410

Control Theory

10

0
5

10

11

12

FIG. 2.34m
Histogram of the data provided in Figure 2.34l. Data set in the
Average Plane. (Courtesy of SPC Press Inc.)

Six Sigma (Standard Deviations)? If it is not, the Six Sigma

program is to assist the user to identify the weak points that
are keeping it from achieving this level of performance.
Upon achieving a state of statistical control, a process
can be evaluated to determine whether it is capable of meeting the desired specication(s) or requirement(s). Usually a
minimum of 20 to 25 subgroups is desirable to get a representative picture of the process. In order to characterize the
capability of the process, its natural deviation is compared
to the width of the specications. This includes the evaluation
of both the upper specication limit (USL) and the lower
specication limit (LSL) independently to account for the
location of the average process reading relative to the specications. If there is only one limiting specication (LSL or
USL), then the capability only needs to be calculated on that
side.
The standard deviation ( ) is used to evaluate the common level of process variation and is calculated by

R
=
d2
Averaged charts tend to hide the frequency and magnitude
of outliers. If only a simple glance is made at these charts
(which represent the same process, which is in control), it
could lead one to think that the rst depicted a process in
tighter control (it appears to have a very smooth normal
distribution shape) and the second appears to be only generally normal in shape.
A quick glance could also lead one to think that the rst
indicated a process with a wider control limit (data range
from 7 to 15) than the second (data range of 8 to 12). Also,
the smooth-appearing normal distribution of the rst as compared to the more jagged-appearing normal distribution of
the second could mislead one to assume that the rst represents a process that is in better control.
This comparison of two very similar charts of the same
data is meant to encourage the review of data in many different forms, using many types of charts. This can help one
to see different features in the data and better understand
ones process. Patterns within the data may contribute more
to understanding the process than a macro statistical overview
of the data would. This is especially true for distributions
that exhibit highly nonnormal tendencies (single tails, bimodal, etc.).

PROCESS CAPABILITY
An unstable, out-of-statistical-control process cannot be evaluated for its capability. Process Capability is the heart of the
famed Six Sigma program. The Six Sigma program is intended
to answer the following question: Is the process capable of
producing a product within the specications to the statistical

2006 by Bla Liptk

2.34(1)

where indicates that the value is an estimate, d2 is a scaling

factor, which is based on n samples in the subgroup, and R
is the average range. The values of d2 for 5, 10, 15, 20, and
25 samples (n) are, respectively, 2.326, 3.078, 3.472, 3.735,
and 3.931.
A common technique for reporting process capability is
the use of a ratio called the Cp index. The Cp index is the
ratio that is obtained by dividing the distance to specication
by the distance to the common cause variation. The Cp index
is calculated as follows:

C p for the upper side: C pu =

USL X
3

2.34(2)

X LSL
3

2.34(3)

where X is the subgroup average.

C p for the lower side: C pl =

The minimum of these two values will be the worst of the

two cases and is reported as the Cp or Cpk index.
A Cp value over 1.33 would indicate a capable (acceptable, saying that 99.73% of individual readings are within
specication) process, while a Cp index of less than 1.0
would indicate a noncapable process. A Cp index between
1.0 and 1.33 would indicate a marginal process. Cpu values
for four different process states are shown in Figure 2.34n.
For the latter cases, the next step is to improve the process.