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(Semi-)centralised Drinking Water Treatments

Specific Topics
Chlorination (centralised)

Chlorination
(centralised)

Implementation Tools
Introduction
Water Sources
Water Purification
Water Distribution
Water Use
Wastewater Collection
Wastewater
Treatment
Reuse and Recharge

Compiled by: Andrea Pain (seecon international gmbh),

Dorothee Spuhler (seecon international
gmbh)
Adapted from: HEALTH CANADA (Editor) (2009)
SAFEWATER (Editor) (n.y.)

As an effective yet inexpensive disinfectant, chlorination is the most

commonly used disinfection method in drinking water treatment plants all
over the world. Chlorine kills pathogens and oxidises iron, manganese, and
taste and odour compounds in water. It can be added to water as a primary
disinfection as pre-chlorination, between sedimentation and filtration, or
as a final treatment step before distribution. It can also be added as a
secondary disinfection to water leaving the plant or within distribution
networks to prevent recontamination and ensure drinking water safety.
While it is effective in improving water quality and killing pathogens,
chlorination may lead to the formation of by-products that can be toxic or
cause taste and odour problems for drinking water, so care should be taken
to prevent the formation of these compounds.

Introduction
The control of infectious diseases through clean water and improved sanitation is one of the
most important public health achievements of the 20th century. The use of chlorine in the
treatment of drinking water played a major role in reducing or even virtually eliminating
waterborne diseases in developed countries, such as typhoid fever, cholera, dysentery, and
other gastroenteritic diseases.
Centralised chlorination involves the use of chlorine for disinfection within a centralised
drinking water supply system, either as primary or secondary disinfection. Chlorine is the most
commonly used disinfectant in the world for treating drinking water worldwide, due to its
advantages of being an inexpensive yet effective water purification method.

How does it work?

Chlorine can be added to water in different forms, depending on the pH conditions required
and the available storage options. The three most common types of chlorine used in water
treatment are: chlorine gas, sodium hypochlorite, and calcium hypochlorite.
Once added to the water, chlorine kills microorganisms such as bacteria, algae, and fungi
(read more about pathogens and contaminants). It kills cells by first damaging the cell
membrane, entering the cell, and disrupting cell respiration and DNA activity, two processes
that are necessary for cell survival. In addition to killing microorganisms, chlorine also oxidises
iron, manganese, taste and odour compounds, removes colour in the water, and destroys
hydrogen sulphide.

What is it used for?

The ability of chlorine to kill many types of microorganisms growing in water makes
chlorination suitable for the following uses:
To prevent algal, fungal, and bacterial growth (see pathogens and contaminants).
To control slime growth in distribution systems (to learn about residual chlorine, see also
preventing recontamination).
To maintain clean filter media at the treatment plant (see also slow and rapid sand
filtration).
To restore and preserve pipeline capacity (to learn about residual chlorine, see also
preventing recontamination).
To restore well capacity, to disinfect water mains (see also well development and
rehabilitation).
To control taste and odours

How can it be used?

Household level
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Executive Summary

ABOUT

Background

CREDITS

Chlorination is one of many household water treatment systems that can be done to ensure
safe drinking water at the point of use. To learn more about how chlorination can be done at a
household
level,
see point LIBRARY
of use chlorination.
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GLOSSARY KEY RESOURCES FAQ CONTACT

Background
Learn more about background
issues related to the use of
water - e.g. water pollution,
policies and institutional
framework, or economic
issues.
Background
The Water Cycle
Health and Hygiene Issues
Developing Human Resources
Comprehend the importance
of capacity building and
developing human resources.
Developing Human Resources
(WP)
Planning and Process Tools
There is no shortage on
innovative solutions to
optimise local water
management and sanitation
systems. However, the tricky
part is often the question on
how do I plan and proceed in
implementing those solutions?
Learn more here:
Planning & Process Tools
Introduction
Operation and Maintenance
(Semi-) centralised Drinking
Water Treatments
Chlorination is just one
method of purifying drinking
water. Find out about the
other possibilities for in
centralised drinking water
purification
(Semi-)centralised Drinking
Water Treatments
Point-of-Use Water
Purification
Besides centralised drinking
water treatments, there exist
many possibilities to purify
water on a household level.
Find out more here:
Point-of-Use Water Treatment
Decentralised Supply
Water Sources
There are many options for
purifying water so that it's
safe to drink, but where does
the water come from? Read
more about all the different
sources of water here.
Water Sources
Water Distribution
After water is purified, it has
to be distributed to homes
and water users. Find out
about water distribution
networks and distribution
pipes here.
Water Distribution
TRAIN THE TRAINERS
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Municipal Level
Chlorination is the most
common disinfection method
in drinking water treatment
plants, and can be done at
any stage throughout the
water treatment process.
Each point of chlorine
application will control a
different water contaminant
concern, thus offering a
complete spectrum of
treatment from the time the
water enters the treatment
facility to the time it leaves.
The chlorination process is
integrated into water
treatment plants as a
primary (within a water
purification plant) or
secondary (within
distribution system)
disinfection method.

Water Use
After water is distributed, it
is used by different actors.
Learn more about optimising
water use at home, in
agriculture, or in industry.
Water Use
Optimisation of Water Use at
Home
Optimisation of Water Use in
Industry
Optimisation of Water Use in
Agriculture

Centralised water treatment cycle. Source: EPA (n.y.)

Primary Disinfection
Primary disinfection is the application of a disinfectant in the drinking water treatment plant.
The amount of chlorine needed and time needed to react and disinfect is called the Contact
Time (CT), and is a product of the concentration of residual chlorine (mg/l) and the
disinfectant contact time. CT values required to achieve the necessary disinfection depends on
the microorganism targeted, pH, and temperature. Other design factors influencing the
amount of chlorine required are contact chamber design, adequate mixing, and the presence
of sunlight.
The following are possibilities for chlorination as a primary disinfection method:
Pre-chlorination
In pre-chlorination, chlorine is applied to the water almost immediately after it enters the
treatment facility to eliminate algae and other organisms from water so they wont cause a
problem in later treatment stages. Pre-chlorination is found to remove tastes and odours and
control biological growth throughout the water treatment system, thus preventing growth in
the sedimentation tanks and the filtration media. The addition of chlorine also oxidises any
iron, manganese and/or hydrogen sulphide that are present, so that they too can be removed
in the sedimentation and filtration steps.
After sedimentation and before filtration
This controls the biological growth, removes iron and manganese, removes taste and odours,
controls algae growth, and removes the colour from the water.
Final treatment step
The most common stage for chlorination is as a final treatment step to disinfect the water and
maintain chlorine residuals that will remain in the water as it travels through the distribution
system. Chlorinating as a final step is more economical because a lower CT value is required,
as by the time the water has been through sedimentation and filtration, a lot of the unwanted
organisms have been removed, so less chlorine and a shorter contact time is required to
achieve the same effectiveness.

Secondary disinfection
Secondary disinfection may be applied to the treated water as it leaves the treatment plant or
at rechlorination points throughout the distribution system, to introduce and maintain a
chlorine residual in the drinking water distribution system. Overall, a chlorine residual
provides two main benefits:
1. It can limit the growth of biofilm within the distribution system and its associated taste
and odour problems.
2. A rapid drop in disinfectant residual may provide an immediate indication of treatment
process malfunction or a break in the integrity of the distribution system
A chlorine residual may also reduce the risk of recontamination in the event of an intrusion
into the distribution system.

Optimisation
Chlorination disinfection by-products (CDBPs)
A number of different by-products can be produced from reactions in the chlorination process.
Some by-products, such as chloramines, are beneficial to the disinfection process because they
also have disinfecting properties. However, there are several undesired compounds that may
be produced from chlorine reacting with natural organic matter such as humic and fulvic acids,
which are generated from the decay of organic matter:
Trihalomethanes (THMs): considered carcinogenic. The trihalomethane of most concern is
chloroform (also called trichloromethane). Chronic exposure may cause damage to the liver
and kidneys.
Haloacetic acids (HAAs; includes trichloroacetic acid, dichloroactic acid):Trichloracetic
acid is produced commercially for use as a herbicide and is also produced in drinking
water, but is not classified as a carcinogen for humans. Dichloroacetic acid is an irritant,
corrosive, and destructive against mucous membranes.
Haloacetonitriles: were used as pesticides in the past, but are no longer manufactured,
and form from chlorine, natural organic matter, and bromide.

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Chlorophenols: cause taste and odour problems. They are toxic, and when present in
higher concentrations, affect the respiration and energy storage process in the body.
In order to avoid the formation of CDBPs, it is recommended to remove organic precursors or
optimise the treatment system to so that chlorine is added after organic precursors have been
removed.

Taste and Odour problems

While chlorination can help improve taste and odour through the reaction with organic
materials and iron, it can also generate chlorinous flavours caused by the presence of the
disinfectant itself or by the occurrence of other CDBPs formed by the reaction with other
compounds in the water. For example, the reaction of chlorine with certain nitrogen
compounds (e.g., amino acids, ammonium, urea) present in source water may lead to the
formation of strong-smelling compounds such as aldehydes, nitriles, and some chloramines,
which can cause pronounced chlorinous tastes and odours, sometimes even at very low levels.
Chlorophenols can also be formed at the plant or in the distribution system and can impart
taste and odours to the water.
The consequence of these compounds in drinking water is consumer dissatisfaction, turning to
other water sources (such as bottled water), purchasing home filtration devices (MACKEY
2009), and the rejection of a water source that is actually safe to drink. This is particularly a
problem when no other safe drinking water sources are available.
While chlorination can result in CDBPs that pose health risks and cause taste and odour
problems, risks to health from these by-products are extremely small in comparison with the
risks associated with inadequate disinfection.

Health aspects
Chlorine itself is non-toxic, and while drinking water typically contains around 1 mg/L, even 50
mg/L has been shown to have no health impact. However, some CDBPs are carcinogenic and
should be avoided by removing organic precursors before chlorination. Despite these risks, the
effectiveness in killing pathogens far outweighs the risk of CDBPs.
While most microorgansisms are rapidly deactivated by chlorine (e.g. E. coli), others are
chlorine-resistant (e.g. Giardia and Cryptosporidium), and thus are not killed when chlorine is
added to water. If these pathogens are present in large concentrations, additional treatment is
needed such as membrane filtration or boiling (for more information pathogens in drinking
water, see pathogens and contaminants).

Cost
Chlorine is a low-cost way to effectively disinfect drinking water. Centralised chlorination as
primary disinfection is most economical when added as a final treatment step, as less chlorine
is needed to achieve the same level of disinfection.

Operation and Maintenance

Chlorination is an effective water purification method, but the presence of inorganic
compounds (e.g. iron, manganese, etc.) or natural organic matter may result in decreased
efficiency in pathogen deactivation and in the formation of harmful CDBPs. Therefore, removal
of these compounds before the addition of chlorine is recommended, or other water
purification methods preferentially employed, such as solar disinfection (see solar
pasteurisation, UV tubes, and SODIS), membrane filtration, or boiling to kill pathogens.
To ensure effectiveness and prevent recontamination, a chlorine residual should be maintained
throughout the distribution system. Water leaving a treatment plant should be tested daily for
chlorine residual, turbidity, total coliforms, and E. coli to confirm the microbiological safety of
the supply. In the distribution system, the presence of adequate chlorine residuals should be
confirmed when sampling for total coliforms and E. coli.

Applicability
Chlorination is the most widely used water disinfectant in water treatment plants around
the world due to it being cheap and effective. However, recently it is being more and more
replaced by ozonation.
If there are high concentrations of contaminants in water that react with chlorine (such as
natural organic matter, iron, manganese, etc.), additional treatment should take place
before chlorination to ensure efficacy and reduce the risk of formation of CDBPs.

Advantages
Inexpensive
Effective in purifying water from pathogens and some inorganic compounds (iron,
manganese, hydrogen sulphide)
Non-toxic (in free chlorine form)
Reduces taste and odour problems caused by algae and some chemical compounds

Disadvantages
CDBPs may be toxic
There are taste and odour problems with chlorine and CDBP

References
HEALTH CANADA (Editor) (2009): Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality. Chlorine
Guideline Technical Document. Ottawa: Health Canada. URL [Accessed: 16.10.2012]. PDF

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MACKEY, E. (2009): Influence of Taste and Odor on Consumer Perception of Tap Water Quality
and Safety. International Water Association WaterWiki. URL [Accessed: 19.10.2012].
SAFEWATER (Editor) (n.y.): What is Chlorination?. Saskatoon: Safe Water Drinking
Foundation. URL [Accessed: 19.10.2012]. PDF
US EPA (Editor) (2012): Water Treatment Process. United States Environmental Protection
Agency. URL [Accessed: 23.10.2012].

Further Readings
BHARDWAJ, V. (2004): Chlorine Disinfection By-Products and
Waterborne Disease. The Need for Balance is Essential. In: NESC
(Editor) (2004): A Tie That Binds. Public Drinking Water and Public
Health. Morgantown. URL [Accessed: 19.10.2012]. PDF
This magazine article focuses on the formation and risks
associated with various chlorine disinfection by-products,
emphasizing the fact that the risks associated with these byproducts must be balanced with the benefit of effectively
eliminating water borne diseases.
BRAGHETTA, A.; JACANGELO, J.; TRUSSELL, R.R.; MEHEUS, J.
(1997): The Practice of Chlorination. Application, Efficacy,
Problems and Alternatives. Colombo: The International Water
Association (IWA). URL [Accessed: 19.10.2012]. PDF
This position paper provides an overview discussion on the practice
of chlorination in water treatment. The discussion covers the
following topics: general chlorination practice, chlorine
disinfection capabilities, by-product formation, current regulations
and use of alternative oxidants for disinfection.
C4 (Editor) (2003): Drinking Water Chlorination. A Review of
Disinfection Issues and Practices. Chlorine Chemistry Council (C3)
and Canadian Chlorine Coordinating Committee (C4). URL
[Accessed: 23.10.2012]. PDF
This document gives an overview on the role of chlorination in
disinfecting drinking water. It includes information on chlorine and
waterborne disease, disinfection by-products, and compares
chlorine to alternative disinfection methods such as ozone and
ultraviolet radiation.
EPA (Editor) (2012): Basic Information about Disinfectants in
Drinking Water. Chloramine, Chlorine and Chlorine Dioxide.
Washington, D.C.: U.S.: Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
URL [Accessed: 19.10.2012].
This webpage by the U.S. EPA gives basic information about the
role of chlorine in disinfecting drinking water in the U.S., including
the types of chlorine added and the formation of chlorine
disinfection by-products.
FIFE-SCHAW, C.; KELAY, T.; VLOERBERGH, I.; CHENOWETH, J.;
MORRISON, G.; LUNDEHN, C. (2006): Consumer Preferences. An
Overview. Technology Enabled Universal Access to Safe Water
(TECHNEAU). URL [Accessed: 19.10.2012]. PDF
This document provides information about the consumer perception
of drinking water regarding water quality, taste, and odor and how
these factors influence consumer perception about the safety and
quality of drinking water.
LINDSAY,L. (n.y.): Chlorination. Tech Brief. Morgantown: The
National Environmental Services Center. URL [Accessed:
19.10.2012]. PDF
This technical factsheet gives basic information about chlorine,
how chlorine is added to our drinking water, and about chlorine
disinfection by-products.

WORLD CHLORINE COUNCIL (Editor) (2008): Drinking water

chlorination. Position Paper. URL [Accessed: 07.06.2010]. PDF
This 8-pages information paper highlights chlorines critical role in
providing safe drinking water; the potential health and
environmental effects of chlorine and disinfection by-products; and
considerations for selecting disinfection methods.

Case Studies
SIEMENTS WATER TECHNOLOGIES (Editor) (2008): Central
Municipality. User of Chlorine Dioxide Improves Taste and Odor and
Controls THMs. USA: Siemens. URL [Accessed: 26.10.2012]. PDF
This case study describes how a drinking water treatment plant
reduced the number of complaints about the taste and odour of
drinking water and reduced the formation of trihalomethanes (a
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disinfection by-product) by pre-chlorinating raw water with chlorine

dioxide.

SIEMENS (Editor) (2011): Rocky Mountain Drinking Water Plant

Removes Manganese and Improves Turbidity with Chlorine Dioxide.
USA: Siemens. URL [Accessed: 23.10.2012].
This short case study describes how a drinking water treatment
plant was able to remove manganese and reduce turbidity by
applying chlorine dioxide to raw water as a pre-oxidant.

SMEETS, P.; MEDEMA, G.; DIJK, J. van (2009): The Dutch Secret.
How to provide safe drinking water without chlorine in the
Netherlands. In: Drinking Water Engineering and Science 2, 1-14.
URL [Accessed: 23.10.2012]. PDF
This article describes how safe water is supplied and distributed in
the Netherlands without the use of chlorine in primary or secondary
disinfection steps.

Awareness Raising Material

US EPA (Editor) (2012): Virtual Tour of a Drinking Water Plant. URL
[Accessed: 24.10.2012].
Your public water system is the first line of defense against
waterborne disease. View step-by-step how water is treated and
delivered to your home or business as water that is safe to drink.
Your drinking water is inexpensive compared to other household
costs. Learn why it is important to keep the environment clean and
find out what you can do to protect our nation's sources of drinking
water. Fun facts and classroom activities are also featured. This
Video can be viewed in English or Spanish.

Training Material
RAGSDALE AND ASSOCIATES (Editor) (2002): Disinfection. In:
RAGSDALE AND ASSOCIATES (Editor) (2002): New Mexico Water
Systems Operator Certification Study Guide. Santa Fe. URL
[Accessed: 23.10.2012]. PDF
This training guide provides practical information on the chemistry
behind chlorination, application of chlorination in a treatment
plant, and chlorine safety, including a section of study questions.

Important Weblinks
http://www.youtube.com/ [Accessed: 23.10.2012]
This video describes the centralised drinking water treatment plant in Winnipeg Canada,
detailing the entire process of treatment from source extraction to distribution, and how the
treatment plant optimises its treatment process to maximise security of water quality and
minimise the presence of disinfection by-products. Chlorination is used in combination with
ozonation and ultraviolet treatment within the plant, and a chlorine residual is maintained
throughout the distribution network.
http://www.youtube.com/ [Accessed: 23.10.2012]
This informational video, produced by Severn Trent Water, goes through the entire process of
centralised drinking water treatment from raw water source to clean drinking water. In the
drinking water scheme presented, chlorine is added as a final disinfection step as the water
leaves the plant to the distribution network.

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