sciousness of freedom object and subject are completely
one.
The conception (of my purpose) grows immediately
and the deed immediately into the con
into the deed
;
ception (cognition of
my
freedom).
we
we choose
contrary to
all
particularly
if
is
it,
purpose runs
nevertheless chosen
this
consciousness,
since
they
never
self-actively
produce,
is,
therefore,
144
my
free-active self-
many
wise
possible determinations
=a
be nothing.
are as yet unable to tell how
freedom can be directed, and posited as thus directed
At
it
present, however,
we
is
reason
why freedom
be
said,
should follow
it.
True,
it
might
many
acquired state,
we
truly
say that the free being follows an
inclination
reflection
my
therefore, not
gredient, but it
Morality
something accidental, nor a foreign in
is an essential condition of
rationality.
may at
145
man
possible,
and we
we mean
All
shall hereafter
no
man
for
it.
can be
consciousness.
is
undeterminedness.
Urideterminedness
is
not possible
if
the
freedom for
I
"
will
the
call
this
"a
new power,
nature any longer that acts, but the free being. The free
being, however, effects precisely the same as nature would
have
effected.
and
to
duty to deduce
show how
it
may
manifest
itself.
Agf%t e-~k}
III
We
is
H6
an undetermiuedness, which
is
the condition of
self-
selves,
we must
i.e.,
genetically,
own
Ego on
make
this
clearer,
proposition
and
the
direct
proof
/whereas
natural
the
impulse
upon
which
the
certainly held to
that act
belong to the Ego, is a passivity in relation to
is a something given, and existing independent of that
reflection
is
and which
directed,
is
free activity.
Now
let it
be
firstly observed,
the consciousness of
must
posit a
reflecting
of
new
the
second reflection.
that
first
an
act,
we
reflection,
first
it is
in the Ego,
is
Now
way
to be
same
its
act.
of
let
147
be well observed,
it
it is
only through the
seems I must continue thus to
describe them as
separates) that the activity, which other
wise would have remained
simply the determined activity
second reflection
of
reflecting,
(it
thereof having
/The
power,
through itself the tendency of nature. This is what we
have shown above.
At present this new power is to
enter for me, I am to become conscious thereof as of a
This is only possible, if I
particular and new power.
think that power as torn loose from the hold of the
impulse,
i.e., if
assume that
Now
it
may
this resisting
is,
as yet, posited
Now
this
Ego
given
We
natural impulse.
most important
to our present
investigation,
may manifest
itself.
148
limited
at
all,
we
is
are limited in
essential to the
it is
above nature.
causality,
and
is
not,
mine myself
utterly
independent of
the
impulses of
nature.
higher point
Hence, in
esteem, arouses
me
my
to
me
with
149
a dignity .superior to
all nature.
It never lias
enjoyment
on the contrary, despises enjoyment.
The higher impulse makes, enjoyment, for mere enjoy-
inent
sake, contemptible.
maintenance
of
my
dignity,
CHAPTER
VIII.
CONCERNING CONSCIENCE.
IN opposition to our
usual
habit,
it
becomes almost
indifferent to
independent of
But
I feel
all reasoning.
151
all
enjoyment,
I suffer in all
Whence
suffering.
arises
components of myself,"oHy~tFrou^Trineans of
is an impulse craving harmony between my
original Ego, as determined in the mere idea~~and
actual empirical Ego.
Now this original impulse namely
the pure and the natural impulse in their union is a
determined impulse, that is to say, is directed upon some
Now, whenever iny
thing in an immediate manner.
different
that impulse,
"my
my
from an impulse,
which, in truth, is nothing but the organizing impulse of
This impulse directs itself to the selfour nature.
determined being, which is necessitated to unite that
itself as
impulse with itself synthetically, or to posit
of
desire arises
a
being impelled/The impulse manifests itself through
in
Not
?
nature,
lies
this
Where
yearning
yearning.
but in the subject of consciousness, for it has been
has for its object nothing that is not
reflected.
Yearning
52
we should apply
and
prospers";
to
why
"We
experience
enjoyment"?
But
it is
concerned.
its
require
and which
of being active,
arises
Here, there
templating internally its absolute power.
fore, there does not occur a mere feeling of the impulse,
but a contemplation. The pure impulse does not occur
as
an
itself,
affection
the
is
Ego
and contemplates
itself
The pure impulse craves to find the acting Ego selfsufficient and determined
through itself. It is not proper
to say that this
impulse is a yearning
one for it is not directed
expected as
through
of
Ego
to act.
It
determines
itself, of
course,
itself,
independently
the requirement of the
higher impulse, since
formaliter
free.
Now
it
is
153
arise,
Thus
active co-operation, and which, therefore, is felt.
as
be
understood
must
not
that
we
is, moreover, clear
it
if
we
which
it
is felt.
explains the
here described.)
Now
mere
tion.
i
It
cannot be indifferent to
us,
whether we must
is,
which
For
the harmony of actuality with
ordinary enjoyment.
the natural impulse does not depend upon myself, in so
far as I am self, i.e., free.
Hence the enjoyment which
arises from it is of a kind which tears me away from
myself, estranges me from myself, and wherein I forget
It is an involuntary enjoyment
(which is,
myself.
of
satisfaction
nothing
54
meiit).
is
it
sensuous pain.
myself,
enjoyment as
of
satisfaction,
also
is
the characteristic
but more
and infuses new courage and new strength. Hence
sensuous enjoyment.
intense,
which never
It is not so turbulent,
precisely because
own esteem;
raise
us in our
if
it
of conscience,
the
feeling
that
self-contempt.
This described
we
are
feeling,
still
capable of
entertaining
There is rest
higher feeling, is usually named conscience.
or unrest of conscience, reproaches 6Y*"conscience, and
peace of conscience; but there is no such thing as enjoy\
mcnt
conscience.
of
The term
conscience is
admirably
It
is,
as
it
CHAPTEK
IX.
A.
THE
accomplishment
of
and
determining.
All writers,
who have
in simply a formaliter
way, ought
of
self,
we ought
as
those
mystics
our self
hold, who
into God,
teach
which
proposition has, indeed, for its basis something true and
But if we look closer
sublime, as will appear hereafter.
at the requirement just now established, with a view
to determine it, we shall find that it will vanish under our
very hands into a nothing.
The higher impulse, which addresses itself to the
subject of
to
dissolve
Hence
be able
am, indeed,
156
to posit
me
Let
state
this
proposition,
well
known
its
in
its
special
the
to
force
given to
me
impulse, nay,
is
means
of
my
my control,
free
immediate object of
something empirical,
reflection.
all
is
as an intelligence, through
sensuous
thing empirical.
It is scarcely to be
apprehended, after all
we have said
previously, that anyone should understand us as asserting
that the natural
impulse, as such, produces the willing.
157
to will.
my
possible acting
now mentioned,
of
my
establish
According
in one
actuality of acting.
is,
to the natural
ground
of the
is
to relieve ourselves
of
I5 8
infinitude,
How
is it possible, say
in transcendental philosophy.
does not all
end?
infinite
an
to
nearer
they, to draw
related to
when
into
vanish
finite size
nothingness
.
sounds as
infinity ? /This question
a
as
of infinitude
thing in itself.
if
were speaking
/ draw
nearer, for
can
never
grasp infinitude, and hence
myself.
before my eyes, to which
end
determined
a
have always
I doubtless can draw nearer, although, after having
But
attained
it,
whole being
far, partly through the greater perfection my
has acquired, and partly through the greater perfection
of
dependence
but only in
sphere
never
its
doubtless
can
independent.
it is
determined
13*
159
is
must necessarily
on
this
result,
We
occur.
and may
establish,
as the
basing
fundamental
principle
destination
not answered.
If
this proposition is
expressed
thy destination is general, it involves
at once the infinity of the end established for us, since
that end can be fulfilled in no time. / (The error of the
:
is
mystics
is
Fulfil
infinite,
and
The
but
possibility
it is
to
fulfil
moment
and
sidered
let
the series of
itself,
160
individual
may
ad infinitum.
so on
join.
is
if
brought to consciousness
show themselves to lie
will
Ego/ For
we
or that.
We
simply because
we
it is
feel
for
Experience,
nothing.
impelled to do this or
undone
this
correct those
who
having
state here to
left
is a mixed
impulse, as we have
the natural impulse it receives the material,
or its object; in other words, the natural
impulse is
diivrt d upon the same act, which it craves, at least in
shown.
From
But
form
part./
its
it
In
absolutely no enjoyment of any kind for its object.
short, what it craves is absolute independence.
But has
this
161
No ab
something of the kind, for its final object ?
no
such
end.
That
absolute
solutely
independence is
;
simply
am
its
own
end.
to crave it;
am
to crave it
simply because I
am
I.
The internal
which accompanies its attainment, is some
The impulse does not arise from it, but
thing accidental.
it arises from the
impulse.
The moral impulse appeals to esteem; and obedience, or
simply because I
satisfaction,
disobedience to
it,
satisfaction, or
is
it
positive;
The impulse
It is
ing from
it its
commands
categorically.
What
it its
this
form.
Finally,
impulse requires
it
is
of freedom.
freedom
Who
does
not
perceive
that
the
word
condition
But even
am
to act free in
it
order to
occurs in
When
instance, a distinction is to be observed.
a free act occurs, we
may ask (i) How it must be done
in order to be a free act, and
(2) what must be done to
the
first
it a free act.
In short, we may inquire after
both the form and the content of freedom.
constitute
Now
the content
we have already
investigated,
and
,6 2
am
is
to determine myself, or
am
with considerateness
free as intelligence
consciousness of
my
;
blindly, as
chance
impels me.
manner
as intelligence, am to act in a determined
the
of
conscious
become
to
ground,
am
I
that is to say,
this ground
in this manner.
act
I
precisely
why
be another ground, because
cannot, because it must not,
or
the described series
within
lies
act
this precise
the view of
since this is a philosophical view and not
common consciousness because this act i&^duty. I am
to act solely conformably to the conceptioiroTmy duty,
;
I,
Now
am
this act is
my
motive
A few words concerning the last remark. Even the moral
me as mere blind impulse";"
impulse is not to determine
is contradictory, and morality can
the
thing
Indeed,
very
never merely impel. We touch here again what we have
that the impulse, to be
already said when it appeared
self -active, addresses itself to the intelligence as such;
the intelligence is to be self-determined as intelligence;
:
for instance,
163
humanity, &c.
impera
does not determine the rational being, nor does the rational
being determine itself through the mediation of anything
material, but solely through the formal, and, in itself,
its actuality,
precisely as
we
originally posited
it:
itself as
something in
itself, namely, as
something independent,
existing through no
reciprocity with anything external, but simply existing
for itself. Hence also, the
inexpressibly sublime character
of duty, since all that is external sinks down so low under
us, and vanishes into nothingness, when
compared with
self -sufficient,
our destination.
64
two results
the form of morality follow these
and
considerateness
I am to act, in general, with
1.
im
mere
to
obedience
in
consciousness, not blindly and
of
consciousness
duty
in particular, with the
pulses, and,
act to
never to act without first having related my
:
From
am
this conception.
all.
being.
of the
we
inquire
/ Formaliter
for
relates to
them
are
to
or not,
and this
But even
a relation.
/
very inquiry establishes already
be
can
materialiter the relation
proven: for I am never to
as such, but all my acts are
obey the sensuous impulse
I must relate each act to
hence
result of that impulse
all.
at
act
I
cannot
the moral law, or
To do so is
act
to
2. I am never
against my conviction.
;
How it happens
wickedness.
completes t perversity and
seems
in
itself
which
impossible,
that such a perversity,
that
is nevertheless possible, and that it loses, at least,
marl
for
has
it
which
horrible character
every uncorrupted
in its true appearance, we shall show hereafter.
Both these results gathered into one might be expressed:
We
of the
PART
II.
BOOK THIRD.
CONCERNING THE FORMAL CONDITIONS OF THE
MORALITY OF OUR ACTIONS.
PRELIMINARY.
transition.
is
called
desire, is
not the
will.
The impulse,
to
be sure,
is
167
68
to
we
to the
a power
to will.
This
is
An
fact.
But a willing
and
act of transition,
is
it
actually perceptible
is
is not completed,
But
determined.
when
a will
it is
;
determined
as, for
it is
instance,
my
it.
own
we nave
reflection.
seen
beiore,
since
169
yearning presupposes a
Ego does
and we ourselves,
know the opposite
be the case.
Now
determinedness
this is
without arbitrariness.
when the
is
is
called arbitrary
it
acts.
KEMARK.
Since
it is
a natural
i?o
is
it
both
and hence
series,
to be not
commencing
manner,
i.e.,
link of a
work
it
But
it is
also
in a mechanical
can
effect,
but does
accept
They
this
enough.
They prove,
free,"
in
to pass.
much
lies
It is a contradiction to their
"
everything happens
mechanically,"
for in
their
clear
is
171
the spiritual
applies
world,
since
is,
Freedom
of
power
choose one of
them;
and in doing
so
act
with
full
enjoyment to morality;
to another enjoyment.
i?2
"
Nevertheless," it
"
in general.
When a certain amount of experience had
already been acquired by me, I can, through imagination,
represent an enjoyment which my nature does not crave
at present, and
cravings of
can
my
now
choose to sacrifice
nature to this
artificial
all
the present
one.
Formerly
Of course
do not sacrifice
my
present impulses
my
enjoyment.
(This
to
which would
an imaginary
is
CHAPTER
I.
As we have
A.
seen, the
We
at"
is
as
con
form
to
duty.
But how
tion
my
is
tion,
my
174
me, whether
my
conviction
the correctness of
its
guaranteed by
is
true or erroneous.
Hence,
this
harmony
exists or not,
a duty.
But the whole system of my conviction cannot be
given to me in any other manner than through my
present conviction of it. f As I may err in judging any
is itself
Hence
my
morality,
my
When
to
consider
which
pass
is
my
dependent upon an
and it is my duty
must
my conviction of duty.
a
very important remark, never yet sufficiently
(This
it
considered,
appears to me, the development whereof
correctness of
is
there
If dutiful
conduct in
must be an absolute
viction
We
then such a criterion must exist now the moral law says
such behaviour is possible hence such a criterion does
;
We
exist.
175
We
or the
primacy
of the former, as
Kant
expresses
lutely true,
and
it is
duty to consider
it
That
it.
is
abso
as true.
=
assuredly requires a f certain determined conviction A,
and authorizes it. /But since the moral law is not a
of
power
cognition,
it
cannot
itself
of cognition to establish
its reflecting power of judg
power
ment
suppression
The
conscience.
of
theoretical
faculties
This criterion
is
to
the correctness of
their result.
same
as
further
already established
determination added
previously,
viz.
its
its
with
the moral
only a
law
is
content,
must have
its
176
how
does
the
is it
the
by
judgment respecting duty, manifest
theoretical
how
difficult question,
confirmation
recognised
itself,
and
The moral
Now
the practical
theoretical.
Hence
it
said,
is
itself.
not
This
of
power
of
discover
realize
it.
cognition
empirical
Ego
feeling, as is
will be in
be,
this,
177
impulse
approval
sought-for
the correctness of our conviction of
duty.
shall describe this important
feeling somewhat more
criterion of
We
at length.
by
satisfaction.
78
KEMARK.
Limits of Pure Reason,
The consciousness that an act which
4) excellently
I undertake
the
unconditioned
is just, is
But
duty."
and how do
is
there
I recognize
it ?
such a consciousness possible ?
each
Kant seems to leave this to the feeling of
individual,
as is, indeed, proper ^Dut transcendental philosophy is
of such
obliged to show up the ground of the possibility
himself
"Art
of
Him
who seeth into all hearts, and staking all that is dear and
of
holy to thee, thou wouldst insist on these propositions
to
condemn
about
art
which
thou
from
faith, for dissenting
he would most surely hesitate and
to death this heretic
In like
so zealous a dogmatist.
he
ever
were
tremble,
Whoso
and
who
those
say
manner, says Kant,
get up
?"
"
all
that
"
ought
damned,"
if
it is
surely to
not true,
damned";
we
to
do
it.
This might convince them, indeed, that they are, after all,
not so very firmly convinced of dogmas which they want
to force
upon
others.
of his
signify: to be eternally
no other ratiomiranswer*^liaS7
to give
all eternity.
improvement throughout
evil, and an evil which no
man
up
This
certainly give
all
is
ones moral
the greatest
179
not
least,
time./
is
point
is lost,
Only
principles.
viction.
true con
above
all
harmony with
The
am
certain, is a
immediate
agreement
deceives, for, as
we have
seen,
it
all possible
Only
being and
all
in so far as I
possible truth.
a moral being
am
is certitude
possible for me, since the criterion of all theoretical truth
The
theoretical
power
of
i8o
must be
practical,
and
it
must be duty
the
to accept
it.
all possible
cognition in general,
cognition which
is
duties.
We
of
i
our conviction
At present, we observe
limited, and, in consequence
My impulse
is
an
object.
Now,
it is
clear
But
may
also reflect
upon
my
freedom therein.
If I
do
a certain order
also
object, I
determine
of
my
limits will
usefulness
its
utility
for various
purposes.
Let
it
usefulness of a thing
unchanging
is
qualities of a thing,
181
view.
impulse which
it
is
to
limit,
but,
the
former case
the
whereas in the
limitation
its
it
is
first
is
not
considered.
In
in the second
reposes
it is placed in motion.
For, let it be well remembered,
that I have deduced the conception of usefulness from the
impulse
my own
is
at the
impulse.
In that case
my
qualities
and
its
If
the latter
is
What
we
THE SCIENCE OF
182
ZTH1CS.
other; and
mines, in so
to
is
to
say,
it
far,
regarded as
primary, also
power
of cognition in
arises
cognition,
is,
intelligible
of
own
self -relation,
condition
of
which conscience
But conscience
183
is the
immediate
ness of a determined
somewhat
is
thinking ;/and
Kant
says
Conscience
A^correct
is
a consciousness which
dutyT
twofold /first, that
it
is
is itself
It involves a
is,
as it were,
that condition
is to
say, conscience does not furnish the material
of our duty, which it is the business of the power of
judgment to furnish, and conscience is no power of judg
that
this
COROLLARIA.
I.
for
ever cancelled
and
is
itself
judge
84
of all conviction,
than
Its
itself.
To try
appeal.
to
reach
beyond
it
is
to
try
to
go
All
from oneself.
material systems of morality which seek some other end
for duty than duty itself, thus try to reach beyond it;
and are therefore enveloped in the fundamental error
of
all dogmatism, which always looks for the final
ground of whatsoever is in and for the Ego, outside of
the Ego.
Such moral systems are possible only through
inconsequence, for logical dogmatism admits no morality,
out of
oneself,
separate oneself
to
itself,
as for
may
and
it
to himself
to others.
conviction
proposition
which
is
accompanies
felt.
anxious to think in
the
thinking
of
such
We
which has
pendently of conscience.
coivardice,
185
power
is
of imagination.
in
our
totality,
self.
change
in his convictions
3.
of
The
an act
impulse
itself makes
bility of such a feeling is, that the subject
Hence certainty and conviction can
this judgment.
Hence,
the
A
; for he is uncertain.
is great need
which
there
very important proposition,
furnish
kind,
as
premises
from
which
to
frame
their
own
86
of everything.
of those premises
validity; for the
itself in
may
is
be correct, although
mankind
in general,
practical
results.
is
indifferent to
condition in
For the sake of his conscience, man must form his own
judgment, and compare this judgment with his feeling;
for otherwise he acts immorally and
unconscientiously.
Hence there
is
person utters
or because
it,
it is
self -investigation.
and
We
must
first
test it
by our own
conscience,
this categorial
it
is
of reason
all
187
thereof
subterfuges, exceptions, or modifications
It is not allowable to
are to be invariably repudiated.
this or that to be true, and hence
found
have
say,
at the same
something else" (which occurs, perhaps,
"I
place)
"must
not because
showed
also be
true."
For
this or that
was
true,
it
itself
it may
something else on the mere chance that
That which does not proceed from faith, or
from the confirmation of our own conscience, is absolute
risk
also be true.
sin.
CHAPTER
II.
WHATSOEVER
being,
necessarily in its wholeness and without lack in
since otherwise such individual would
individual,
every
is
not
be
rational.
cannot
It
is
be
too
often
reiterated
something
occurs in
it
it
only in so far as
its
it is
own
consciously posited in
self-activity.
But
it is
of
must,
therefore,
reflections,
each
and that it
being limited
duration of time to raise
;
require
everything which constitutes an original Ego to clear
consciousness.
To describe this process of the reflections
of the Ego in time is to furnish the
history of the em
however,
all
law
is
189
if
he
him
we
absolute freedom
It occurs through
to be expected.
occurs because it occurs.
It ought to
it is
;
it
Ego ought
to correspond to
Now
through
it
of a resolution.
of
this choice, or of
for instance, is to be
it
190
freedom,
but
according
to
chance.
Freedom acts
Hence there must be abso
blind
through
conceptions.
lutely something in C, which causes
will call this something X.
it
to be preferred.
We
precisely X,
the choice ?
now C
is
= X), must
of this nature
whatsoever
is
of this or
the rule.
for
proposition as
maximum,
its
ground.
still
for
a higher
man, his
through an act
of
my own
freedom.
If it did
maxim.
maxim
not exist
and what
over,
191
"
which we
On
own happiness.
animal.
this standpoint
man
is
a calculating
But
means.
just
now
maxim
is
propound
it
thereof.
I said, if
it
this maxim.
Hence the maxim was theoretically deduced
from the presupposed standpoint.
But it is not at all
necessary, that he should remain on that standpoint nay,
he ought to raise himself to a higher one, and can so
raise himself.
That he does not do it, is his own fault,
and hence the improper maxim, which results from it, is
;
also his
own
fault.
It
is,
192
Under such
a
and
with
such
character
mode of
circumstances, i.e.,
he
not
act
otherwise
than
he
But
could
thinking,
it would be wrong to confine the conclusion to this
assertion, and to deny that he could have another
character than he has.
He absolutely ought to form
another one, if his present character is of no account;
and he can do it, since it depends altogether upon his
freedom to do so.
quite right,
if
"
did."
reflection,
For,
In other words
ought to do
is
it
in respect to
my original
only an idea.
to
the
is
prehended,
think
When such
no freedom, but only
To desire to comprehend an act of freedom
is
mechanism.
is
signifies
it
If it
could be
com
193
new
series,
come
since
itself
throws
much
clearness
that
perhaps
all
is
his
lifetime
since there
It is
yet positive hostility to, or corruption of, morality.
to be hoped and
expected that the man will, sooner or
later,
raise
point,
if
he
much more
himself, of his
is
only
left
own
to himself.
defect of expression
THE SCIENCE OF
194
ETHICS.
not
higher standpoint.
But, even without such a false philosophy, this mode of
thinking may be confirmed, either through general habit
and through the experience, which is probably the same
in all ages, that
rise
beyond
it
which,
of
portant observation
thinking.
it
is
Moreover
a not
man
natural for
unim
to exist_
on
to
is
The ground
actually done.
is
it is
it.
were
Society
better
we,
also,
But
if
is
should be better,
The
is
possibility,
not cancelled
man
He
will
freedom, for
only formaliter
free,
195
themselves.
inexplicable,
Now,
if,
in
this
impulse
but as mere
consciously,
and
is
ter
of the individual,
character which
and
it
is
this
determinedness of
we have now
to investigate.
The distinguishing characteristics to be noticed in this
investigation are as follows The impulse appears only as
:
man s
196
of
From
selfishness.
conclusions.
these cha
It
is
not
it
manner.
is,
latter of
being absurd.
demn
An
act
which
done merely
an exception
seek, on this stand
blind impulse
when men
is
is
establish an
artificial
external to us.
will at
all,
but
Man
is
blindly impelled
indeed, he has no
bat he acts as if he
had the
of acting
must
result
197
to be absolutely self-
determined.
To properly appreciate
this
with morality.
Morality also demands freedom and
independence, but desires to attain it only gradually, and
conformably to certain laws. Hence, it desires no un
it
causality.
who hold
desire certainly to
it,
men
should
have a good
will,
and wish
let
and
free.
it
is
really desired,
and that
of thinking.
character
this
of
98
in
that
do
its
Whereas,
duty.
if
it is
We
men
But
It is
sacrifices.
may
also
with
require
very
the greatest self-denial, precisely because it is higher than
the impulse to attain mere enjoyment. In this case there
results
c
-
selj
valuation.
This
is
not so
much an
esteeming
We
reposeful being.
enjoy to find ourselves better and
nobler than we should almost have credited. That it must
of the
its
but
acting,
occurrence
now
life as
:
of
human
goodness
the above kind of
is
utterly
false.
nature
is
of
an original
experience.
Human
well as in philosophical
the assertion
And
nature
is
It
199
freedom.
joy,
in
We
is selfishness.
are selfish,
them.
this
We
bound
to
;
act wrongly.
it is all right,
founded
right.
That
this
principle,
is
mode
it
of
is
thinking,
when reduced
to
its
not be denied by
occurs frequently
though without
it
its character
and, moreover, in
those persons who pass for very honest and virtuous men,
will also be denied by no one who knows mankind and
will not
is able to penetrate into their inmost heart.
clear consciousness of
We
refer
to
particular
individuals,
but
to
all
mankind.
200
of such a
mode
of thinking.
nations, wars
of conquest arid of religion, all the misdeeds, in short,
which have ever dishonoured mankind how are they
Subjugation of
be
to
explained
What
induced
the
subjugator
to
l)e
"
sciousness of
sacrifices,
in our opinion.
True, the satisfaction of these sacrifices
affords an enjoyment afterwards, which enjoyment is not
the end
we had
man
If
thinking
in
man who
the
first
calculates
For this
inspires contempt.
and
remains, independence from
all, is,
the external world is a self-sufficiency.
It might
may
get
out of
an
act,
character, after
all
mode
of
thinking
In
fact, it is
the usual
this
has no value at
it
standpoint,
20!
all,
since
it
does not
it is
of
it
since
material acts emanating from that principle
is
which
that
to
consider
men
accustoms
merely duty
;
as something noble
Man
4.
mere
this
reflection,
shown.
absolutely imperative law, as has already been
As every reflection limits the reflected, thus the reflected
impulse
is
also limited
absolutely.
Now
if
this
must make
it
in every case,
knowing
maxim
is
to
for himself, to
moment
of
to
do his
is
precisely because
it is
his duty.
Such a maxim
202
Man
as
is
Now,
something.
say
man
Man,
of himself to
do
resolves
to
consciously
he requires of himself in
the same undivided moment, not to do that very thing.
Hence, in the same undivided moment, the same intelli
gence in him must require contradictory acts, which is
certainly a self -annihilating proposition, and the most
:
flagrant contradiction.
But
clear
it
is
self
the
For
duty.
this consciousness arises only through an act of absolute
spontaneity, and remains only through the continuation
of
consciousness
that
(It
the requirement of
freedom
act of
vanishes.
of
is
when we
cease
to reflect
it
if
we continue
to reflect in accordance
with the
seem
to fall into
kind
than
us,
our
co-operation,
being,
203
on
the
ourselves.
it
we observe
to
be darkened,
act.
is
also
an absolute
first,
and hence
unexplainable
hence not with accompanying
I do, and not with a consciousness of the freedom where
with I do it. If it did, the allowing that consciousness
"and
to be
contradiction.
It occurs,
when
it
it
the vanishing of
the consciousness of duty is an abstraction.
Now, there
Either I
are two very different kinds of abstraction.
make
the
abstraction
with
clear
consciousness,
and
in me of
according to a rule; or the abstraction arises
its own account, even where I did not intend to abstract,
and thus
drift
But
this
204
of his
in goodness.
The determined
vanishes.
Two
everywhere.
We
of
these
conditions.
indistinct consciousness.
to note
how
a determined consciousness
into an undetermined
may change
itself
All our
It is only
through the
even after
we do
one.
True, the conception remains determined in this
instance; the very fact that it is, in a certain degree,
undetermined, constituting its determinedness. Uncon
sciously,
we do
it
when we
the fewest
men
seize
205
its
very quick.
act,
which
is
of
true thread of
conscience.
is
this
We
act, as is
usually
is,
and
to
our
"if
we go honestly
to
work";
20 6
For
does only from motives of selfishness.
to
as
indifferent
duty, being
instance, he may be utterly
Such a character would be that
unbeliever.
a
lie
enough,
dogmatic
of a miserable hypocrite,
and
is
class.)
Secondly, there is
determinedness, that
involved
it
is
in
the
precisely
in
conception this
the present
case,
we have
to act in a
appears
by time
that
is
as one which,
it
certainly requires
demand
precisely at the present
be in a hurry to obey.
not
and which we need
though
it
the thought,
Hence, comes the postponement of reform
or
that
this
delight, or carry
that we will enjoy only yet
then seriously
and
out this or that reprehensible plan,
;
postponing, we are
we shall have
when
The
time
it.
continue
very likely to
for man has
come
never
will
cherished
no more
plans,
is lazy, and requires to
character
a
Such
wishes.
always
gerous, for
if
regardless
this
if we so
perhaps, as good advice which we may follow
list and if it does not cost too much self-denial, but
condition
207
do our duty
nay, perhaps
we even
sacrifice to
duty those
for us
the
we make
nay,
same time.
It is this mode of thinking which impudently asserts
that we cannot live as the moral law requires, that the
punctual practice of that law is an impossibility an
assertion which is very frequently heard in ordinary life,
but which has also sneaked into philosophical and
But, of what impossibility, I ask,
theological systems.
does this assertion speak ? That we often cannot realize our
firmest will in the external world on account of external
but neither does the moral law
obstacles, is true enough
The moral law
realization.
demand
this
unconditionally
believe to have satisfied both at the
do
all
What
sacrifice
and
retain them.
True enough
who has
but
said that
we ought
to retain
We
The
the truth
we
is
not,
latter are to
be sacrificed.
we
Hence
will not
do
2 o8
our duty.
We
sacrifices.
It is
fault.
of human
proves the wide extent
shamelessness, it is this contradictory
If anything, indeed,
corruption and
its
of rationality in
it.
always signifies
is demanded, men
thorough reform of State organization
those propositions cannot be realized, they are im
cry
"
practicable."
But who
the,
to remain?)
CONCLUDING REMARKS.
In order to place the doctrine of freedom in the clearest
light, and to prosecute fatalism into its extremest hiding-
corners,
to
209
self -consciousness.
Now this involves simply that he
should become conscious of his freedom in the choice
his actions.
man
learns to
make
selfish or
as
we
jshall
upon
Now
if
we had merely
said,
man
we presuppose unwittingly
It is this
man
will not
man
to do.
We
therefore presuppose an
We
the negative.
Now, what
P
justifies
such a presupposition
Is
it
2io
justify
Hence there
must
be
rational
necessarily
occur in
power
it is
time
if
so occur,
it
is
were
to
it
be perceptible,
not posited as
by external
of
inertia
a real one
understand
it
properly.
Nature, as such, as mere
nature.
it is
united, and it is
a
signified by
power of inertia.
on the indicated standpoint we ourselves are
this synthesis
Now,
which
and although
since the
it
is
synthetically
is
211
undisturbed.
Moreover, the fact that we do occupy the
described standpoint, is also to be taken into considera
tion, since it is a necessary fact, as a result of natural
mechanism. Thus we are nature in every respect. But
that which appertains to all nature must also appertain
man in so far as he is nature a reluctance to emerge
to
human
is
illustrated
in
all
the
of habit,
"
power
of inertia in
order of most
and
habit.
men
our nature.
Even
Even
it
Let us consider
he
man
Since
It is precisely his
which is to help
is
freedom which
him
no equilibrium, no
it.
enchained
the power
is
no weight
moral law to
enough that man
place himself in the other scale, and
is
Now
it
absolutely ought to
ought to decide that step;
has the actual power within
it
is
is
of the
true
man
him
weight to overbalance
he can at each moment, through a pressure
upon himself
212
by means
is
of
he to get this
It is
by no means
but
how
it.
his
that
man
through
pelled
his
by
logical, if
man
who cannot,
himself, but must be im
a higher power, are altogether in the right, and
characterize
be good,
in
is
human
nature
plained from
it.
Man
is
by nature
lazy, says
Kant very
correctly.
From this
others.
to a
but
man,
with a
at
the
and subject
trouble
of
my
body
self-thinking,
authority worship.
bodily exertion of
I am terror-stricken
which somebody
else
requires of
and asking me
to see into
213
fewer and
How,
strong character.
then, does
these few
painful
to
ordinary
man
than thousandfold
suffering,
it
only
suffer,
all
deception
is
;
life.
act.)
by
fundamental vice
heartfelt,
There he would
of
man, which
Man
cannot
naturally arises from cowardice, is falseness.
so utterly deny his selfhood and sacrifice it to another,
as
he
may
when
This
is
214
fact
you,
these
that
characteristics
the
proves
nobility
and
appear so disgusting to
sublime character of
You
above
all
it were the
actively acquired product of our own freedom,
the elevating of oneself into an
altogether different order
of thing
Os ?
Finally,
who
shown up for
these characteristics,
human
upon it
through some hostile demon, and as if they were not
rather valid for all finite, rational
For these
beings.
characteristics are not grounded, as we have
seen, in a
peculiarity of our nature, but rather in the conception
of
much try to
we
seraphim;
may certainly
differing from man in their more
conceive
them
as
Let us ever so
its
own
itself
to
215
morality only
freedom.
come
must come
externally.
In this way
to be
brought
possibility for
Now, something
THE SCIENCE OF
216
exciting
their
attention,
but
ETtilCS.
anything
else,
such
as,
is
theoretically
true
interpretation,
what we have
if
meant
and even,
if
to
indicate
not exactly so
just stated,
explained, is utterly without danger, provided it is not
made use of to enforce blind obedience ; and each one may
hold
whatsoever
practically
it
is
of
he
chooses
regarding
this
matter
BOOK FOURTH.
CONCERNING THE MATERIAL CONDITIONS OF
THE MORALITY OF OUR ACTIONS.
PKELIMINARY.
A. I HAVE causality,
signifies, as
we know
That which
impulse.
my
original
pirically-determined
as has been
throughout
perience
impulse.
all
eternity
is
217
2i 8
determined end = X,
an X determined through all that has passed before it,
and through its own nature but nevertheless also an X,
original impulse craves at all times a
acting
it
is possible
all parts of
are likewise possible.
In each case infinitely many
actions are possible.
But in order that something should
it
occur,
it
is
it
all
be possible, but
it.
through my
which
possible acts,
That which
impulse, and
I will, does
occur.
which
observe
impossible.)
Now
which then
is
this One,
it
is
219
we must
Either
This
decides.
decision,
bases
doubtless,
itself
Feeling
on a
standpoint of common
understanding, since in consciousness it is only manifested
as a feeling but which may, perhaps, be disseverable from
Mere popular teaching
the transcendental point of view.
consciousness on the
object of
is
Eeason
is
it
rises
lives in reason,
conscience,
which manifests
be determined.
itself in feelings,
In the course
such
of
law, reason,
If
conscience are based.
law,
of
we
of
grounds
upon which
we succeed
same
must
our investigation
also
we
in discovering this
What
C.
We
it is identical,
Law
is
absolute^
so far as
220
series
every individual a steady and uninterrupted
end.
that
can
he
which
of acts, through
approach
which
acts
those
Conscience can always approve only
Let us figure this in the shape of
occur in this series.
line.
a
Only that which occurs as point in
of
straight
this line
else.
What
method.
Our
where we dropped
We
still
of
conscience.
pursued
its
Our
course,
D.
lie
What
we have been
This
is
We
221
we
treat
We
re
It is only in consequence
capitulate in a few words.
of a determined limitation of the impulse, and in order
to explain this limitedness, that a determined object
If this impulse itself is posited as
at all posited.
impulse (as a yearning or desiring) and related to the
object, then we have that which the Ego would like to
produce in the object, or what it would like to use it
is
in
my
object
of the
E.
Let
am
to
it
comprehend the
totality of
my
may mean
impulse.
Thus an
Every
original
Let
it
things at
What
all.
sort of
means one
craves, as
of
we
By no
222
at
all.
Now
one
this limitedness is to be
and empirical.
But there is no other limitedness of reason through
itself than the one which results from the identical
accidental
is
Ego
is
to
the impulse
tradictory.
But
shall
be a
self-determined
Ego
this
is
my
final
relate
them
to the
Egohood
as such, to
223
We
now proceed
to
do
so.
L
THE BODY AS CONDITION OF THE MORAL CAUSALITY
OF THE EGO.
The
reflecting
Ego must
find itself as
Ego
must, as
it
separated
it
as
objective
to myself,
and
which
another significance.
It is
now mine
in so far as I
am
224
free,
assigned
to
me
not only
it
through freedom
idealiter,
it
is
through theoretical
etc.
Even
when
The
is
mere working
we
of
the latter.
225
is not in itself
sufficient to produce a
That which, on the part of the subject, is
necessary to success has not been given previous to the
this
region
causality.
The
self-determining.
act of
self-determining supplies
necessary for a causality is
Self-determination furnishes to the power of
complete.
my nature the requisite principle, namely, the first motive
this,
and now
all
that which
is
made
This
is
be that which
itself to
the
first
it
is.
argumentation
to
call
is
based.
attention
of nature,
we must
to
necessarily posit
it,
likewise, as matter.
we may
satisfy, or
not satisfy
it,
as
we
226
Ego.
substance, an acting
is,
in
pulse.
based on perception, of
ment, likewise, of
all
condition of Egohood.
upon conservation,
in causality.
culture,
impulse
is itself
our body in
materialization.
our, as well as
all,
its final
and cultivate
my
body
itself.
my
it
body must be
We
The
one
227
commands.
first
become object
of
is
sake.
2.
The second
be cultivated as
of freedom.
is
a positive
command:
the body
is
to
much
The third a
is
enjoyment
which may not, with clearest conviction, be related to the
development of our body for moral aims, is not permitted,
and in violation of the moral law. It is absolutely im
moral to take care of our body without the conviction
that it is thus cultured and preserved for moral
activity,
Eat and drink for the
or, in short, for conscience sake.
3.
other.
By
this
established condition of
We
of
the method.
It
there
is
con
progress
a second
is
to be established.
228
II.
The Ego must find itself as Ego such was the assertion,
from which our last investigation took its starting-point.
The present one starts from the same statement, but with
:
this
distinction,
former we con
the
that, whereas, in
must
Ego
have
the
reproduce
conception.
is
power
of
in
reflection,
order
to
The
a condition of Egohood.
The Ego
is
necessarily
intelligence.
self-determination.
am
as I
make
it
my
my
is
the vehicle
the
of
latter.
Hence,
not possible.
I must not
for fear it might be against
is
my duty
as
I,
certainly,
must
is
cognition
and aim
of
my
all
therefore,
is,
subordinated to duty.
That
is
to
cognition, of all
to
say,
my
he
229
formaliter
the
final
end
thinking jind
my
The
first
your
(Do not, in advance, resolve upon an end
which you would like to arrive at in
theory for where
could you get this end ?)
2. The second,
positive Cultivate your power of
cognition.
tion as
much
much
as
you can
cogni
learn, think,
and investigate
as
as
be your duty
in
in.
INDIVIDUALITY AS CONDITION OF THE EGOHOOD.
is
principle.
A. Whatsoever
is
object of a reflection
is
necessarily
230
quantum, thereof,
opposited to free activity in general,
In short, the Ego
and, in so far, to other free activity.
is
cannot, hy any
manner
of
and
together
This would of
itself
Ego may
through mere
as, indeed, very
ideal activity, as a
purely possible activity
often happens in actual consciousness. Whenever I ascribe
;
known
philosophy
freedom.
We
upon
to
I find
of
above
reflection,
it
new
231
reflection directed
upon
Now
it.
am
to ascribe
appertains
to
Which, then,
myself.
not
does
me, yet
this
is
to
constitute
whom
am
essentially
to ascribe
Not
the natural impulse ? The substantial, true Ego.
the intelligence as such, as we have just shown, but
rather the free, active Ego.
As sure, therefore, as I am
find
to
myself
as
free
myself
not possible.
The former
is
latter.
must
am
find
to
signify,
and how
Firstly,
the
spontaneity I
it
to myself.
is
it
real,
is
What may
free active.
possible
true self
determination
me
therefore, find
can,
determination
this
through
must give
certain
ideal
self-
through
activity
only through
reproducing one which exists already independently of
me.
But my self-determination exists without my
co-operation signifies
an appeal is
short
it
exists
addressed
as
a conception
to
me
or,
in
determine
to
As
myself.
"thmk
do not com
prehend it, then there arises no consciousness I do not
find myself as yet, but will find myself at another
time perhaps, although all the conditions of my finding
For since I am free, even the
myself exist already.
whether
I use
and
fill
it
up or
If I
not.
existence of
as
free,
all
cannot
the conditions
compel
me
of
thus
my
to
finding
find
myself
myself
in
232
reflection
on
all
make
to
this
On
part is requisite.
were
these conditions
given,
my
hand, unless
could not make the
the other
it
communicate
therefore
me
to
such a conception;
of
of
and which
is
the
conception.
conception
a rational being, a being positing
itself as Ego, hence an Ego.
(This furnishes the only
sufficient ground for concluding the existence of a
capable
is
is
not
It
possible.
-
to
of
consciousness,
Egohood,
rational being outside of myself.)
This rational being I opposit to
to
it
relation
Hence
that
to
it
is
it,
is
is
a condition of
assume
an
actual
TKj^
condition
of
Egohood
to
posit
itself
as
individual.
more
closely.
here
deduced, however,
there
follows already a limitation of the impulse to be selfdetermined, and hence a further determination of
morality, which
Egohood and
we
self
shall
state at once.
sufficiency
generally
Namely,
is
my
conditioned
233
hence
my
absolute"
limitation of
"pfolutiiiion
this
impulse involves
"as
the
of
<>lh<T
(The
materialiter
but neither
is it
of others.)
by me to the other.
But even in the progress of acting I must always
choose some from all that which is possible to me
condition
freedom
the
ascribed
in
consequence
our
my
of
freedom.
that
which
freedom excludes from
presupposition,
which
my
Now, according
I
my
do
not
actions, is
to
choose,
taken
act.
(An important
myself
am
still
clearer, since it
And
what"
the ground,
is
I reply
234
I make
ivhich
myself
At each moment
of
to
I am
be
it
it.
existence
my
my
being
is
if
not
a
in its conditions, at least in its final determination
"IT
this
freedom.
being again
Through
being through
(that
cannot
my
which amongst
choose to be, depends again upon
my
determines
this
there
But all
makes me
freedom.
all
this
is
is
condition,
viduality,
through
whereas
is
directed
my
connection with
another
rational
first
being
acts,
but
there
is
no external ground
amongst
all possible
acts.
that
it
can be
so.
The essence
of
freedom
itself
existing.
r-
only^^j
amongst many
why
individuality
I am.
the
under
present presupposition that
only
of me, and that
outside
individual
one
only
it
my
my
who
But
moment
But can they have actual existence for me, i.e., can
This
perceive them as actually existing, and how ?
235
freely active.
But
it
mediately
is
not at
all
me.
influence
will
influence
Originally
this
of actual rational
conclusion would
But whosoever
hence a mere conception.
thought
of
the
work
art,
produced
necessarily thought the con
he
intended
to
ception
represent; hence he had necessarily
:
it
in a world
creator.
have said
it as a product
only possible on condition
and this
that I think already a reason outside of me
latter assumption does not proceed from the perception
of
art."
But
"as
this
sure as I recognize
itself
is
of
to free activity.
It is thus on the standpoint of
common
consciousness,
236
in us
is
itself
view
of
on which
the assumption
anything external, but. on wliidi tli.it.
which is said to be external to us must first, be explained
<>!
is
of art outside of us
Whatsoever
of
it,
that
it is
posited
there
of
we assume freedom
presses
this
outside of
excellently
in
(Mr. Schelliiig ex
Philosophical Journal,
us.
the
"
iv.
not go further.")
If it does happen,
This can happen, as we have seen.
I am still further limited than through mere Egohood;
for it was not involved in the conception of Egohood,
237
one.
Upon
it
its possibility,
HOW
we
may also
does arise in
it
shall
immediately see.
The result of the above proposition
time,
is
this
Individuality
standpoint of experience.
It may be thus
With
itself;
material part of
this
science
contains
something con
we
If
of course, say
it
is
so.
For instance,
me
in
my
sensuous world.
238
complete
light.
The
my
it is
rational beings,
them
is
like
dropped,
for
selves,
we drop
if
it,
and hence,
rational beings,
remain inexplicable
freedom, for
if
we
do,
not
difficult.
free
or
rational
them
we abandon
beings
cease
to be.
The solution
is
For me
(I shall
say so at
for me,
all
priori deter-
But
A priori
is
let
us recollect
what a
priori
239
signifies.
series,
me remain
free.
it
is
certainly determined
for
If another one
tions, should exercise these influences.
exerted them before I did, I did not exert them, and if
I did not exert them, perhaps another one exerted them
if they exerted it in their own freedom,
be that which I am, no one exerted such influence
Who am I then, after all? We repeat
upon them.
after me, or
to
again
have now
am
I
only that which I make myself to be.
in
the
acted so or so far, and hence, I am
dividual to
c,
whom
a,
b,
c,
&c.
From
and reality
no
means, that
of all these acts is predestined, but, by
follow the
should
precisely the one which I now choose
series a, b, c, which constitutes now my individuality,
There are first determined
and so on ad infinitum.
from each of these there
and
points of individuality,
and
it
stretch out an infinity,
depends altogether upon its
still possible individuals it
of
all
the
which
own freedom
can choose.
The
possibility
becomes.
My
are pre
240
by a
And
thus,
person as it is
it
is
said
even before
that
person
is
such a
is
of freedom,
CHAPTER
III.
consists, as
we
is
dependent upon
upon anything; that in my
which I will happens simply
because I will
it,
infinity.
at the very
sphere for
my
be interfered with.
I
am
/Nor
forced to assume
still
does
it hinder my freedom, if
other free and rational beings
o
altogether
spiritual
conception.
Finally
it
is
no
242
my
curtailing of
many
possible acts
the consciousness of
that freedom
itself.
my
modes
acts
which
sufficiency.
not choose, this would not limit my selfThey would not limit me, thereby, but 7
I did
them.
If,
rational beings.
But
freedom
if
I disturb their
the
second,
when we consider
it
in a
particular manifestation,
243
II.
solved,
we presuppose
if
that
all free
of
others.
all
Is
this
so
Since everything
to
cularly
we
peculiar
parti
char
depends upon
shall discuss it
more
thoroughly.
Now
it is
certainly,
we have
as
and not
purpose
in so far as it is
But
I,
this
it
am
A.
so far as I
Hence
is
am
concerned, only in
my
consciousness.
to the
our reason,
so far as I
only
A,
am
self -sufficiency of
an individual reason.
2 44
for
of the
is
not
causality
object,
but
which
pure Ego in the strictest manner,
for
all
is
for
very important
the science
of
morals.
craves
the
self-
impulse of self-sufficiency
reason in general, and if this selfsufficiency of
individuals
can
only be represented in the
sufficiency
it is necessarily
then
and
them;
through
A, B, C, &c.,
If the
altogether
indifferent
represents
for,
it;
undivided empire
which
is
satisfied.
to
me, whether A, or B, or C
is always
represented, and hence my impulse
I desire morality in general within or outside
my
My
Hence the
must
former.
and without
is
245
him
free at
the
other must
all.
absolutely desire
to cancel the
controlling me.
Here likewise there arises the further question What
exercise of freedom is in violation of the moral law, and
:
who can be
convinced that
same circumstances
act immorally, as I
am convinced that he acts immorally. Whose conviction
is now to be the rule ?
Neither, so long as both are in
dispute, for each
is
own
course
we
and not
to be convinced
arrive
at
the
is
246
influence him.
beings.
We
shall
examine
this
III.
is,
as
we
"
lation."
to
Kant s standpoint
of
the idea of
We
must try
to realize
realized.
fact,
_J
position
own
a
Kant s pro
reason holds.
heuristic
247
use,
namely,
certainly
do
made
it.
Each one
is
to
as is absolutely
self
commanded.
moral respect, does not even take care of himself, for his
end ought to be to take care of all mankind. His virtue
is no virtue, but only perhaps a slavish merit -seeking
It is not made our duty to seek or create our
egotism.
selves society; he, who was born in a desert, might
but everyone who becomes ac
perhaps remain there
;
becoming
in
the requirement
248
we
and
fulfil
duty.
It likewise follows, that each one will
only aim to
convince the other, and not to allow himself to be
convinced.
This is in the nature of the case.
He
teristic of
unites
men
this
perhaps
a
reciprocal
lest lie
want
of
more
Whosoever
flies
belief,
his
from
it,
betrays
self-conviction,
have no existence;
the
influence.
to
all
This reciprocity
amongst all rational beings for the
purpose of producing common practical convictions, is
only possible in so far as all start from common principles,
such as necessarily exist in order to connect their further
convictions to these
principles.
is
community
changed;
is
for
to
be
utterly
fruitless,
be
constantly
249
it.)
D. The agreeing of
in the
all
We
characteristic of
is
exposed to
many
doubtless
is
doubts.
requires of
me
holds
it
Con
responsible,
I
this
referred
culture
of
am, therefore,
cerning
myself
own private convictions, and not to the
solely to
is
tit
tool.
my
common
relation to the
and
As
conviction.
individual,
Moral Law,
understanding, I alone
of
/The development
altogether upon my own
culture.
freedom
of thinking.
my
and
as
tool
of
in
a body
possessed
responsible for their
understanding depends
I have absolute
conviction.
it
unconscientious,
me it is unconscientious, to doubt
however holy it may appear, and to investi
of
am
am
tell
further.
This investigation is absolute duty and
a violation of duty to leave matters of this kind
undecided.
In regard to my body, I have absolute
gate
it
is
it
may
of
it,
as
hope, according to
my
healthy, and
duty to act in this matter as others do nay,
it is immoral to let the
preservation of my body depend
upon the opinions of others without conviction of my
own.
it,
keep
it
It is not
250
is
am
beings,
my
upon
own
their
freedom,
if
That, which
will.
of
all,
follow, that
if
such a
common
conviction and
harmony
may influence
acting is impossible,
Still it is
contradictory to the Moral Law.
also against that Law to act otherwise than
according
to such universal
Hence it must be an
harmony.
which
is
world,
is
It is absolute moral
duty to unite
with others into a State. Whosoever refuses to do
so,
is not to be tolerated at all in
society, because no one
can conscientiously enter into relation with
him; he
and
act
before
State
is
nevertheless,
silence, of
251
manner
arises,
the
and has
state
as
legal
and rational
first
the
arisen,
condition
It
state.
duty to submit
is
one
compulsory need-
gradual progress to a
of
un
contain
number
influence
this
matter
do not
My
tion,
if
it
is
my
There
nay, contradictory.
my
country.
Some
252
one says
But I, at
But this is a selfish
commit it ? If you
"
commit no injustice
Will you then let others
least, will
spirit.
see that
"
But in
But
that case
act against
my
better
conviction."
it
at
to
all
treat
You speak
both cases.
of in
be,
of a condition to be
spoken
of the conviction of
as
member
of
I
easily be united.
of our need-state as a
are,
materialiter legal
enough, namely, in so far as
it
less
is
it
neverthe
immoral
ment becomes
take
it
upon
illegal
down
of itself,
his conscience to
completely
overthrow
it.
253
their
of
own
late,
unmeasured
have,
an
were something very dangerous,
perfectibility
in
we must
We may
We cannot
command
obey this
Hence
it is
human
is
JST or
is
What
sort of people
us believe that
must there
be,
foolishness
it is
But
this
is
254
are
as
their
it
is.
We
destination
is
is
is
is
who probably
How
opinions.
is
to influence all
upon
of faith of
all,
or as their symbol.
symbol.
is
merely the hull; the conception is the real
That precisely this representation was a matter
255
is
of the conception.
symbol of
In so
necessity
far,
indeed
(Noth- Symbol),
and
totally
all
may
precisely
actual visible
nation,
and images.
that
of
256
the
By
supersensual in a universally valid manner ?
for what need were there otherwise of a
no means
symbols
common
convictions,
latter as
so also
the condi
the condition.
absolutely commanded,
absolute duty to fix at least something upon
which at least the most agree, as symbol; or, in other
tioned,
is
Hence
it is
is
may
be.
Moreover,
cannot influence
all
without
But I shall
starting from what they all agree upon.
influence them and hence I shall start from what they
are all agreed upon, and not from what they are in
;
dispute
This
about.
is
As sure as I
conscientious duty.
will the end, I also will the only means.
He who acts
otherwise does not teacli for the sake of moral culture,
but perhaps in order to show off his learning, and makes
prudence, but
it
is
is
quite a different
business.
it be observed that I say
I shall start from it,
from something presupposed but on no account I
shall try to arrive at it, as at something to be proven.
And here, indeed, appears the objection which may be
raised against this doctrine.
Now
For it might be said
if I am not convinced of the truth of those
symbols from
which I am to start, do I not then speak against my
Let
as
"
better conviction
be allowed to do so
"
which
lies
is
it
really
257
of characterizing it
But who
as a fixed determination.
an actual determination
it
is
it,
con
this belief is
tion.
we
start
is
not taught
from
it
to
teach
in teaching:
it
it
is
is
our
priestcraft
common
for
pre
it,
tion,
from which
is
to
start,
none other
this.
We
258
The
if
upon the
insisting
old,
to bring
though
the
is
am
viction as
riot
much
But such a
as I
am
cultivation
able to do.
is
possible
at
least
in
the
progress
only through intercommunication
with others. The ground is the following: There is
absolutely no other criterion for the objective truth
course of
its
my
of
am
it
that this
my
nature,
my
if one
person after another, to whom I communicate
convictions, should reject it, I would not on that
matter
How
again.
How
should
influence,
On
the other
when
ing,
cannot
of
others with
me;
self-sufficient?
my
conviction
it.
An
internal
presuppose
259
agree
conviction,
proof that
it is not the ex
views about which I care.
On the contrary, it annoys rne, because it makes me
suspect this, the only criterion left to me to confirm
ternal
my
mere agreeing
to
my
conviction.
in
Deep
my
spirit,
clearly conscious of
my
individuality
^
do not become
whether or not
have influenced my con
doubt the agreement of all
may
not
this
this doubt,
lies
To remove
viction.
even though
it,
not necessary.
The sincere agreement of a single
suffice
person may
me, and actually suffices me,
for this reason:
my fear was, that my individuality
have
been
the ground of my conviction.
might
This
is
removed
fear is
agrees with
me
as
soon as
for it
If
guaranteed by
Thus
I
attain
victions.
rational,
it
is
only through
certainty
intercommunication
But if my
and hence universally
valid,
only for
me
that
but even in
me
it
the
all,
particular
always indi
them
is
the best
would better
fit
the
260
general
nication
gain,
It
is,
and
is,
vation
I likewise.
my
of
particular
But
my
and correct
I
am not
When
conviction
is
absolute duty.
just now seen that
But we have
How
it is
contrary to duty.
It is solved as
to refrain
261
of their convictions
unlimited freedom.
As each one
is
is
determination of truth
e.g.,
he
not ascribe to
For
it
is
to be limits
therefore, not
We
himself
to
262
scholars all
new
which
consciousness, and
convictions
and dissenting
lie
of
common
believe
to
entertain.
self in
all
matters
further,
of
is,
sees
his premises
263
of
members
themselves.
for the learned.
Hence in
must be permitted to discuss every
thing whereof one is convinced and there is no symbol
for a university.
Those err greatly who recommend
and
hold
that one ought not to say everything
precaution,
in the university rooms
but first consider well, whether
universities also
it
may
incapable
of the
As
method.
the
must
so
scholarly
investigations
are
absolutely
free,
to everyone.
Whoever can no
and
for
it is
it,
fits
him
for,
264
it
scholars,
e.g.,
must
tolerate that
thought.
is
true, support
the State.
scholarship
as
individuals;
but
is
is
it
not
officials.
In so
is
were
it,
265
that he do
order of teaching.
The State official and public school
is to be not
only a professional man, but also
teacher
and when he
scholar he
is
is
It is
an
oppression of
immoral to do so.
The State and the Church have the right to prohibit
this to the scholar, and to prevent him from realizing his
is
convictions
he,
in
the
sensuous world.
If
for instance,
he does
his
so,
if
State, he
is
justly
of
State,
each individual.
is
commanded by
the
Moral Law.
G. In conclusion, we state, in as few words as possible,
the total end of man in so far as he is considered as
individual.
The
final
end of
but
all
all
his
men
266
rational, for it
is
that which
is
common
to
them
all.
of
all.
Now
if
this
as attained,
all
his
same
in reality.
It is so even
now
already
many
it also.
would
PAET
II.
BOOK
FIFTH.
CHAPTEE
I.
of
empirical
origin.
understanding (in
the
The empirical
widest
sense
is
of
the
will,
the
the word, as
power of repre
Moral Law,
sentation),
or that wherein it desires to have its end and aim
represented, is absolutely nothing individual, but Eeason
in general; in a certain sense the Moral Law is its
equivalent
to
intelligence
and the
own
end.
or
general
body. /The
object of the
me
in virtue
Now
after
of
the
Moral Law,
as
this externalizing of
269
theoretical
principle.
27o
is
signifies person.
the
representation
of the
pure Ego
is
the totality of
me
itself,
Moral Law ?
and to whom
it
only the instrument, the tool of the Moral Law, and not
its end.
Impelled by the Moral Law I forget myself
in acting, I am only a tool in its hand.
Whosoever looks
to an end sees not himself; but the end lies outside of
me.
As in every contemplation, so the subject loses
here, vanishing in the
contemplated end. For me,
itself
contemplated, and in
i.e.,
for
my
its
consciousness,
to this proposition.
JEach
man
is
Kant with
universal
approval.
hence
am
to
them
To
271
lies
of
is
the point
rational
all
beings
is
for
assigned,
attaining
the
his
consciousness,
of reason.
end
universal
the
task
The
of
whole
is annihilated and
destroyed, becomes a pure
representative of the Moral Law in the sensuous world
becomes true pure Ego through free will and self-deter
dividuality
mination.
It has already been sufficiently observed above, that
this forgetting of self occurs only in actual acting in the
sensuous world.
Those who place perfection in pious
meditations, and in devout brooding over their self, and
who expect from such practices the annihilation of their
individuality, and a flowing together with God, are
in error.
Their virtue is and remains egotism
want
much
they
make
True virtue
perfect only themselves.
consists in acting, in acting for the totality, in which
to
I shall be compelled
acting each forgets himself utterly.
to recur frequently to this important point.
272
B.
can forget myself in my labour only in so far as
stands unhindered, and as I am, therefore,
truly means
to accomplish the desired purpose.
If it is checked,
I am thereby driven back into
myself and forced to
I
it
own
am
am
to
and uninterruptedly,
commanded
the
of
not
be
means.
by
this,
that
outside of
become object
acting,
The care
cannot
me.
in
and
can
solely
for myself
carry
But when
of reflection
so
this
out
far
is
conditioned
end
my
as
and aim
this care is
duty.
Thus there arises the conception of a
phrase,
conditioned duties
of the
supreme rule
of reason outside of
me
through me,
it
fit
called immediate
273
and unconditioned
duties.
There
0.
is
still
many
many
all.
The effects of the acts of many will check and
cancel each other, and the
steady promotion of the final
end of reason will not be achieved. But the Moral Law
Hence it is the
requires that it shall be achieved.
at
duty
each one, who perceives this hindrance
(and each one,
who will but look close, must perceive it), to
remedy it.
This remedy, however, can
only be effected, if many
individuals divide amongst themselves the various
things
that must be done to
promote the final aim of reason,
each one accepting a certain
part for all others, and in
of
his turn
An
kind
an agreement concerning
There must be
various vocations; and it is the
of
each
individual
duty
to labour for their establishment, and to choose a fixed
agreement
of this
who chooses
promoting the
is
all individuals.
when they
final
end
Each
manner of
are established.
Some
general duty.
duty of him to
whom
it is
transferred.
is
particular
there is,
Hence
SCIENCE OF ETHICS.
and combining this division with the previous one
we shall have to speak
Of the general conditioned duties.
Of the particular conditioned duties.
Of the general unconditioned or absolute duties.
Of the particular unconditioned or absolute duties.
duties,
2>*
CHAPTER
II.
*:^*f
AJ-U^M
AM
am
chiefly
I can be
manded
to
of
realize
myself
com
its
Hence
all we have to do is to
analyse this conception, and to relate the Moral Law
to its several
parts, in order to arrive at the general duty,
whereof we ourselves are the immediate
object, or at the
27 6
necessity,
we furnished
Hence, as sure as
only in future.
of
I,
view respecting
for
the sake of
my
will, I will
a satisfaction,
continuance only
my
which
expect in the
future.
all
that something
in a future experience.
Under
it,
be given to
may
me
to be absolutely
is
of
be given to him, is
<But
my
the
consequent preservation, is not a duty to me for
sake of experiencing the realization of my end and aim.
How then may it become my duty ?
its
may
end
final
realize
in
277
is
of
now
if
he
is
to
is
is
must
act in pursuance of a
plan
now
traced out
as he
but whoever
and
that
self-preservation
preservation
is
we now have
duty.
to
both as
intelli
their
is
object of the
to
meaning of
the
vation of yourself.
of our empirical
be endangered, both internally, by checking
the progress of natural development, and externally,
So far as the former is con
through external force.
i.
self
may
its
is
is
278
ance, or
if
tendency
of
uncliastity.
duty o
self-preservation,
it
the ability to
itself.
body, since
279
We shall
arise, this is not the proper place to explain.
take up the subject on this point in the doctrine con
The investigation concerning
cerning absolute duties.
the morality of suicide, belongs, however, to the subject
in the present place
and we shall settle it now.
I am not unnecessarily, i.e., not without the command
;
of duty, to
my
endanger
life
must, therefore, be
it
my own
still
power,
add, however:
Unless, indeed, duty requires such self-destruction of
one s own life as it certainly does require, according to
your own presupposition, the exposure of one s life to
"
take
me
as
away
that
The
life.
first
command
my
commanded
absolutely
am
to forget
directed
is
Moreover, the
which
action, in
only requires
self-preservation
myself,
upon
there is no immediate command
Hence
We
My
life is the
The decision rests upon the following
exclusive condition of the realization of the law through
:
me.
Now
the
command
by my own hands
and hence
is
Hence
me
absolutely:
absolutely
commanded
addressed to
I
am
To destroy
my
of this;
directly contradictory
I cannot destroy my owii life at
is
is immoral.
without withdrawing myself, so far as I am concerned,
from the rule of the moral law but this that law can
all
28o
would in doing
it
so contradict
am
duty.
If I
I will no longer do
An
of
my
duty.
this syllogism.
It
life
of
ours, of
earthly
is
me
manner
my
I only
change
life
arbitrarily to
if
it
is
ground
Under
for arbitrariness.
each act
its
is
in each position of
your
Hence you
life
will
mediately
command me
neither in this
to
live
for
the
sake of
life,
as moral agent,
281
need
Hence the
life.)
commanded of me in
utterly
unknown
to
and
us,
and
from referring
in every hour
me
of
all
life.
to
my
desire to live
desire
is
a wish to
it is an inclination utterly
thinking, it is a tiredness
and a weary disgustedness, which a moral man should
never allow to move him.
If the
readiness to leave
whom we
is
life
believe on
altogether
character,
character.
for
just
life
signifies
the
mere
wish,
has
no
to
gence, which
in advance.
it
immoral, for
how can
THE SCIENCE OF
282
ETHICS.
?
True virtue does every
has to do in that hour, and leaves all
the rest to the care of him, whose care it is.
To convince himself of the correctness of these views,
left
let
it
of suicide.
The
first
all
possible grounds of
an act
to have occurred, is
certain vices, which have
conquer
is that a
person should kill
escape suffering something infamous and
vicious, becoming thus the object of another s vices, but
himself
to
if
made
to undergo,
all his
then
it is
disgrace, inflicted
men.
and both parties have only
necessary to consider it from
sides,
It is
283
It proceeds
itself,
is
the
triumph
of morality
of
its
law,
for
In comparison
in so far he can be called cowardly.
with the virtuous man he is a coward but in comparison
and
>
/
l
284
as
to
who submits
to
disgrace and
slavery
merely
wretched feeling of his existence, he is a hero.
the moral law, which relates
2. The requirement of
to our self, has also, as we have seen, a positive character.
In so far it requires of us that we should nourish our
body,
and promote
its
all possible
upon
EEMARK.
All the above duties are only, as
we have
said,
con
so far as
conflicts
is
to
285
end only
ment
of
"
?"
and nothing
that,
me
from
certain
me
at
least
world.
to
it is
Nay,
commits immoral
of
this
sensuous
who
life,
end
of reason
for,
if
if
only
for
him
to act in violation of
moral law
final end and aim, and the pretext that he desired yet to
accomplish good works hereafter, he has only invented
But on the other hand, I
afterwards, to excuse himself.
must also not consider and permit my death as a means
for a good end.
It is my life, and not my death, which is
means.
am
tool of
the law as
active, principle,
not
286
We
means thereof
as a thing.
have already shown, in
this respect, that I must not kill myself
as, for instance,
the suicide of Lucre tia might be considered as a means to
liberate
death
if
Eome
I
can prevent
am
life to
my
CHAPTEE
III.
THE
as
it
is
to be observed:
established,
them
it
necessity of establishing
as the exclusive condition of a
complete and regu
lar
final
end
of reason, or, at
known
to his
fellow-men
is
287
288
Each
but to promote the end of reason.
is to .be used for this end in
inclination,
"
it
selected for
them by
or,
they do select them themselves, they do so in
advance of the proper maturity of reason, and before
if
We
other things in
human
affairs
if
this is to be so,
must be
different
many
from what
are.
ideal,
if
it
could,
But neither
On
to
it
would
is it
to
itself
fit
itself
must begin
to
conform
it.
Perhaps
and rank
institution,
also
exclusively
The manifold
necessary one.
are subordinated to each other as
a
occupations of men
conditioned to the conditioning, as means to end; and
in like manner those who
carry them on must be sub
who
289
But
of all other
it, it
is
necessary for
room
me
to inquire
for
my
assistance
is
required.
dexterity
mobility
the same, and theoretical culture of mind is for their
vocation only a means whereas the scholar has universal
culture of the mind for his end, and to him the
;
body
is
have
the
had
people.
pernicious
influence
For them
it
is
on
duty
to
the
opinion
of
study, and
to
men
still
to
make
u
all
men
Most
visible
who seem
this
to
is
like
theologians,
as good theologians as they are thein-
290
selves,
salvation.
case only in
certainly is a virtue, but even in his
Other
so far as his end is to communicate his studies.
vocations need of theoretical culture only sufficient to
this
/but
to
moral acting;
standing
is
not so
and
much
for
this,
culture
of
the
under
will.
CHAPTER
IV.
THE
may
final
of
all
and only
even
rational
292
end
first
A.
it
the
to
formal
others.
freedom of
But
All are to be formaliter free, without exception.
someone
use
his
which
freedom,
may
may happen that
investigate
we
shall,
B.
in such a case,
and
conflicts
others.
freedom of
is
his
rational beings.
to speak
C.
promotion and
A.
We
to
to
the
immediate
extension of morality.
of
I.
The con
of Rights.}
i.
The regulation
of
the
command.
293
such a tool
"
us to regard
to the com
solely
upon the
no external
force.
means of
i.e., I may determine the person, by
rational argument, to cause his will to produce through
his body these or those modifications in the sensuous
the body,
world.
But
my own
294
him
influence
solely
physical
upon the sensuous world.
prohibitions cease
am
we
the death of a
my
The
action.
of
life
each
man
means
The
it possible,
it
possible,
then
my
if
better.
Hence when
that he
is
me by
also
man
then the
my
power.
We
Whosoever
have argued in
is to
Hence, &c.
The minor
proof,
of this syllogism,
can be thus
proven,
295
signifies:
absolutely
hence
it
posit
as possible.
it
Now
requires
requires
it.
is
it
We
In
my
Science
I have
expressed myself
concerning a pretended right of the State to take away
the life of a criminal as follows that the State, as judge,
of Rights
and
rights
the
of
result of
criminal,
this
annihilation
not however as a
expose his own security for the sake of his duty never to
attack a human life
but Government has not the
:
296
him
to enter
and
this
each
other but
own
defend his
to
life;
not
a
by virtue of a right conferred by the State to kill, right
which the State cannot confer, but in virtue of his
own
The
life
We
body and
must not
must
only oppose no obstacle to this preservation, but
of our
welfare
the
as
in
same
it
the
degree
promote
own
The
bodies.
Each human body
strict
of
proof
this
as
is
follows:
is
The preservation
of
each other
the ground
I preserve and take care
But each
of myself solely as a tool of the moral law.
body is also such tool. Hence I must have the same care
for each
body,
if
really
my own, since
am
impelled only by
the
moral law.
Here we meet
take as
much
care of
am allowed to
am tool of the
can and
far as I
likewise.
In this manner
infallible criterion as to
a moral or merely a
we
receive at the
natural impulse.
same time an
for ourself is
If it
is
moral
297
we
my own
care for
until
am reminded
my
of
myself by a feeling of
weakening and losing of strength, or through some danger
It is the same with
threatening my self-preservation.
self,
that
am
am
to
my own
my
vation
conditioned
is
of the other
equal, of the
life.
apprehended. My preser
through that of the other, that
not
duty.
(It is
an
when
vation
to save a
danger to
human
298
we
some moralists
might be of greatest value, and whose
Before the moral law,
preservation of most importance.
human life in general is of equal value, and when one
human life is endangered all other human beings have no
are
whose
hold,
life
It is
longer a right to be secure until the one is saved.
truly a great and moral word, which the late Duke
Here a human life is at
Leopold spoke, when he said,
"
")
on this condition is he
I. Such a
causality
of
understanding
has for its object.
when he began
free.
is
I cannot work on
anything unless I
have a knowledge of it, and the end I have in view is
determined by this my knowledge of the actual being
arid independent quality of the
The end I have
thing.
in view proceeds from the present
quality of the thing,
and governs itself according to the natural laws of the
If I
of the object
act
will
in
result
a
different end
my
my
quite
than that which I had in view, and hence I am not
thing.
of
act,
free in
I must will the conditioned, the
causality.
free causality of
fellow-men in the sensuous world,
and hence I must also will the condition, that they shall
my
my
end
to me.
lie
to him, or deceive
299
by making
The
latter is as
words which
much
lie
ambiguity of
my
statement
my own
may
it,
or whether the
conscience.
The
strict proof
of
our proposition
is
as follows:
presuppositions
I
much my own
which
as
if
induced
him
attained
300
am
all
this is immoral.
"
means
This you
to do the good deed." /I reply
can never know, and should not believe; for such a
distrust of the other s rationality is immoral.
Moreover,
this
by
a lie;
knows the
he
may
evil
tell
intentions
He
is for
ever
The subject-matter
of
my
statement
may
be either
301
make
a promise
must hold
my promise,
"
it
But,"
and
in his service,
I cannot
withdraw
my
word without
my
whatsoever
final
end
absolutely
on the road to the attainment of
of
reason, I must do for the sake
lies
of
the
the
own person.
other, although
might do better for my
must
to
which
is
that
morality
absolutely opposed
Only
I positively not do.
Hence I fulfil the promise for the
other s sake, though I might do better so far as my own
I
person
is
concerned.
302
At
which
questions
we
two other
on this
themselves
force
us
upon
occasion.
Firstly
to
pass
how comes
it
honest and
for
that so
riot
necessary
gloss
lies,"
them over
culture
which, however,
is
not
the
by
this sort of
culture
through
want
to
make happy,
protect,
and beatify
this
they
world
which
it,
is
also as
lies
Secondly
self,
of
conscience
The ground
is
as
follows
The
liar
has
303
mode
the
s plans,
approving his
them.
He thus places
promote
himself in contradiction with himself, subjects himself
to the man whom he does not trust himself openly
to resist, and is a coward.
The lie is always and in
to
As
white
or, indeed,
no matter for what good purpose, is,
doubtless, the most absurd and, at the same time, the
most wicked arguing ever heard amongst men. It is
You tell me you have convinced
the most absurd.
"
lies,"
of lies in general,
If I am to
yourself that necessary lies are permitted.
believe you, I must at the same time also not believe
deceive anyone by
to
demand
cancels
lies.
belief in a
Now
maxim
it
is
doubtless absurdity
when believed in,
which,
itself.
of
necessary
lies
is
also
the
most
3 o4
discovers
his
thoroughly
corrupted
mode
of
The true
consult whether
it
may
it.
of Morals.
The customary
Why
not the third, which lies between, that you owe him
no answer, that he seems to have an evil intention, that
to
he will not do
so,
"
"
will
that
the
and
305
tractable,
for as soon as
human
life
/ But
let
us
Vhy
do you
It is anyhow
your duty
at the risk of
your own
is in
danger you have no
coming
Therefore, let
mere attack of itself
grief!
to
who was
first
cealed himself
are
in
danger,
and
it
is
now
At present you
his
may happen
?
In the worst case you can die
you are dead you are no longer obliged to
protect the life of the attacked; not to mention that
death saves you from the danger of a lie. Hence death
precedes the lie, and a lie is never to be spoken. You
and
after
306
nition of others
positively, results
insight of others,
lie
in the
and
command
to
we know.
We
am
am bound
am bound
to
upon
theoretical
cog
But
all possible
first
made
purely
all
Hence the
distinction
tical.
vidual,
we must
which
first
is
How
307
what
it is
become
immediately and all
truth
is
to
This theoretical
become
way
to
so
the
made
scholars
3.
we
it
we have
seen
(i),
to be conditioned
by correctness
of cognition,
condition.
causality has yet another
lie;
which gave
positively,
latter
But the
3 o8
If the rational
the causality
being
is to
is to
be free in
its causality,
i.e.,
if
result in that
this, in itself,
my
Science of Eights.)
That, which thus relates to
my
acting,
and which
is,
as
it
amongst other
free beings.
the world, thus subjected to
live
my
is called,
this
when
recognition
necessary),
my
my
of others,
assure
wherein
whole human
state
It
is,
I live.
intentionally,
is,
is
his
to act
309
The freedom
end,
each individual
of
commanded by
is
it
by
Hence the
is
an absolute
inviolable.
end,
me
This freedom
conditioned
his
to
is
moral law.
the
latter,
the condition of
as
my
Firstly:
proprietor.
purposes, through
of
he
If
causality
is
deprived of
diminished
if
he has to acquire
it
again, he
and
is
is
at least
forced to do
made
goods thus taken are not destroyed, but merely
of
end
the
of
final
the
use
of,
promotion
temporary
reason is not checked, nay, is perhaps aided; if for
316
them.
greater glory of
principles
I reply
me
to
?"
is
command
my sphere
it
addressed
comes within
"
lies,"
we
live
good purposes.
damage
produced in
is
its
his
property,
freedom generally,
is
defence
it
is
absolutely immoral.
So
far as
of reason.
it
is
311
To
restore
or damaged,
is
always
But
this
damage continues
moral mode
of
thinking, I
desire
to
realize
it.
The
commands
Now
the
first
to
to
For each
exclusive rights, to certain arts (professions).
one owns his property only in so far as all others have
but they cannot have thus recognized it
recognized it
unless he in return has recognized their property like
wise.
Hence they must possess property. He who has
;
312
power
have
to
it
State.
But
until this
is
done
it
not be done
once
it is
duty to be
who
has
it is
his
benevolent.
will perceive, is
to act if the State did
what
ought to do.
Benevolence consists in pro
curing property for those who have none, or in securing to
them a certain and continued livelihood. We should try
Let
it
and help
be well observed
it
one, or
future time
conception
of
benevolence
property.
The usual giving of alms
He who
is
The proof
each one
is
lies in
to
have
gives an alms
that you
offer
you
the duty
may
The imploring
men
can have
property from
it
to us.
Now
that
if
313
vidual
to
As
if
man
But
one
can never
them.
Secondly. Each one must retain what is his, for other
wise his formal freedom is disturbed. Hence it is duty to
protect the property of the other against every attack,
in
risk even of
my
how
life,
we
my
How
own.
far this
am
far I
of the
so
much
that
we may
effect
by them
all
that
we
desire to effect.
is
to
and
others,
others
much
as possible.
It is a
duty
refuse
315
own
to our
him voluntarily
to
desist
from
his entreaties.
morally good
man
As every man
this
is
world
all
should work
for,
and promote
their activity as
This
is
us.
B. There
316
is
rational individuals,
is
and
of
we
conflict between
shall speak hereafter/
determined free acts of rational beings arises only when
this case
dividuals
This
it is
is
is
of
all to
conflicts of
one had
be seen
how
their freedom.
It rather
seems as
if
each
advance, by assisting
in the establishment of a State, and subjecting himself
to its laws.
But it happens often that the State cannot
settle
that
the private
it is
in such cases
individual
arise
again.
317
as
What
assist.
this
may mean
will
all
is
of
the
one of
to the
same
There
degree.
is
no distinction between
as
we have
and property.
not divisible like bodies and goods, but is one and the
same, common equally to all and since there is not for
each individual a separate truth, as there is for each an
;
own body and separate property hence the followingcases of possible conflicts arise
1. The
preservation of the bodies and lives of different
:
persons
2.
may
3.
may
be in
be in conflict.
The preservation
tion of property
i.
conflict.
The preservation
Firstly.
may
of
body and
The preservation
preservation of the
life,
be in conflict.
life
of
of another,
my own
it
life
and the
appears, in certain
injustice of
a disposition of
3 i8
the matter
is left
my own
shall likewise
life
differently.
as tool of the moral law
preserve the
life
of
shall
but I
same ground.
We
is
not to be counted on at
all,
and,
of
life
of
my own
and
command
this
of the
of
that the older one should sacrifice himself for the younger,
the less talented for the more talented, &c. / I reply It
:
absolutely impossible to
finite
it
ought to do in
from
it
319
it.
is
this connection.
"
But
if
we both
shall perish,
Let
me
Though
tell
yje
men
save
are in danger of
;
life
How am
I to select
and body.
all, or,
It is
my
duty to
My
Now
if
who
are in the
be
is
my
320
and
duty,
particular
because
particular
duty always
To consider the
is,
know anything
one else
for that
question arises
It is absolute duty
the aggressor in defending my own ?
to defend the life of the attacked party, whether it be I
or another
;
him
harmless.
if
it
results against
my
and
I are
But
still
Now
preserve it at the expense of the life of the other.
there is firstly this great distinction In that case the
conviction was before me that my self-preservation must
:
it
is
321
In that case,
hands of
in
would
and
my conviction, be taken
Nature,
surely,
from him the moment I preserve my own. But in the
the
case,
where there
is
defence ceases.
as the aggressor is disarmed,
If
I have nothing else for him but rational arguments.
more to be done in his case, to promote
there is
my
As soon
anything
now
transferred.
settle, into
The State
is
whose hands he
is
as an
individual.
thus
first
receive the
command
of the
moral law
to save
own
that the other will do the same in regard to his
con
own
in
be
must
I
sure,
my
Of course
property.
own from reasons of duty,
science, that I thus prefer my
and not of selfishness. I must save mine not as mine,
but as part of the
common
property of reason.
Whether
322
my
possibility that
property
my neighbour
is
The
He
it
but now,
it
If
to
it
us.
suffer
what providence
of
is
Nature.
danger
How
arises
the relation
may
of
be changed,
if
rational beings,
the
we
My
323
the
to be.
it is
absolutely against
State.
when
it
is,
is
may
life,
I use force,
and the
and
life of
>
case arises
it
324
the defence of
My
I no longer defend
case.
and at the risk of my life.
such a
life,
my
property, but
my
affairs to
him by
:
State
is
whether
duty.
I
But when
it
is
left
my
to
free will,
has
its
there
is
no
requires
is as follows
The ground
Whether we
of its
acknowledge, or do not acknowledge, the justice
out
carried
is
and
it
decision, we still must submit to it,
a
as
not
man
treats
with
force; for the State
physical
so,
it
does
upon
it
325
suit
whether
Does
it
"
If my suit before
either for myself or him.
make
the courts force him to restore and
good the damage
mined time
still
and thus
regard
In
opponent as a rational and moral person.
have
we
as
I
must
already
the same manner
likewise,
the
trial,
my
tool of morality,
seen, seek to preserve him as a possible
in a fight of life
him
with
involved
become
if
I
have
even
to
occasion
us
This
and death.
speak, in the present
gives
place, about
otherwise
all
love
it
is
since
particular to say,
already involved in the
and it is merely to
previously established principles;
remove some misunderstandings that I touch upon this
point.
326
towards
but merely natural. It
must never be the motive power of our acts.
It is
such
love
our
that
towards
is
enemies
generally agreed
Pathognomonical
not
is
not so
some say it
not possible,
Why should it
if
is
arising
that
person
because this inclination
love
love
is not reciprocated ?
No this
not commanded, simply because it is not a moral
is not
something dependent upon our free will, but
;
is
;
much we may
because no act
fact.
This assertion
is false,
The
solution
morality there
is
is
is
as follows
reason.
good
my
power in
his reform.
327
indeed,
reason at
all
why
man who
or
another.
because
it
egotist,
and
Whoever
feels
may
an
offence
be sure that he
deeper
is
an
CONCLUDING EEMARK.
Although the duty of truthfulness is not to be discussed
here, since no collision can arise concerning it, something
nevertheless results from it, to which we must refer in
few words Honour and good repute.
Honour and good repute, in a moral sense, consist in
this That others should believe us to be possibly actuated
in our actions generally, and
particularly in our relations
to them, by a regard only for the good and the just.
This
each
we
have
one
should
of
as
have
the
other,
opinion
:
defend
it.
it is
Decided indifference to
reports which
may
THE SCIENCE OF
328
ETHICS.
see in
men
we
We
must defend
it
even at the
Hitherto
We
are, therefore,
manner
it is
of acting in relation to
evident that
them.
we should promote
Now
the moral
of
all
rational beings, and hence the moral man must desire the
same.
But his will cannot be an impotent, powerless
will, since he is a tool of the moral law, as an individual
329
state
is
a little
may
more
be possible.
difficult
to
For that
communicate morality,
to
The command
extend
im
and
morality seems, therefore, completely empty
to us but
remain
to
seems
and
nothing
practicable,
impotent wishes; for how could we promote morality
how can sensuous
except through sensuous causality, and
This is, indeed, un
ever awaken freedom?
ance in this communication.
to
causality
deniably true in
many
respects,
which we
shall proceed
to state.
never think
I. First of all, a morally-minded man can
as threats
of bringing men to virtue by compulsory means
of punishment, or promises of rewards, whether held out
ruler, or in
in the name of the State and some
powerful
name
of
I shall prove
my
is
acts,
But therein
330
by inducing
me
to
presentiment
To
treat
men
of
and
all
inclination
and
in this
manner
is
to treat
them
as brutes.
We
Let
us, therefore,
avoid
all
"
not
fit
for
states, is a
pure in
moralities; there
which
is
331
2.
conviction.
For,
firstly,
theoretical
explains
many phenomena
fessional
philosophers
theoretical
convictions
them
in
truth
viction
this conviction
an
will.
Con
reason
act
of
we
much
for the
present that
good
and
332
apply to
it
at all
whatsoever is
application it results without fail
esteemable is sure to be esteemed. Hence, the first rule
Show to
for the extension of morality will be as follows
its
example., to
sible that
man
himself,
esteem
by trying
humbug and
to
335
is
foolishness
is
human
nature in general
is
no
better.
in the heart
this
ground
and
it
would be necessary
first to
his self-shame
and
self-fear.
He
is
root out
man from
all
that
let
us show
is
him
that he himself
is
(9
man
/ or
it
to
in himself.
of
is
He, in
whom
whom
others despair,
of himself.
all
must
but he, of
"link
it
is
absolutely
this
internal
confidence
likewise
very
decisively
in
external actions.
334
one
self-esteem,
the infamy of
one
s self.
be shown that
it lies
it
they
they report otherwise. Very well,
a good thing for you make use of this
discovery
deceive themselves
this is
if
If the
damage,
and
as
tage
your ultimate end. In short, since you can gain
nothing by communicating your discovery, your assertion
contradicts itself.
Nay, what is more, you not only
communicate
it
to
us,
indifferent
as
to
whether we
Whence may
which you
If
that belief
is
really so contemptible as
it with so much
you
why do you oppose
warmth and energy ? Why not let it
assert
itself
it
to be,
335
fall
to pieces of
Your conduct
hensible
if
we may govern
for such
You
ourselves
would be very
may
assist
motive
of
your
acts,
of
what
If
mere
profit
selfishness
is
the
inner heart of
a higher
you cannot refrain from recognizing
could
and this you certainly
only have
principle in man,
discovered in yourself, and in your own sentiments, there
actions
from transferring
it
Hence you
to others.
empty
principle
of
mere
selfishness in others.
Hence the
necessity to call
the
proposition may not meet
wit
to
we have ourselves proved above,
objection which
theoretical convictions cannot be compelled; and
"that
that hence it is impossible to convince the other that
left in him"; I add the
there is still some
In
that
order
this
goodness
favour of
would
this
like
may
to esteem himself,
if
it
Each one
of his assent
if
are
of
worthy
esteem.
Upon such
basis
moral
We
in
to church, taking
good example (as, for instance, going
been
has
For
it
already shown,
the Lord s Supper, &c.).
the
actions
337
immoral.
is
all
do what
privately,
difference to us.
of our acts
On
and principles
is
commanded
of us.
character
internal
of
this
regards the
is
for
what
esteem
is
to
excite
Its intention
publicity.
nor
neither
be
can
but
esteem
compelled
esteemable;
Firstly,
as
and
artistically produced, but manifests itself voluntarily
an
such
must
not
suffer
virtuous
the
Hence
unobserved.
intention to be remarked in his acts
give frank expression to whatever
is
and since he
in his heart,
is
to
and
338
He
the external character of the frank man.
his
as
and
acts
talks
his
straightforward,
Such
is
path
pursues
heart prompts him, and as he considers it to be his duty,
without looking to the right or left to see whether he
observed or not, and without listening and inquiring
what people may say to his actions for he has no time
to do this; his time is fully occupied by fulfilling his
But, for the very same reason, he does not conceal
is
duty.
himself, for
lie
and concealment.
not try to
smooth over
victed of
wrong.
trait in
human
his actions,
if
does he
He
does
if
some deep
and he
have
discovered,
fault,
off
is not willing to be reformed before he does not cast
who
is
like to
This
to be observed.
pretentious man intends
character can easily be distinguished in others, or which
in ourselves, from
to be the most important to us
ought
frankness,
The pretentious
man
frank
ment
man
is
of his object.
man
and
temptible.
It is just
as contemptible to give
another
that which
to
and thus
to claim for
it,
339
for
duty
particular
his acts
CHAPTER
V.
f-rt^yvwA^
PRELIMINARY.
CONCERNING the
and
duty embraces
other duties
duty of
all,
particular duties
are duties only in so far as they relate to the attainment
I am commanded to exercise the
of that chief purpose.
this
all
reason.
carry out the general duty of all men, but absolutely not
as end in itself; and I do my duty in the fulfilment of
particular obligations, only in so far as I fulfil them
The proposition that
for the sake of duty in general.
each one shall fulfil his duty through honestly fulfilling
my
carry out those obligations solely from duty, and for the
sake of duty/ For there might be other motives inducing
man
Whosoever is impelled by
punishment, ambition, &c.
such motives, does certainly what he ought to do, but
does it now how he ought to do it
he acts correctly,
but not morally. Hence everyone can only decide before
;
his
own
fulfils
his duty in
341
We
may
recognize whether he
from love of duty
life
and vocation.
Namely, the duties prescribed by such
vocation, and the rights which may condition their possi
to the ultimate end
bility, can frequently be in opposition
of reason.
Now
the
man
to
whom
his vocation is
his
end
ultimate end of
longer promote, but rather oppose, the
our
In the course of
reason.
present investigation, I
shall apply this general remark to the duties of the
various particular vocations, thereby placing
same time, in a clearer light.
it,
at the
342
A.
We
man
in regard
The
The
1st.
2nd.
relation of
relation of parents
We
work
for further
detail.
I.
This relation
ment
based, as
we have
said,
on an arrange
Nature
of
sexes.
is
wife.
The
impulse
343
through
can not
its
do.
more than
say of the satisfying of the impulse nothing
we have said concerning the satisfying of natural impulses
The impulse must really exist, and must not
in
general.
We
must
be artificially produced by the imagination.
means for the
permit ourselves its satisfaction solely as a
This
end, which end is here the propagation of our race.
end, again, we should relate to our highest ultimate end,
we shall touch
namely, the supremacy of reason. But
of this
upon quite another much less physical aspect
ourselves
impulse; and hence the command to permit
its satisfaction, solely as means to propagate the race, is
difficulty
thinking
my
344
own
woman s duty
Love
to love,
for
is
wherever there
is
is
Nature
though
never allow that impulse to break out in
acts)
whereas, on the other hand, womanly purity and chastity
she
may
which consists in
principle
morality.
345
the same as to say that she can give herself only on the
presupposition of a marriage.
man. The whole moral
Secondly, on the part of the
character of
Now
no
man
woman
rests
has a right to
demand the
sacrifice of a
non
Jit
cannot
present
making
it
is
moral character,
and the making use
participation
of
an animal inclination.
Between
34 6
which in
itself
of
man.
riage,
even in mar
purity remains inviolate
Woman surrenders herself
in marriage.
Womanly
and only
all their
is
commandment
to itself
if
it is
of
not
so, it is
one
reform
through
connected crime, utterly incapable
There is only one result, which I shall
moral rules.
point out.
It is the absolute
destination of
man
each indiyiduaJ^of
neither man nor
is
the
traits of
human
character,
347
and moreover
is
this absolute
be
The
marry
is
absolutely
other ends
as, for
higher
348
B.
We
which
it
is
is
scious
of generation,
and she
conscious of
is
this.
of her
own
life.
risk of her
former
feels as
much need
Now,
it is
a rational
absolutely against the dignity of
349
freedom
it
woman s
may
this
form be
will
the physical
now
own.
This
affection
the
is
sentiment
of
pity
and
is
Of a woman who
rise
is not capable of
feeling motherly
doubtless be said that she does not
above brutishness.
manifested
by a
may
it
tenderness,
itself
command
give herself
of duty.
up
It is
The mother
these
is
accompanied
in duty bound to
sentiments, to nourish them
is
The love
The
duty
of
350
since
man
is
but too
much
could not
it
And hence
it accordingly.
that traces of the reason assumed in the
selves.
is
attached to
and desire
child,
it
altogether of freedom.
it
their
its welfare,
freedom only in so
It is the
child
it is
also their
reason
is
manifested.
and ought
but every
to be educated
That is, to consider his own reason, when reflected from some
external thing, to be the property of that externality itself for instance,
to assume reason in plants, brutes
nay, the whole world itself.
Translator.
become
a moral being
351
Now,
to enable
namely, by leading
morality outside of
Now let us ask,
it
to
work
is
for
the promotion of
itself.
What
duty
freedom.
a question should arise
of
the
parents to restrict the freedom
right
concerning
I respect the formal freedom of every
of their children.
It
is
352
to educate
which
it.
equals,
It is the
duty
who
are
my
freedom of
of these
of the child.
its
is
to their children
from mere
the end
to
who
them.
case
it
of
the parents.
The
acts of
compulsory.
to be
is
own freedom
353
its
obedience.
fear of compulsion,
in the
and
inclination prompts
them
to
do
it,
then
it
is
no longer
obedience,
the
wisdom
of
is
treatment of children
for,
and submission
to,
This
likewise.
is
since
it
is
the root of
all
morality.
Even
afterwards,
354
set apart
by the parents
important.
way
the child
is
related to the
commands
of its parents.
is
call forth a
moral disposition on
is most emphatically
their
false
maxim,
It is a very
which, like various other evils, we owe to a
ness
own
insight.
its
wrong-
absurdity of
The question
still
remains to be answered
How
far
355
it
particular.
for
is
is
not
necessarily based
it
We
acts,
parents
the child owe obedience
;
Secondly,
we may ask
for the
And where
is
this
So far as the
raised either
ought to be
is
a complete self-contradiction.
things, does not obey at all
He who
obeys
"
only in
"
fair
for it involves
what
is
If
it is
command
should
I
reply
The
own
ment-seat of their
children.
"
356
when
the end
is
attained.
The end
of
education
is:
promotion of the
ultimate end of reason in some specific branch and for
some special department. Whether this end has been
attained, the child itself cannot decide; for it acknow
Either
ledges better insight on the part of the parents.
the parents themselves decide, therefore, that the end is
utility of
the child
attained,
utility
is
attained.
Hence,
if
is
a competent
office
upon a
binds
the
duty.
the child
357
is
no
all
other
men
this is the
important point
for otherwise
to
the advice of
of
other
True,
persons, and to consider it more maturely.
obedience is no longer a duty to them they are released
from it, and can act now according to their own con
victions but it is their duty to attentively consider and
;
parents.
The parents
this,
that
we
take pains
presuppose higher wisdom in the other, and
to find
Lack
says.)
and children
358
and advisers
their
in their children
death.
We
means.
The promotion
involves
many
things
of
this
of
end, the
human
vocation
is
based.
We
might
call
upon man
is
it
possible to act
noblest, in
spiritual
man,
life, is
human
beings
may
be acted upon,
firstly,
end
of reason,
community
for
This is the
of cultivating their theoretical insight.
tion of the scholar ; and we shall therefore have to
firstly
of
the sake
voca
speak
359
does
of
in the
its
servants, the
so-<-iill(>d
clergy
rather
the people.
scholar,
whose duty
it is to
cultivate
man
the will.
as a point
We
shall,
of
therefore,
artist.
cerning the duties of the cestheticxl
As soon as men come together under
which achieves
therefore, have
reciprocal
all,
be secured.
The
institution
We
shall,
this object is called the State.
to speak: Concerning the duties of State
officials.
The
world,
coarse matter.
by
If
men
the
and is thereby
activity of moral beings,
same as the highest occupation.
sanctified
the
360
to call artists
sesthetical artist.
men an exchange
of
I.
to speak, in
we
bound
family,
it
may
perfecting
the whole race grows wiser in the course of years, and
develops itself through experience.
361
principles.
They not only know that something is as it
at
the
same time, how man arrived at this know
is, but,
and how
ledge,
This
such
it is
is
correction
principles
derived.
should
should
and
are
that
is
cognition
is
and
to further
already known.
is
The scholar
merely
not
and
it
is
community
in
of thinking
mode
if
he
This
He
is
What ought he to do ?
answered by what we have already stated.
of
partly to know, and partly to further, the object
At present we only ask
is
to be
He must
it,
362
has he, at
least,
in his age, and has been a link in the chain of the transfer
To bring life into the spirit of investigation
of culture.
is
also a true
and important
science.
is
He
virtuous
service
person,
forget
paradoxes, or
glittering
himself
can, indeed, be
his
asserting and
But
this
What
defining
errors,
would be merely
the moral law utterly
To do
object.
by propounding
accomplished
his lips
in
so
condemns
2.
of the People.
men
All
It is the
do
it
moral disposition
or,
in other words, to
make
all
others of the
same
retain
it.
opinion to
his conflicting
Thus
reason.
is
363
be transferred, and
transferred to a particular
relieves anyone from
transfer
Not as if this
vpcation.
of
reform
the duty to work for the
others, if an oppor
may
is
tunity offers
They
transferred, educate in the name of all.
start from what all are agreed upon, namely, the
is
duty
must
lead
them
with him.
than
Whenever, in
it is possible"
to carry along
his teachings,
he advances
addresses them
beyond the culture of all, he no longer
rather in his
but
in
their
no
name,
and
longer
all,
speaks
own name. Now, this latter, he is certainly allowed to
364
artificially,
clearly
seen
above.
Inclination
for
morality
is
pre
it
it.
in
It follows from
regard to their duties to the Church.
that
it
cannot
be
at
all
the
intention
of those public
this,
about
first
principles.
and
to
remove
is
necessarily results a
This
progress in goodness.
faith,
to
of
of Nature.
To say that progression occurs
and in regular order, is to say there is a God.
*
"^-^
-
necessarily,
to
~Again,
is
we
365
to say
be reached in no time.
The moral
for
this
faith
manner
it is
of
duty
the love
but they only do not know well how they have to proceed
Such is the presupposition from which the
to do it.
instructor starts; and he speaks in the name of all of
be united
them, as they all would speak if they could
to
we
must
How
bring our
into one
proceed
person.
selves into this or that disposition which duty requires
Such and similar questions he ought to answer.
of us ?
infidels in the
meeting
as a herd of wicked
sinners, or to address the Church
men such is utterly opposed to the end he has in view.
not come
It ought to be assumed that such people will
it does
in
to the meeting, and that everyone who appears
3 66
make
thereby already
will.
in
is
God s name,
before
Him
for
he
is
as
as they,
as
and
he
an adviser,
from
and not
arguments.
So far as decided unbelievers are concerned, or men
who do not recognize and respect duty, the moral in
structor has nothing to do with
them
in public meeting,
There
before.
is
despair of
to be rooted out,
them.
The
essential
of
the moral
This he sets
the duty of a good example.
not only for himself, but for the whole community, whose
instructor
is
representative he
is.
taken
not
The
community rests
when strictly
To
in his faith.
faith of this
upon
his,
and
it is
a faith
individual, but he
of the
is
to
whole community
367
only result of ex
his statements,
perience.
and
as they can
in
do
his
not
believe
experience
they
nor
in
he
neither
since
have
faith
can,
it,
ought to,
only
Now
if
his
life
field
is
contradicts
;
3.
of the
The
fine arts
it;
it
knows no other
themselves up
standpoint, and elevates those who give
to his influence, to it in so imperceptible a manner,
that they do not
become conscious
of the transition.
368
of
who
is
But the moral law is, at the same time, the Ego
it comes from out of the inmost
depth of our own
and when we obey it we, after all, only obey our
slave. /
itself
being,
selves.
The
He who
looks at
it
thus, looks at
it
aesthetically.
But where
in
place
him
self-sufficient
upon
his
own
feet.
And
self-
sense
not
is
virtue,
369
the moral
for
law
it
is
is
already
achieved.
We
make
it
anyone
culture of the
duty
human
to take
care of
the sesthetical
we have seen
race, for
that the
sesthetical
to help
taste.
make
to
For
cultivated
not
does
it
freedom,
a violation of
through
know what
is
and"
hence everyone
taste.
By
can
spreading a
we
Two
rules can
Nature
and do
if
you do
it
it simply by the compulsion of some arbitrarilyIt is absolutely true that the artist
conceived notion.
Rules keep genius in bounds, but do not them
is born.
The
artist
370
by the sanctity
applying his
he does so,
of his vocation,
other eyes;
same time a better
4.
mankind
mankind
is
beautiful,
Officials.
common
is
to be
will manifested in
The State
officials
administrators of this
common
will.
They
are elected
by
all citizens, and have not the right to alter the constitu
It is their duty to consider themselves
tion one-sidedly.
371
of
all
others.
and no progress
for
would be no
sake whereof
the
existing constitution
all
is
State
State,
exists.
presumptively
Hence the
this
State
latter
officials,
form.
Plato says:
No
prince can
govern who
is
372
must proceed
to
requires, let
them
be considered the
carry out only in so far as it may
of the interested
on
the
will
of
the
result
part
continuing
parties.
I shall
clearer.
It is a very
for the
proposition that government is instituted
benefit of the governed; or, in other words, that solus
false
But
it is
is
if
if
the
vocations.
In
this
in order
and
a regent
THE THEORY OF
DUTIES.
373
and
his
conduct, approved
makes an attack upon
of
having
such a
these
pre
ment
by
this
very application,
nay, even with
his own class of citizens, since
they have entered into
that compact with the
He thus withdraws
nobility.
altogether from the State compact, and must be satisfied
nobility
demands
Serfdom
certain
classes
absolutely
(glebce adscriptio),
of
illegal.
people
class, is
absolutely
from attending
school,
are
class of citizens
arises, or, at
claims
its
374
has its
Fourthly, the continuation of such compacts
of
the
basis in the ignorance and awkwardness
oppressed
classes
their
ignorance
their
of
rights,
and
their
cease,
and
lished
amongst
culture.
all
Culture
men.
is
It
therefore,
is,
the foundation of
all
duty to promote
reform; and it is,
form
of
government
is
most
All that
we have here
said
is
hands of one
government, whether it be in the
power
official
subordinate
The
or
conferred
upon many.
person,
is
There
law.
the
of
letter
the
to
bound
is strictly
of
sub-official
nothing so injurious to a State as when the
assumes to be the interpreter of the law. This always
results in injustice, for the losing party is thus con
demned by an ex post facto law by a law which the
his interprejudge creates only after the fact, through
375
it is true,
is
it
5.
at present.
Classes.
my
and with it
he relates
whether
upon
end of reason, or which
is the same
to the end which God has in view with
man and whether he is able to say to himself, It is the
This the lower classes of the
will of God which I do.
with the greatest justice.
can
themselves
to
people
say
For if they are not the highest of empirical mankind,
can the scholar
they are, at least, its support. How
The dignity
of every
man
his self-esteem,
his morality
depends mainly
his occupation to the ultimate
unless
live
increases
when we
con-
376
sider that
it
needs
little
it
and everything
what
need no longer be the most im
pliable,
exertion for
men
to obtain
he
is
of his
trade.
of
the
this proposition
so,
to
their value
of
duty
to
by the
for
377
men
see
than they do
suggestions of these
men
to,
and
dumb
blind faith or
therefore, not
thinking
over
be
it,
certainly a duty.
classes reject, at
made
which
It is
the
direct
although the
sentiment, is
duty;
prompts
this
first
notice,
all
if
the lower-
propositions
for
is
no vanity so improper
for its
them
purpose
unlearned.
appear learned before the
of conduct
They do not know how to value it. The rule
is the
which
same
is
the
them
with
in all conversation
first
from
start
to
not
addresses
rule of all popular
selves.
as the desire
is
to
378
follow
perience.
The true relation
spirit
its
of
members
classes
make proper
must do
Nor will
statesman, as thoughtlessly empirical.
and the so-called clergymen be in conflict;
neither in various, nor in one and the same person, for
the
scholars
common man
the
is
based.
MORAL CULTURE.
1.
considers
its
object
solely
in
regard
its
certain inclinations or
upon
it;
that
is,
and to
this
man
it
relates
the Moral
Law
without
him any
assigning to
to use an illustration,
which
is
most
this
In propounding
question
Science
takes
no
account
of
previous
theory and
existing
amongst men; and this
there
arises
that
oft-noticed gap between
why
practice ; or between theory and its immediate
application
in
or
institutions
agreements,
is the reason
it
does not
propositions
fit
life.
into
Pure Science
life
life
when we
does not
fit
try to apply
into its theoretical
to be impractical.
380
Now
this is not in
make
this a reproach to
It is
Science.
Science
into
lit
"
in your eyes
cannot after
it
Nevertheless
all
use."
it
science should
is
becomes
it
for
the
to
now
Hence
show how
philosopher
problem
the requirements of reason can be realized in a determined
empirical given connection of presuppositions and the science,
which solves this problem, stands midway between pure science
and mere experience or history. It is this science which
;
fills
be
filled scientifically.
is
always a large
practical
man,
field
whom
show
ing
him only
The
science
is
381
is
possible
in so far as this
is
character
called the
is possible;
I say,
a great distinction between the problem, which
the Science of Politics has to solve, and that which may be
Science of Ascetism.
there
"for
is
attributed to the
Science of Ascetism
The problem
and
we
it
is
shall best
is
to
by
clearly
explain our
show how
it is
and
lawful.
/ In
the same
problem of Ascetism to
to
to
be
the
lead
may
we presuppose merely
If
i.,
that
as
it
rational
self-love,
without
which man
is
at
all,
to
seeks
establish
only
legality
and not
at
it is
all
morality.
also possible
It must proceed
is connected with a cause.
from the soul of man, and cannot be produced
can produce through
by external means ; as we certainly
as
an
of
itself
in
it
effect
382
threats of
or,
to
produce
because
it
rule, precisely
it
would seem
to be impossible.
Moreover, there
is
Right
The
just.
latter assertion
To make more
clear
state of things
soever
exists at least in
form ; even
none
mate
at all
it
as
and
it
much
as
the better.
is
Either
383
it
The question
How
shall
is
we
them
it
that
is,
we can
influence
who propounds
reason.
He
Ascetism.
Whosoever
fulfils his
it
might be
legal.
For
this reason:
for ever.
subjects himself to duty
Nevertheless
it
may happen
he should
and act
resolve the opposite, namely, to
ideal of
the
characterizes
which
only
this resolve,
against it
as we have
to
reason,
is
the
absolutely impossible
devil,
evil, or
rebel against duty
384
but, that he
seen
may
which
old
merely empirical
is
fulfil his
empirical
this evil;
this
is
tend
to
A systematic establishment
keep awake in us at all times
be, therefore
may
problem
we have proposed
:
II.
There can in reality be only two reasons why with the firm
do our duty we nevertheless may neglect it ; namely,
we may either in an immoral act not think of our duty at all,
resolve to
may
little is to
be
said.
conception,
which does not arise, can also not be effective ; it can have no
result; and hence the empirical motive, namely, the natural
impulse, becomes the power, which determines the act.
But the second case must be explained ; and we can
definitely reorganize it only by seizing it from the trans
cendental point of view.
From that standpoint, it is very
true that we do not think of our duty ; we only take hold of
our duty with our imagination ; only half-way as in a dream ;
for
we always
powerless sentiment.
turns into willing ;
decides, since
it
is
It is a cold, dead,
be remedied
how
The reply
the
first
case
385
every
his imagination
Moreover,
it is
conception at
all
which manifests
itself
duty; we
is
not a
we thus
we may
sufficient to
make
is
determined upon
of Ascetism cannot
unexplained.
But the good will
is
always presupposed
it
is still
All that
2 c
is
requisite
is,
therefore, that
we should be reminded
3 86
and
to
When we
possible,
stands
now
thus
here of
mechanically
reason,
or
of
a
compulsory consequence) which can effect the return of
?
rule
internal
determined conception according to an
I reply, there is certainly such a law, equal to that of a
is
the
ideas.
The
representations.
from
different
ideas are
these,
necessary
laws of
the
and occupy a
association of
middle ground between necessity and freedom. They belong
We need not necessarily remember
to the power of memory.
that which we have perceived at the same time, but we may so
remember it, if we choose. Memory depends upon freedom,
and hence upon practice. That which makes possible this
memory we
call the
ideas.
Hence the
By means of
rule
this
there
moral
would
acting.
arise
between the
we have
cultivated our
man
memory.
be
enabled
reflecting
is
not
that
should
memory
of repre
fill
him with
living power.
act
to be thus
is
:
the conception
387
I will
are to bo
inseparably united,
remember
at the
same
is
not of a
necessarily
time, a certain connection of thoughts.
Hence
can be increased.
and which
man
to
it
is
more
Stated
Ascetism
is,
concisely,
the
therefore, to associate in
person were to
resolve
abstract.
generally
This
to
of
with such
acts,
of
are
On
the conception of duty.
particularly exposed to forget
very important occasions we are least liable to fail, since they
upon us to consider maturely and involve an
and
results, such as are not usual every day.
power
of themselves call
exercise of
But on
3 88
It will also
be
well to adopt fixed principles for certain cases, rules of self"man of principles" will then be
examination, &c. &c.
called a
man who
examine
ourselves
repeatedly,
Such a self-examination
we always
compelled
The moral
no
man
will
firm resolutions.
better, in spite of his
will
become good.
individual,
protect
through his
establish,
protect ourselves.
principle
389
and becomes
remarks.
Otherwise, indeed,
mere
it
aggregate
of
psychological
cannot be treated.
III.
for
remedy
evil until
or
an
man
is
it
philosophy
practical
man
we have
neglect to
(or free),
remains
only a
(for instance, as
tendency.
Before
an unconscious
child,
cretin,
or through freedom.
elevates himself to
He
all.
proposition
It is
is.
An
important
clearness
as
or passions
known
in reason
itself
as free,
we can
Hence
it
is
elevate
possible,
it
to
that
390
reason
and
this
really
synthesis
does
occur
for
instance,
dividual at
For instance
when you
You
determining yourself to produce it thus.
merely think the word and at the same time you write it.
But when you first began to write you had maturely to con
sider every pen-stroke and every letter, and to determine
definitely,
yourself to produce
This connection
it
thus.
we have
it.
called
Now
an association of
such a connection
ideas,
is
and
certainly
We
theory of dim
by
because
are
Such
they are
dim,
conceptions
conceptions.
and they are con
unconscious premises of our judgments
to
ceptions because they are universal, and can be elevated
tion.
can illustrate
it
the
likewise
nay even
for himself
lacks
association
of
ideas
deprives
him
of
that
freedom.
that
now when
Hence, even
if
391
first
his
his
which involves
first
emotion,
is certainly
irresistibly all these passions,
under
stir
balance-weight, a means to
arouse a remembrance of duty.
I have said, in the various
up the
free will,
possible
and thus to
emotions generally.
myself
Now
Nature produces a tendency in man; was our statement.
we
when
speak
the word Nature has quite another significance
of unconscious products
of human beings, than when we speak
The nature of man,
of Nature.
as
sciousness)
a
;
is
is
is
i.e.,
Nature as
in mai
which
such, and one nature
which
nature
is
as
latter tendency, in so far as it operates
soon as
392
itself
which it does (since considerateness and hence natural
freedom do not rule here as yet)
through an impulse or
instinct of reason, the impulse of this formal freedom operates
also precisely as an impulse of Nature ; that is to say
law
less and under no rule; and thus it becomes an impulse
towards absolute independence, and hence towards supremacy
;
Now
if
man
classes;
not so
fifth
common but
all
This
fifth
one I
same.
in
Each
also starts
from a
to that passion, in
first
which
is
dition
it
good will
of
is pre
Ascetism.
where consideratfness
is
no longer
possible,
which
is
to be feared.
chief rule
would
therefore be this
393
never
maxim.
But this
For an
very dangerous.
association, as I
chief
controls, all
impulse of
follow of themselves.
Now
continue, and
siderateness enters
prevents us from
and wavering.
but
it
all acting,
From
paralyzes as
it
and makes
all
fear of doing
ourselves to lifelessness.
This
is
evil habits
wrong we
shall
condemn
abstract considerateness.
may
394
THE SCIENCE OF
forget himself,
and that he
will
ETHICS.
remember
He
provided, of course, his will is strong and pure enough.
should enter upon no new day of life without having calculated
what kinds
of business he
it
opportunities
may have
then should
it
it
duty?
The given
how
who
to
world.
is
effective
on more
carries
enough
keep
under
all
may
be easy
always
precisely
on
that account
all
meditation
is
reply
to
do
so.
No
much
to
do as not
to be able to
the wickedness
395
nation
as
enough.
how we have
to
acted
again
to
similar
f orgetfulness
and hence
is
not
punishment of conscience.
This then is the only means
We have only
is exhausted.
pay attention now to a particular state of mind, which does
not fit under the above established chief rule.
Thus the essence of Ascetism
to
IV.
that
his will and thinking had no other end in view than to realize
We have
through them something in the external world.
and all
argued as if man considered the internal, the theory
mediation generally as merely means, and as if he had in view
Such a man will
only the connecting with the external.
manifest
all
hence
he
if
that
is
of themselves.
396
But there
is another disposition,
produced not through
but
Nature,
through art and culture, which holds the internal
itself, as the mere disposition of the mind to be the end in
kind
it is
possible,
and
is
oven to bo found in
mankind
upon the road now taken it is even likely to become more and
more common. Partly from this reason, and partly because no
philosophical moralist has as yet taken notice of it, do I now
actual life
by
close observers
of mind.
This is no old
name
I shall call
and I frame
it
it
it
With such
of thoughts.
The former I shall call the pure speculative, and
the latter the sosthetical state of mind.
It is, however, to be
and in
is aesthetical.
397
to
Hence
life.
not
its
culture
Now
must he equally
must
also
be related to
reiterated, that
knowledge is
in his whole
man
whole
the
but
that
own ultimate end,
is
his
it
own
ultimate end.
who
of
all
such a man,
the rules of
thoughts
no serious
interest in
it,
no
interest lying
beyond himself.
very
with which he would censure an absurd piece of
In fact, he does
furniture or the tasteless dress of a stranger.
has no
not intend at all to better himself, and his self-censure
his
constitutes
such end in view ; on the contrary that which
cal coldness
it
because
it is
If
to acting.
the conception is always immediately related
think at all.
would
never
act
to
they
they were not forced
as
and
artists
philosophers
;
But it is quite frequent amongst
of
well as theologians are also in very great danger
themselves up to it.
giving
398
Now
practical
this
suggested
remedy,
by the above
cases upon a
mode
which such
from.
application
Hence
Ascetism would
have
They must
another manner.
to
first
treat
such
be toned
persons
down
to
in
the
can produce
will,
thorough remedy.
This remedy is
who
will
is,
and
to dive deeper
so that
it
may
the wish, which all ordinary men entertain, that they may
succeed in what they have undertaken, which will put an end
of itself to that empty self-observation.
Not till then will
is
no help
for
i.e.,
devoted to
which
it
it.
It is true,
requires
may
which
399
is all
Now
shown
at the
it is
but merely to
reason
same time a
the
latter,
or,
if
self
He
and carry on
success
is
is
also
empty
play to him.
and
portant to young students and beginning philosophers
scholars I therefore close them with it, and recommend myself
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