Chapter 1 - Introduction

Cengel
Florio
14F

Nomenclature( SI Units)
A
CP
CV
COP
d
E
e
F
g
H
h
h
h
K
k
k
kt
MW
M
m
N
n

th
P
Pa
,
Qnet
qnet
R
Ru
S
s
T
U
u

area (m2)
specific heat at constant pressure (kJ/(kg-K))
specific heat at constant volume (kJ/(kg-K))
coefficient of performance
exact differential
stored energy (kJ)
stored energy per unit mass (kJ/kg)
force (N)
acceleration of gravity ( 9.807 m/s2)
enthalpy (H= U + PV) (kJ)
specific enthalpy (h= u + Pv) (kJ/kg)
depth (m)
convective heat transfer coefficient (W/(m2-K)
Kelvin degrees
specific heat ratio, CP/CV
kilo or 103
thermal conductivity (W/(m-C))
molecular weight or molar mass (kg/kmol)
mega or 106
mass (kg)
kg moles (kmol)
polytropic exponent (isentropic process, ideal gas n = k)
isentropic efficiency for turbines, compressors, nozzles
thermal efficiency (net work done/ heat added)
pressure (kPa, MPa, psia, psig)
Pascal (N/m2)
Exergy (kJ)
net heat transfer (Qin - Qout) (kJ)
Qnet /m, net heat transfer per unit mass (kJ/kg)
particular gas constant (kJ/(kg K)) or Ru /MW
universal gas constant (= 8.3145 kJ/(kmol K) )
entropy (kJ/K)
specific entropy (kJ/(kg K))
temperature ( C, K, F, R)
internal energy (kJ)
specific internal energy (kJ/(kg K))

Vol
Vol
V
v
v
X
X
x
x
Z

volume (m3 )
volume flow rate (m3/s)
velocity (m/s)
specific volume (m3/kg)
molar specific volume (m3/kmol)
distance (m)
exergy (kJ)
specific exergy (kJ/kg)
quality
elevation (m)

Nomenclature (continued)
Wnet

net work done [(Wout - Win)other + Wb] (kJ)

where Wb =

wnet
Wt

PdV for closed systems and 0 for control volumes

Wnet /m, net work done per unit mass (kJ/kg)

weight (N)
inexact differential, small amount of
regenerator effectiveness
relative humidity
nonflow specific exergy (kJ/kg)
flow exergy (kJ/kg)
density (kg/m3)
humidity ratio
change of a property

Subscripts, superscripts
a
actual
bdy, b
boundary
f
saturated liquid state
g
saturated vapor state
fg
saturated vapor value minus saturated liquid value
gen generation
H
high temperature
HP
heat pump
L
low temperature
net
net heat added to system or net work done by system
other work done by shaft and electrical means
P
constant pressure
REF refrigerator
rev reversible
s
isentropic or constant entropy or reversible, adiabatic
sat
saturation value

Vol
1
2
i
e

constant volume
initial state
finial state
inlet state
exit state
rates of transfer or per unit time

Chapter 1 - Introduction
Cengel
Florio
14F
INTRODUCTION Classical Thermodynamics
Macroscopic description -average effect of large sample
of molecules- for the interaction
Newton's 3 laws for Newtonian mechanics. Describe an object!
Define a force as a push or pull interaction between two material objects.
A
1st law An object in motion remains in motion, an object at rest
remains at rest unless acted upon by a net external force.
B
2nd. The net external force acting on an object results in an acceleration
of that object or a time rate of change of its linear momentum ( mass * velocity vector)
of that object. F(net)=d(mV/gc )/ dt or
C
Conservation of linear momentum
The rates of transfer of linear momentum to an object(F) = the time rate of change of
linear momentum of the object.
D
3rd For every action on an object, there is an equal( in magnitude) and opposite
(in direction) reaction by the object
DE / Dt Q W

The study of thermodynamics is concerned with the ways energy is stored within a body
and how energy transformations and transfers which involve heat and work, may take
place. One of the most fundamental laws of nature is the conservation of energy
principle. It simply states that during an energy interaction, energy can change from one
form to another but the total amount of energy remains constant. That is, energy cannot
be created or destroyed. SANKEY

Classical thermodynamics ( model matter as continuous) is based on the macroscopic

approach where a large number of particles, [1 kgmole contains 6.023x1026 particles ]
molecules, makes up the substance in question. The macroscopic approach to
thermodynamics does not require knowledge of the behavior of individual particles and
is called classical thermodynamics. It provides a direct and easy way to obtain the
solution of engineering problems without being overly cumbersome. A more elaborate
approach, based on the average behavior of large groups of individual particles, is called
statistical thermodynamics. This microscopic approach is rather involved and is not

reviewed here and leads to the definition of the second law of thermodynamics. We will
approach the second law of thermodynamics from the classical point of view and will
learn that the second law of thermodynamics asserts that energy has quality as well as
quantity, and actual processes occur in the direction of decreasing quality of energy.
Let represent volume

Properties in Classical thermodynamics

m

lim

Density,

Limit of the macroscopic

model and assumptions. Vol of
Continuum point

Molecular and atomic

effects are important-(mfpl-e-8m)

(m3)
29

Engineering-Application Areas of Thermodynamics

13

Gas turbine

14

Systems Example-open-Eulerian

15

carsmokecombo.mov

Example of a System-C &O-Deforming

boundary(slide 4)

Boundary
of fms

16

Closed, Open, and Isolated Systems

Thermodynamic system, or simply system, is defined as a quantity of matter or a

region in space set aside for study. The region outside the system is called the
surroundings or environment of the system. The real or imaginary mathematical

surface that separates the system from its surroundings is called the boundary. The
boundary of a system may be fixed or movable.
Surroundings are physical space outside the system boundary.

Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a fixed mass or

a fixed volume in space is chosen for study.
\\

For the time under study, A closed system consists of a fixed amount of macroscopic
mass and no mass may cross the system boundary. The closed system is identified by its
boundary, which is a mathematical surface having no mass or thickness, this boundary
may move and change shape (deform).
Examples of closed systems are sealed tanks and piston cylinder devices (note the
volume does not have to be fixed). However, energy in the form of heat and work may
cross the boundaries of a closed system.

An open system, or control volume, has mass as well as energy crossing the boundary,
called a control surface. Examples of open systems are pumps, compressors, turbines,
valves, nozzles, and heat exchangers. Car Radiator

A system defined such that no interactions occur , i.e. no heat, work, or mass transfers is
called an isolated system.
An isolated system is a general system of fixed mass where no heat or work may cross
the boundaries. An isolated system is a closed system with no energy crossing the
boundaries and is normally a collection of a main system and its entire surroundings that
are exchanging mass and energy among themselves and no other system.
Isolated System Boundary
Isolated System Boundary
Heat = 0
Work = 0
Mass = 0
Across
Isolated
Boundary

Work
Mass
Surr 1

Surr 4

System

Surr 3
Mass

Heat
Surr 2

Although the principles are the same,the forms of the thermodynamic relations that
are applicable to closed and open systems are different, it is extremely important
that we recognize the type of system we have before we start analyzing it.
Energy , an extensive property (Characteristic)
Consider the system shown below with the center of mass moving with a velocity, V ,
relative to a reference, at an elevation, Z, relative to the reference plane.
General
System

CM

Arbitrary Reference Plane Z=0

Energy-E= U +KE +PE

The total energy, E, of a system is the sum of all forms of energy that can exist within
the system such as thermal, mechanical, chemical and nuclear, kinetic, potential,
electric and magnetic. The total energy of the system is the sum of the internal energy,
macroscopic kinetic energy, and potential energy. The internal energy, intrinsic ,U, is
that energy associated with the internal molecular structure of a system and the
degree of the molecular activity . The macroscopic kinetic energy, KE, extrinsic,
exists as a result of the system's motion relative to an external reference frame. When
the system moves with velocity, V , the kinetic energy is expressed as
KE m

V2
2

(kJ )

The macroscopic energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a

gravitational field relative to the external reference frame is called potential energy, PE,
and is expressed as
KE mgZ

(kJ )

where g is the gravitational acceleration and z is the elevation of the center of mass of a
system relative to the reference frame. The total energy of the system is expressed as
E U KE PE

(kJ )

or, on a unit mass basis, or specific,

e

E U KE PE

m m m
m

kJ
)
kg

V 2 gZ

2J
J

where e = E/m is the specific stored energy, and u = U/m is the specific internal energy
,depends on the internal structure. The change in stored energy of a system due to a
change in state is given by
E U KE PE

(kJ )

Most closed systems remain stationary during a process and, thus, experience no change
in their kinetic and potential energies. The change in the stored energy is identical to the
change in internal energy for stationary systems.

If KE = PE = 0,
E U

(kJ )

Property:
Any instantaneously measureable ( directly or indirectly) characteristic of a system in
equilibrium is called a property.
The value of a property is independent of the path used to arrive at the system
condition.
Some thermodynamic properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m.
Properties may be intensive or extensive.
Extensive properties are those that vary directly with size---or extent---of the system and
are mass dependent properties.

Some Extensive Properties( can subdivide)

a. mass
b. volume
c. total energy
d. mass dependent property, S, H,

Intensive properties are those that are independent of size or quantity of mass.

Some Intensive Properties(cannot subdivide)

a. temperature
b. pressure
d. color
e. any mass independent property

For equilibrium states, extensive properties per unit mass are intensive properties. For
example the specific volume v defined as

Volume V

mass
m

m3

kg

mass
m

volume V

kg
3
m

and density defined as

are intensive properties.

Equilibrium requires uniformity of all intensive properties, so if isolated the

system experiences no change of state.
Theoretically over a finite period of time equilibrium- requires isolation because
any interchange will result in a change in a characteristic- i.e. property or change
with position within.
If change is slow enough compared to the time to obtain uniformity called quasiequilibrium.
Classification of equilibrium Properties
Intensive properties- Properties independent of size or mass of system, P T
Extensive- Dependent on the size or quantity of mass Vol, Mass, Energy ,upper
case symbol
For homogeneous system, intensive can be formed by the ratio of two extensive
,if mass-specific properties are lower cased
Extrinsic Properties are those that are independent of the internal structure of
the substance; Kinetic energy, location in fields
Intrinsic Properties are those that are dependent on the internal structure of
the matter, P, T, U

STATE- condition of the system identified by means of all relevant properties of

the system. Minimum set sufficient to determine all other properties.
5

A simple substance is a pure substance with one reversible work mode.

Dimensions & Units
Dimensions are qualitative description of a physical quantity.
Units are quantitative descriptions.
In science, we require that all equations in symbolic form must be dimensionally
homogeneous.
An important component to the solution to any engineering thermodynamic problem
requires the proper use of units and dimensions. The dimensional as well as unit checks
are the simplest of all engineering checks that can be made for a given solution. Use of
inconsistent units present a major hindrance to the correct solution of thermodynamic
problems, learn to use units carefully and properly. The system of units selected for this

course is the SI System that is also known as the International System (sometimes called
the metric system). In SI, the basic dimensions are mass, length, and time and units are
the kilogram (kg), meter (m), and second (s), respectively. We consider force to be a
derived dimension from Newton's second law, i.e.,

Force (mass)(acceleration)
F ma

[F}={m}[L}/[t]2
NUMBERS HAVE UNITS, SYMBOLS HAVE DIMENSIONS
In SI, the force unit (measure) is the Newton (N), and it is defined as the force required
to accelerate a mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/s2. That is,
m
1N (1kg )(1 2 )
s
The term weight is often misused to express mass. Unlike mass, weight Wt is a force.
Weight is the gravitational force applied to a body, and its magnitude is determined from
Newton's second law.

Wtt = mg
where m is the mass of the body and g is the local gravitational acceleration (g is 9.807
m/s2 at sea level and 45 latitude). The weight of a unit volume of a substance is called
the specific weight w and is determined from w = g, where is density.

IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

Any physical quantity can be characterized by

dimensions. A Qualitative description, i.e. work,
mass, acceleration, velocity, position, etc.
Units-The standards of measures so that
numerical values can be assigned physical
quantities or associated with the dimensions A Quantitative measure
Some basic dimensions such as mass m,
length L, time t, and temperature T are selected
as primary or fundamental dimensions, while
others such as velocity V, energy E, and
volume V are expressed in terms of the primary
dimensions and are called secondary
dimensions, or derived dimensions. We will
treat Force as a derived Dimension
Metric SI system: A simple and logical system
based on a decimal relationship between the
various units.[ M,L,t]
English system: It has no apparent systematic
numerical base, and various units in this
system are related to each other rather
arbitrarily.[ Various choices, if use M.L.t] Slide
52

19

Often times, the engineer must work in other systems of units. Comparison of the
United States Customary Units (USCS), or English, and the slug systems of units with
the SI system is shown below.
Dimensions SI
USCS
Slug
mass
kilogram (kg)
pound-mass (lbm)
slug-mass (slug)
time
second (s)
second (s)
second (s)
length
meter (m)
foot (ft)
foot (ft)
force
Newton (N)
pound-force (lbf)
pound-force (lbf)
[m]=[F][t]2 /[L]
Sometimes we use the mole number as a measure of the mass. In the SI units the mole
number is in kilogram-moles, or kmol, a quantity of mass that is numerically equal to its
molecular mass.
Newtons second law is often written in a more general form as
F=

ma
gc

where gc is called the gravitational constant and is obtained from the force definition. In
the SI System 1 Newton is that force required to accelerate 1 kg mass 1 m/s2. The
gravitational constant in the SI System is
m
(1kg )(1 2 )
ma
s 1 kg m
gc =

F
1N
N s2
In the USCS 1 pound-force is that force required to accelerate 1 pound-mass 32.176 ft/s2.
The gravitational constant in the USCS is
ft
(1lbm)(32.2 2 )
ma
s 32.2 lbm ft
gc =

F
1lbf
lbf s 2
In the slug system, the gravitational constant is
ft
(1slug )(1 2 )
ma
s 32.174 lbm ft or 1 slug =32.174lb
gc =

m
F
1 lbf
lbf s 2
Example 1-1
An object at sea level has a mass of 400 kg.
a) Find the weight of this object on earth.
b) Find the weight of this object on the moon where the local gravitational
acceleration is one-sixth that of earth.
(a)

WTt mg
Wt (400 kg )(9.807

m 1N
)(
)
s 2 kg m
s2

3922.8 N

(b)

Wt mg mgearth /6
(400 kg )(
653.8 N

9.807 m 1 N
)(
)
6 s 2 kg m
s2

Example 1-2E
An object has a mass of 180 lbm. Find the weight of this object at a location where the
local gravitational acceleration is 30 ft/s2. Express the weight in lbf

Wt mg /g c
(180 lbm)(30

ft
1 lbf
)(
)
2
s 32.2 lbm ft
s2

167.7 lbf

State, Equilibrium, Process, and Properties

State
Condition of the system identified by the values of its properties.
Consider a system in complete balance such that if isolated it does not
undergoing any change. The properties can be measured or calculated throughout the
entire system. This gives us a set of properties that completely describe the condition or
state of the system. At a given state all of the properties are known; changing one
property changes the state.
Equilibrium- No unbalanced Potentials
A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if isolated (no possible
interaction)it maintains thermal (uniform temperature), mechanical (balanced forces),
phase (the mass of two phases, e.g. ice and liquid water, in equilibrium) and chemical
equilibrium.

nonequilibrium
Equilibrium=2nd Law
If isolated, a system
always proceeds from a
macroscopic state of
relative disorder to a
state of relative order.

Process
Any change from one state to another is called a process (Thus at least one property
changes during the process). During a quasi-equilibrium or quasi-static process the

system remains practically infinitesimally close to equilibrium at all times. We study

quasi-equilibrium processes because they are easy to analyze (equations of state apply)
and work-producing devices deliver the most work when they operate on the quasiequilibrium process. (the time required to achieve equilibrium is much smaller than the
process time, therefore engineering wise we can assume a continuous series of
equilibrium states exist, path exists.

In some common thermodynamic processes are those where one thermodynamic

property is held constant. Some of these common processes are:

Process
isobaric
isothermal
isochoric
isentropic

Property held constant

pressure
temperature
volume
entropy (see Chapter 6)

System
Boundary
F
Water

Free body diagram

Constant Pressure Process

We can understand the concept of a constant pressure process by considering the above
figure. The force exerted by the water on the face of the piston has to equal the force
due to the combined weights of the piston and the bricks and atmos pressure . If the
combined weight of the piston and bricks is constant then F is constant and the pressure
at continuum points are constant even when the water is heated.
We often show the process on a P-V diagram as shown below.

State Postulate
As noted earlier, the state of a system is described by its properties. But by
experience not all properties must be known before the state is specified. Once a
sufficient number of properties are known, the state is specified and all other properties
are known. The number of properties required to fix the intensive state of a simple,
homogeneous system is given by the state postulate:
A simple system is one in which the effects of motion, viscosity, fluid shear,
capillarity, an-isotropic stress and external force fields are absent. One reversible
work mode
The equilibrium thermodynamic state ,intrinsic equilibrium
state, of a simple compressible system is completely specified by
two independent intensive properties.
Compressible implies that for a fms of the substance, the only
reversible work is boundary work or PdVol.
Cycle
A process (or a series of connected processes) with identical end states, initial and
final, is called a cycle. Below is a cycle composed of two processes, A and B. Along
process A, the pressure and volume change from state 1 to state 2. Then to complete the
cycle, the pressure and volume change from state 2 back to the initial state 1 along
process B. Keep in mind that all other thermodynamic properties must also change so
that the pressure is functions of volume as described by these two processes.

Process
B
Process
A

Pressure
Force per unit area is called pressure, and its unit is the Pascal, N/m2 in the SI system
and psia, lbf/in2 absolute or psia, in the English system. A fluid can only experience a
compressive stress, i.e. into the surface.
P

Force F

Area A

N
m2
N
1 MPa 106 2 103 kPa
m
1 bar= 100 kPa
The pressure used in all calculations of state is the absolute pressure measured relative
to absolute zero pressure. However, pressures are often measured relative to
atmospheric pressure called gage or vacuum pressures. In the English system the
absolute pressure and gage pressures are distinguished by their units, psia (pounds
force per square inch absolute) and psig or psi (pounds force per square inch gage),
respectively; however, the SI system makes no distinction between the units of
absolute and gage pressures.
1 kPa 103

These pressures are related by[ Feq=PA- Patm A; F into wall; - Feq= Patm A- PA;
-Feq away from wall]
Pgage Pabs Patm : When the Absolute pressure is greater than that of the surroundings-atm

Pvac Patm Pabs ; When the Absolute pressure is below that of the surroundings-atm

Or, these last two results may be written as with negative gage = vacuum
Pabs Patm | Pgage |

Where the +Pgage is used when Pabs > Patm and Pgage is used for a vacuum gage.
The relation among atmospheric, gage, and vacuum pressures is shown below.

Small to moderate pressure differences are measured by a manometer and a differential

fluid column of height h corresponds to a pressure difference between two points in the
system
For a continuous fixed composition fluid in equilibrium
dP / dz g ; g as wellas dP/dx=0 and dP/dy=0

is called the specific weight or weight/volume

In a continuous fluid , density is a continuous funtion of position
surfaces of constant pressure are horizontal surfaces.
This pressure difference is determined from fluid displaced height as
for liquids ; Bulk modulius of compressibility 1 dv / dP T / v) O 108 1/ kPa
In addition for a series of fluid in equilibrium, the equilibrium position is layered
Pressure is continuous across the boundaries, but the variation is not .
For an incompressible substance , the pressure change across an depth of h is
P P2 P1 g h ;a linear relation,

( kPa) where h is the relative depth of

location 2 relative to location 1 in a continuous fluid

Pressure measuring devices use - Change cross-sectional

shape or uncoiling of sample tube

HW 1Prob 8 3.28 kN
Prob 18 Cm V2 /t
Prob 79 8.34 kPa
Prob 83 0.582 m
Prob 125 FD = Cdrag Afrontal V2
Example 1-3

A vacuum gage connected to a tank reads 30 kPa (thus vacuum)at a location where the
atmospheric pressure is 98 kPa. What is the absolute pressure in the tank?
The vacuum gage measures an absolute pressure which is less than atmospheric and
reports that difference
Pvac Patm Pabs
Pabs Patm Pvac
98 kPa 30 kPa
68 kPa

Example 1-4
A pressure gage connected to a valve stem of a truck tire reads 240 kPa at a location
where the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa. What is the absolute pressure in the tire, in
kPa and in psia? Since the pressure gage is measuring the difference between the
atmospheric pressure and the pressure of the air in the tire,
Pabs Patm Pgage
100 kPa 240 kPa
340 kPa
Notice units

The pressure in psia is

14.7 psia
49.3 psia
101.3 kPa
Notice units and the difference

Pabs 340 kPa

What is the gage pressure of the air in the tire, in psig?

Pgage Pabs Patm
49.3 psia 14.7 psia
34.6 psig

Check the tire side walls on your car or truck. What is the maximum allowed pressure?
Is this pressure in gage or absolute values?

Example 3
1-83 The gage pressure of air in a pressurized water tank is measured simultaneously by both a pressure
gage and a manometer. The differential height h of the mercury column is to be determined.
Assumptions The air pressure in the tank is uniform (i.e., its variation with elevation is negligible due to its
low density), and thus the pressure at the air-water interface is the same as the indicated gage pressure.
Properties We take the density of water to be w =1000 kg/m3. The specific gravities of oil and mercury are
given to be 0.72 and 13.6, respectively.
Analysis Starting with the pressure of air in the tank (point 1), and moving along the tube by adding (as we
go down in a continuous fluid) or subtracting (as we go up in a continuous fluid ) the quantity

gh

term until we reach the free surface of oil where the oil tube is exposed to the
atmosphere, and setting the result equal to the pressure there , Patm in Pascals gives

Pstart P Pend

P1 w ghw Hg ghHg oil ghoil Patm

Rearranging,

P1 Patm oil ghoil Hg ghHg w ghw

or,

P1,gage

w g
Substituting,

SG oil hoil SG Hg hHg hw

1000 kg m/s 2
80 kPa

(1000 kg/m 3 )(9.81 m/s 2 ) 1 kPa. m 2

0.72 (0.75 m) 13.6 hHg 0.3 m

Solving for hHg gives hHg = 0.582 m. Therefore, the differential height of the mercury
column must be 58.2 cm.
Discussion Double instrumentation like this allows one to verify (calibrate) the
measurement
of one of the instruments by the measurement of another instrument.
48

Example 1-5
Both a gage and a manometer are attached to a gas tank to measure its pressure. If the
pressure gage reads 80 kPa, determine the distance between the two fluid levels of the
manometer if the fluid is mercury whose density is 13,600 kg/m3 one side being exposed
to the gas and the other side exposed to the atmosphere. Sketch the system.

P
Notice the pressure difference
g

not the absolute pressure

103 N / m3
80 kPa
kPa
h
kg
m
1N
13600 3 9.807 2
m
s kg m / s 2
0.6 m

Temperature
Although we are familiar with temperature as a measure of hotness or coldness, it
is not easy to give an exact definition of it. However, temperature is considered as a
thermodynamic property that is the measure of the energy content of a mass. When heat
energy is transferred to a body, the body's energy content increases and so does its

temperature. In fact it is the difference in temperature that causes energy transfer, called
heat, to flow from a hot body to a cold body. Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium
when they have reached the same temperature. It is observed that if two bodies are in
thermal equilibrium with a common third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with
each other. This simple fact is known as the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
The temperature scales used in the SI and the English systems today are the Celsius
scale and Fahrenheit scale, respectively. These two linear scales are based on a
specified number of degrees between the same states, the freezing point of water ( 0 C
or 32 F) and the boiling point of water (100 C or 212 F) and are related by
[TF 32]
[T 0]
F
[212 32] [100 0]
[TF 32]5 / 9 TC
TR TF 459.67
TK TC 273.15
Tk TC
TR TF
TF TC * 9 / 5

Example 1-6
Water at one atmosphere pressure boils at temperature of 212 F. At what temperature
does water boil (change phase) in C.
5
5C
TC = (TF 32) (212 32) F
100C
9
9F

Like pressure, the temperature used in thermodynamic calculations must be in

absolute units. The absolute scale in the SI system is the Kelvin scale that is related to
the Celsius scale by
T K = T C+ 273.15

In the English system, the absolute temperature scale is the Rankine scale, which is
related to the Fahrenheit scale by
T R = T F+ 459.67

The magnitudes of each division of 1 K and 1C are identical, and so too are the
magnitudes of each division of 1 R and 1F. That is,
T K = (T2C + 273.15)- (T1C + 273.15)
= T2C -T1C
= T C

and
T R T F
T K 5/9 T R

A It is to be shown that the power needed to accelerate a car is proportional to the mass and the square of
the velocity of the car, and inversely proportional to the time interval.
Assumptions The car is initially at rest.

Oil

hsea

Fresh
Water

Sea
Water

hoil
hw
hHg
Mercury