4 Modn

CHAPTER 11
IF bandpass (carrier)
modulation
11.3.1 Binary amplitude shift keying (and on-off keying)
In binary amplitude shift keyed (BASK) systems the two digital

symbols 0 and 1 are represented by pulses of a sinusoidal
carrier (frequency, f c ) with amplitudes A0 and A1 .
In practice, one of the amplitudes, A0 , is invariably chosen to be
zero resulting in on-off keyed (OOK) IF modulation:
A (t/T o ) cos 2 f c t ,
for a digital 1
f (t) = 1
for a digital 0
0,
where T o is the symbol duration and is the rectangular pulse
function.
2007
IF bandpass (carrier) modulation
Figure 11.1 Onoff keying (OOK) modulator, waveforms, spectra and phasor states.
2007
Binary amplitude shift keying (and on-off keying)
Decision instant voltage, f (kT o ), at the receiver OOK matched

filter (correlator) output:
f (kT o ) = kE 1 , digital 1 or 0 , digital 0
(11.2)
E 1 is the normalised energy in symbol 1. The normalised o/p

noise power, 2 is:
2 = k 2 E 1 N 0 /2
(11.3)
where N 0 (V2 /Hz) is the normalised one sided noise power

spectral density at the matched filter or correlator input. The
probability of symbol error is thus:
2
1
1 E1
Pe =
(11.4)
1 erf
2
2 N0
This can be expressed in terms of the time averaged energy per
symbol, E = 12 (E 1 + E 0 ) where for OOK E 0 = 0. i.e.:
1
2
1
1 E
(11.5)
Pe =
1 erf
2
2 N0
These equations can be expressed in received carrier to noise

(power) ratios (C/N ) using:
1
C = E/T o (V2 )
(11.6)
N = N 0 B (V2 )
(11.7)
E/N 0 = T o B C/N
(11.8)
where C is the carrier power averaged over all symbols, N is

the normalised noise power in the bandwidth B Hz to give:
1
2
1
(T o B) 2 C
Pe =
1 erf
2
2 N
1
2007
(11.9)
Figure 11.2 Coherent and incoherent bandpass OOK receivers.
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Binary amplitude shift keying (and on-off keying)
EXAMPLE 11.1
An OOK IF modulated signal is detected by an ideal matched

filter receiver. The non-zero symbol at the matched filter input
is a rectangular pulse with an amplitude 100 mV and a duration
of 10 ms. The noise at this filter is known to be white and
Gaussian with RMS of 140 mV in a noise bandwidth of 10 kHz.
Calculate the probability of bit error.
Energy per non-zero symbol:
E 1 = v 2rms T o
3
100 10
10 103 = 5. 0 105 (V2 s)
=
2
Average energy per symbol:
E1 + 0
= 2. 5 105 (V2 s)
E =
2
Noise power spectral density:
2
N0
N
n2rms
(140 103 )2
=
=
=
= 1. 96 106 (V2 /Hz)
3
BN
BN
10 10
Thus from equation (11.5):

2
1
1
1 E
1 2. 5 105
Pe =
1 erf
=
1 erf
2
2
2 N 0
2 1. 96 106
1
[ 1 erf (2. 525) ] = 1. 778 104
=
2
1
12
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11.3.3 Binary frequency shift keying (BFSK)
BFSK represents the digital 1s and 0s by carrier pulses with

two distinct frequencies, f 1 and f 2 :
A (t/T o ) cos 2 f 1 t , for digital 1
f (t) =
A (t/T o ) cos 2 f 2 t , for digital 0
Detection of BFSK can be coherent or incoherent. Incoherent
detection suffers the same CNR penalty compared with
coherent detection as is the case for OOK systems.
The BFSK carrier frequency, f c , is defined by:
f1 + f2
fc =
(Hz)
(11.19)
2
and BFSK frequency deviation, f , is (Figure 11.6(e)):
f2 f1
(11.20)
f =
2
using the zero crossing point in the BFSK voltage spectrum, see
over, yields the bandwidth:
B = 2 f + 2 f o
(11.21)
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Binary frequency shift keying (BFSK) 7
A cos 1t
A
0
2
A cos 2t
(c) BFSK modulator
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
A
0
A
0
(d) BFSK signal and two, component,
bandpass OOK signals
(a) Baseband data

V(f)
1
1 0

To
To
V(f)
(b) Baseband voltage spectrum of a single symbol
f1
f1 + f2
fo
f2
(e) BFSK voltage spectrum (of two symbols, 0 and 1).

Note overlapping OOK spectra
Figure 11.6 Binary frequency shift keying (BFSK) modulators, waveforms and spectra.
2007
Figure 11.7 Coherent and incoherent BFSK receivers.
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Binary frequency shift keying (BFSK) 9
Here f o = 1/T o is both the nominal bandwidth and the baud rate
of the baseband data stream. If the symbols are orthogonal i.e.:
To
cos(2 f 1 t) cos(2 f 2 t) dt = 0
(11.22)
then when the output of one channel is a maximum the other

output will be zero.
If the one sided NPSD at the
(V2 Hz1 ) then the noise power,
channel 1 and the noise power,
channel 2 will add power-wise.
receiver will be:
BFSK receiver input is

12 = k 2 E N 0 /2, received
22 = k 2 E N 0 /2, received
The total noise power at
2 = 12 + 22 = k 2 E N 0 (V2 )
N0
via
via
the
(11.24)
i.e. 2 the OOK case .

The probability of error for coherently detected orthogonal
BFSK is given by:
2
1 E
1
Pe =
1 erf
2
2 N0
i.e. as OOK but E is now twice as large.

1
2007
(11.25)
10
11.3.2 Binary phase shift keying (BPSK)
BPSK codes baseband information onto a carrier, by changing

the carriers phase in sympathy with the baseband digital data:
A (t/T o ) cos 2 f c t ,
for digital 1
f (t) =
A (t/T o ) cos(2 f c t + ) , for digital 0
Usually antipodal states are chosen, i.e. = 180.
The post-filtered decision instant voltages are E (V) where E
(V2 s) is the normalised energy residing in either symbol.
The normalised output noise power, 2 (V2 ) is as in BASK i.e.:
2
1
E
Pe =
(11.11)
1 erf
2
N0
The PRK probability of symbol error can be expressed as:
1
1
12 C
Pe =
1
erf
(T
B)
o
N
2
2007
(11.12)
Binary phase shift keying (BPSK)
Figure 11.3 Phase reversal keying (PRK) modulator waveforms, spectra and phasor states.
IF/RF
oscillator
PSK signal
Baseband data
PSK signal
Reference
oscillator
Baseband data
Figure a
Double balanced mixer connections for modulator and demodulator
2007
11
12
PSK modulation and demodulation both occur in a double

balanced mixer, Figure b. In the transmitter this switches the
oscillator signal, f c , through a 180 phase shift depending on
the digital bipolar (+1/ 1) drive signal, ei (t).
The input voltage, ei (t), biases on either diodes D1 and D3 or
diodes D2 and D4 to switch the oscillator connections to the
output transformer, e o (t).
When used as a phase detector, Figure a, the balanced
modulator or mixer is input with the PSK signal and a reference
oscillator from the carrier recovery (CR) circuit.
D1
D2
ei (t)
eo(t)
D
D3
cos wc t
Figure b
Double balanced mixer circuit diagram
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13
Output voltage
3
2
2
Relative phase between input and reference
Figure c
Mixer output for differing phase between input and reference ports
It outputs a sinusoidal voltage from the baseband port

dependent on the relative phase of the two inputs, Figure c.
With a reference synchronised to one of the two input phases
we can detect the phase transitions by the positive or negative
output voltages at 0, .
Also note, for later use with QPSK, that if the input signal
phase is /2 or 3 /2 then the output is zero!
In PSK one must use coherent detection as the information is
now in the phase.
Figure 11.4 PRK correlation detector.
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14
For a bi-phase (0, ) modulated signal the normal phase locked

loop (PLL) used to demodulate FM cannot be used for
reference oscillator synchronisation.
We need to use a multiplication loop to obtain the synchronised
reference oscillator. After the squaring or self multiplication
operation both sin c t and sin ( c t + ) representing the +1 and
1 data symbols both become cos 2 c t with the same phase
relationship:
(sin c t)2 =
1
2
[1 cos 2 c t]
(sin( c t + ))2 =
=
1
[1 cos(2 c t +
2
1
[1 cos 2 c t]
2
2 )]
For bi-phase modulation a squaring loop (based on another

biphase modulator) is employed.
Figure 11.11 Squaring loop for suppressed carrier recovery.
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15
EXAMPLE 11.2
A 140 Mbit/s PRK signalling system uses pulse shaping to

constrain its transmission to the double sideband Nyquist
bandwidth. The received signal power is 10 mW and the noise
power spectral density is 6.0 pW/Hz. Find the BER expected at
the output of an ideal correlation receiver.
The double sided Nyquist bandwidth is given by:
1
B =
To
1
N = N0 B = N0
To
= N 0 R s (using R s for the information rate)
= 6. 0 1012 140 106 = 8. 4 104 W
Now from equation (11.12):
2
2
3
1
1
12 C
10 10
Pe =
=
1 erf (T o B)
1 erf
2
N
2
8. 4 104
1
[ 1 erf (3. 450) ]
=
2
= 5. 33 107
1
BER = P e R s
= 5. 33 107 140 106 = 74. 62 errors/s
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16
Pe
OOK
12
Polar
12
OOK
12
Orthog BFSK
12
PRK
12
erfc
Baseband
Signalling
erfc
erfc
IF/RF
Signalling
erfc
erfc
E
2N 0
E
N0
1 E
2 N0
12
erfc
12
erfc
12
1 S
4 N
erfc
1 S
2 N
To B C
2 N
1 E
2 N0
12
E
N0
12
To B C
2 N
erfc
erfc
To B
Table 11.1. Comparison of the P e for coherent detection of

baseband and IF binary signals.
2007
C
N
Figure 11.10 Comparison of binary ASK/PSK/FSK systems performance.
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17
18
Multi-phase modulation
We increase the capacity by deploying more phase states e.g. 4,

8, 16, 32 etc. 4-phase modulation ( /4, 3 /4, 5 /4, 7 /4) is
obtained in the parallel modulator by summing the outputs of
two bi-phase modulators.
One modulates 0, and the other uses a quadrature carrier to
give /2, 3 /2.
Figure 11.22 Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) signal constellation showing allowed state
transitions.
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19
Figure shows the parallel QPSK modulator where an input data

bit stream at 2N bit/s is demultiplexed into two parallel separate
bit streams at N bit/s.
Each of these is converted into bipolar signals which drive
separate PSK modulators which are fed with 90 phase
displaced oscillator drive signals.
Finally the outputs are summed to give the 4-phase
( /4, 3 /4, 5 /4, 7 /4) signal.
Figure 11.23 Schematic for QPSK (OQPSK) modulator.
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20
11.4.4 Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK)
Figure shows the QPSK demodulator. The input is

demodulated with inphase and quadrature versions of the
oscillator fed from the carrier recovery (CR) circuit.
There is no interference from the two parallel branches due to
the 90 phase difference between them.
These outputs are low-pass filtered and, after the symbol timing
recovery (STR) circuit, sampled to recover the data bits and
combined in the parallel to serial converter.
Figure 11.24 Schematic for QPSK (OQPSK) demodulator.
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Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) 21
Constant amplitude BPSK and QPSK are ideal for satellite

systems where a non-linear device is often used as the output
amplifier.
In QPSK the phase change of 90 or 180 or 270 occurs every
bit pair on the input data stream, or symbol period.
If these sharp phase transitions can be avoided then the spectral
properties can be improved to reduce adjacent channel
interference. [Offset keyed QPSK (OK-QPSK) staggers the bit
streams by one input bit period (T ), i.e. half the symbol period,
T o , to avoid simultaneous bit changes.]
Figure 11.25 Unfiltered (constant envelope) QPSK signal (T o = 2T b ).
Figure 11.29 Input bit stream and I and Q channel bit streams for QPSK and OQPSK systems.
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22
4-phase occupies no more bandwidth than 2-phase but as there

are 2 bits defining each of the 4-phase symbols the effective
capacity in bit/s/Hz, i.e. per unit of bandwidth, is doubled.
Required E b /N 0
for P b = 106
Minimum channel
bandwidth for ISI free
signalling
( R b = bit rate)
Max spectral
efficiency
bit/s/Hz
Required
CNR in
min channel
bandwidth
PRK
10.6 dB
Rb
10.6 dB
QPSK
10.6 dB
0. 5R b
13.6 dB
Table 11.4 Comparison of BPSK & QPSK modulation techniques
2007
Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) 23
11.4.2 M -symbol phase shift keying
The probability of symbol error for MPSK systems is:

2
E
P e = 1 erf sin
(11.39(a))
M N0
This approximation improves as M and E/N 0 increase.

Rewriting with CNR using C = E/T o and N = N 0 B:
1
12
C
P e = 1 erf (T o B) sin
M N
Figure 11.16 Phasor states (i.e. constellation diagram) for 16-PSK.
Figure 11.17 Error region (unhatched) for = 0 state of a 16-PSK signal.
2007
(11.39(b))
24
Bits and symbols
Multi-symbol signalling is a coding process in which n binary

symbols (bits) are mapped into a single M-ary symbol. A
detection error in a single symbol can therefore translate into
several errors in the corresponding decoded bit sequence.
The probability of bit error, P b , therefore depends not only on
the probability of symbol error, P e , and the symbol entropy,
H = log2 M, but also on bit mapping and the error types. For
Gray coded symbols:
Pe
Pb =
(11.40(a))
log2 M
We express error rates in terms of P b as a function of average
energy per information bit, E b . The energy, E, of all symbols
in MPSK are:
E b = E/ log2 M
(11.40(b))
and:
2
1
Eb

log2 M
Pb =
1 erf sin
N0
M
log2 M
In terms of CNR this becomes:

1
1
12
C
Pb =
1 erf (T o B) sin
N
log2 M
M
Figure 11.18 shows the probability of bit error, P b , against C/N

for MPSK.
1
2007
25
The maximum possible ISI free spectral efficiency occurs when

pulse shaping is such that signalling takes place in the double
sided Nyquist bandwidth B = 1/T o Hz:
s = log2 M (bit/s/Hz)
(11.42(b))
Thus we usually say BPSK has an efficiency of 1 bit/s/Hz and

16-PSK has 4 bit/s/Hz.
Figure 11.18 MPSK symbol and bit error probabilities: (a) probability of symbol error, P e ,
against E b /N 0 ; and (b) probability of bit error, P b , against E b /N 0 .
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26
Required E b /N 0
for P b = 106
Minimum channel
bandwidth for ISI free
signalling
( R b = bit rate)
Max spectral
efficiency
bit/s/Hz
Required
CNR in
min channel
bandwidth
PRK
10.6 dB
Rb
10.6 dB
QPSK
10.6 dB
0. 5R b
13.6 dB
8-PSK
14.0 dB
0. 33R b
18.8 dB
16-PSK
18.3 dB
0. 25R b
24.3 dB
Table 11.4 Comparison of several PSK modulation techniques
Figure 11.17 Error region (unhatched) for = 0 state of a 16-PSK signal.
2007
27
Example 11.4 - An MPSK system is to operate with 2 N PSK

symbols over a 120 kHz channel. The minimum required bit
rate is 900 kbit/s. What minimum CNR is required to maintain
ISI free reception with a P b no worse that 106 ?
Maximum (ISI free) baud rate:
1
Rs =
= B
To
R s 100 kbaud (k symbol/s). Minimum required entropy is:
Rb
900 103
H
=
= 7. 5 bit/symbol
Rs
120 103
Minimum number of symbols required is:
H log2 M
M 2 H = 27.5
Since M must be an integer power of 2, M = 28 = 256.

For Gray coding:
P e = P b log2 M = 106 log2 256 = 8 106
2
12
C
P e = 1 erf (T o B) sin
M N
To find minimum ISI free CNR assumng that T o B = 1:

1
erf1 (1 P e )
C
=
N
sin
M
erf1 (0. 999 992)

=

sin
256
erf1 (1 8 106 )
=

sin
256
3. 157
=
0. 01227
2007
= 66200 = 48. 2 dB
28
11.4.3 Multi-phase multi-amplitude modulation
In an unsaturated transmitter operating over a linear channel it

is possible to introduce amplitude and phase modulation to give
a better distribution of the signal states in the constellation.
Figure shows the three possible 16-state signal constellations.
The square quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)
constellation is in (c).
Figure 11.19 Three possible 16-state QAM signal constellations.
2007
Multi-phase multi-amplitude modulation
29
16-QAM is obtained by modifying the QPSK modulator to

accept bit pairs in the I and Q arms. By feeding the bit pairs
into a DAC a 4-level signal is applied to the phase modulator to
control the output amplitude and give 4 distinct amplitudes in
each of the I and Q parallel paths. For the 16-states we encode
binary data in 4-bit sequences and the symbol duration is four
times the bit duration.
I channel
a n = + 1, + 3
Pulse shaping
filter
2-bit
DAC R = R /4
s
b
1
cos 2 fc t
2
Rs = R b/2
Baseband Series to parallel

converter
binary data
1
Rb =
(bit/s)
Tb
cos 2 fc T
Power
splitter
Rs = R b/2
2-bit R s = R b /4
DAC
b n = + 1, + 3
Q channel
16-state
QAM, Rs = Rb /4 = 1/To
Delay
1
sin 2 fc t
2
Pulse shaping
filter
Figure 11.20(g) Schematic for 16-QAM modulator, as

extension of Figure 11.23.
2007
30
Figure shows the corresponding time domain waveform for the

square 16-state QAM constellation, noting the changes in time
scale in (f).
Figure 11.20 The 16-state QAM signal: (a) four-level baseband signals in the inphase and (b)
quadrature branches; (c), (d) corresponding four-level modulated complex signals;
(e) resulting combined complex (three-level) QAM signal; (f) demodulated signal
eye diagram over two symbols (in the I or Q channels).
2007
31
The probability of symbol error for M-QAM (M even)

signalling in Gaussian noise is:
2
M 12 1
3
E
Pe = 2
1 erf
12
M
2(M 1) N 0

Where E is the average energy per QAM symbol. For
equiprobable rectangular pulse symbols E is given by:
1
1 V
(M 1) T o
E =
3 2
2
(11.44)
V is the voltage separation between adjacent inphase or

quadrature MASK levels. Using C = E/T o and N = N 0 B, top
equation can be rewritten as:
2
M 12 1
3 To B C
Pe = 2
1 erf
12
M
2(M 1) N

Denoting average energy per information
E b = E/ log2 M, top equation becomes:
Pb
M 12 1
2
=
1 erf
log2 M M 12
bit
by
2
3 log2 M E b
2(M 1) N 0
1
and in terms of CNR:

Pb
M 12 1
2
=
1 erf
log2 M M 12
2007
2
3 To B C
2(M 1) N
1
32
In IF modulation schemes there are two measures of SNR. One

measures the ratio of the carrier power, C, to the noise N ,
which is given by the product of Boltzmans constant, k, the
operating temperature, T , with the signal bandwidth, B.
C
C
C
=
=
N kTB N 0 B
(11.6)
The other measure is the ratio of the energy per information bit,
E b , to the noise power density, N 0 = kT . For a bit rate, f b :
C
Eb
B
C
C
f
= b =
=
BT o
(11.8)
N
N0
N
fb N
B
B
is the ratio of the noise bandwidth to data bit rate.
fb
Eb
C
B
= 1 and
=
Thus for bi-phase modulation
N N0
fb
where
Figure 11.21 shows how the spectral efficiency in bit/s/Hz

varies with carrier to noise ratio at a P e of 106 in the
bandwidth limited channel.
2007
Figure 11.21 P e and spectral efficiency for multiphase PSK and M-QAM modulation: (a) bit
error probability against CNR with PSK shown as dashed and QAM as solid
curves; (b) comparison of the spectral efficiency of these modulation schemes.
2007
33
34
Modulation
technique
C/N ratio
(dB)
E b /N 0
(dB)
PRK
10.6
10.6
QPSK
13.6
10.6
4-QAM
13.6
10.6
8-PSK
18.8
14.0
16-PSK
24.3
18.3
16-QAM
20.5
14.5
32-QAM
24.4
17.4
64-QAM
26.6
18.8
Table 11.5 Performance comparison of various digital

modulation schemes (P b = 106 )
2007
35
11.6 Data modems
The ITU-T V series of recommendations covers voiceband

modems.
16-QAM is used in V.22 data modems. In low bit rate data
modems a number of multi-amplitude, multi-phase schemes are
used. The 9600 bit/s V.29 modem (b) needs a four-wire
connection.
V.32 has modulation options at 4800 bit/s and 9600 bit/s. V.32
modems have major cost savings. Only a two-wire circuit is
required and a single PSTN connection per end is needed.
Figure 11.53 Examples of signal constellations used in speech band data modems: (a) and (c) as
used on switched lines; and (b) on leased lines.
2007
36
With launch of V.33 modems (14.4 kbit/s TCM full two-way

duplex), voiceband data rates increased considerably.
With the V.fast modems 28.8 kbit/s is possible over voiceband
(3 kHz) telephone circuits.
Hartley-Shannon equation states that the theoretical maximum
bit rate is 30 kbit/s in a 3 kHz speech channel.
The major recent advances have been in the use of digital signal
processing (DSP) to implement the equaliser combined with
personal computer use spurring the widespread modem use on
2-wire domestic telephone circits.
Figure 11.53 Examples of signal constellations used in speech band data modems: (a) and (c) as
used on switched lines; and (b) on leased lines.
2007
Data modems 37
Todays modems have reduced to a single printed circuit card

implementation and they have combined the improved SNR and
reduced noise of modern telephone circuits with VLSI circuit
density advances to achieve 56 kbit/s rates over the standard
twisted pair 2-wire telephone connection.
This represents over a 40 fold increase in rate from early 1200
bit/s designs and more than a 40 fold reduction in size
emphasising the power of advanced DSP techniques.
Higher rates beyond 56 kbit/s are achieved over a shorter
connection lengths by the digital subscriber line (DSL)
techniques.
Table 6.3 Overview of xDSL, compared to ISDN

Standard
Introduction
Spectral allocation (MHz)
Transmissions
Upstream rate (Mbit/s)
Downstream rate (Mbit/s)
Line codes
ISDN
1987
DC - 0.16
symmetric
0.144
0.144
4B3T, 2B1Q
HDSL
1993
DC - 0.78
symmetric
<2
<2
2B1Q, CAP
2007
ADSL
1995-9
0.025 - 1.1
asymmetric
<1
<8
DMT, CAP/QAM
VDSL
2000?
0.3 - 10/30
asymmetric
<2
< 52
DMT, QAM
38
11.5.2 Orthogonal frequency division multiplex (OFDM)
In OFDM the modulator comprises a serial to parallel data

converter followed by a set of mutually orthogonal parallel
modulators.
k sequential high speed (short T b duration) data bits are
mapped into k parallel and simultaneous low speed transmitted
data bits, Figure 11.49(a).
The OFDM symbol duration is thus extended to k T b s.
The individual carriers are spaced by f = 1/(k T b ) to ensure
orthogonality between the individual frequencies, i.e. realise an
OFDM signal.
In place of a single wideband modulated signal there are now
k simultaneous narrowband FDM signals. Due to multipath
effects some of the FDM channels suffer fading and loss of
received data. This is mitigated by wrapping the OFDM
modulator and demodulator in a convolutional coder/decoder to
form a COFDM system.
In many practical implementations of COFDM the number
of parallel channels ranges from 1000 to 8000 and so the
discrete modulators in the transmitter are replaced by an inverse
fast Fourier transform (IFFT) processor, Figure 11.49(b), and
the receiver demodulator by a forward FFT processor.
2007
Data modems 39
Bit rate, R b (bit/s)
fc
fc + f
OFDM
output
fc + (k - 1) f
Holding
register
Shift
register
Parallel
modulation
(a)
Serial to
parallel
converter
IFFT
(b)
2007
OFDM
output
40
Further sophistication is achieved by selecting appropriate

QPSK, 16-QAM or 64-QAM modulators on each individual
channel to increase the overall data throughput rate.
(Remember that 16-QAM gives 4 bit/s/Hz.) COFDM is being
adopted widely in audio (DAB), video broadcast applications
and WLANs, see last lecture.
Of the 52 carriers used in the HIPERLAN 2 OFDM signal 48
carry data and 4 are pilots (known sequences used for frequency
and phase offset correction synchronisation, etc.). The OFDM
subcarrier spacing is 0.3125 MHz giving a nominal OFDM
signal bandwidth of 16.25 MHz.
Table 21.4 HIPERLAN 2 OFDM rates and modulation orders.
Modulation
BPSK
QPSK
16-QAM
64-QAM
Code rate
1/2
1/2
9/16
3/4
2007
Bit rate
6 Mbit/s
12 Mbit/s
27 Mbit/s
54 Mbit/s
Data modems 41
The old European local loop connection from exchange to

subscribers is shown.
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
Overhead
distribution
00000
11111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
000
111
00000
00011111
111
00 111
11
00000
11111
000
00
11
00000
00011111
00 111
11
00000
11111
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
00000
11111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
00011111
111
00000
11111
000
111
00
11
00000
00011111
111
00 111
11
00000
11111
000
00
11
00000
00011111
00 111
11
00000
11111
Exchange
Overhead
drop
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
4 km
Cross-connect
1.5 km
Possible 2nd
cross-connect
Underground
distribution
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
00011111
111
00
11
00000
11111
000
111
00 111
11
00000
11111
000
00
11
00000
00011111
00 111
11
00000
11111
Junction box
50 m
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00011111
111
00000000
111
00 111
11
00000
11111
000
00
11
00000
00011111
111
00 111
11
00000
11111
000
00
11
00000
11111
300 m
Underground
drop
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
000
111
00000
00011111
111
00 111
11
00000
11111
000
00
11
00000
00011111
111
00 111
11
00000
11111
000
00
11
00000
11111
Figure 6.31 Local loop connections with typical customer distances.
The overall distance from the subscriber to the exchange is

typically 4 - 5 km with bundles of 50 twisted pairs with cross
connect points.
DSL is an overlay technology that adds a broadband high
speed network connection on top of the existing copper cables
using advanced DSP, modulation, coding and equalisation
techniques so that DSL and analogue telephony can co-exist.
2007
42

Exchange
or cabinet
0000
1111
0000
00000
11111
00000
11111111111111111111111111 1111
00000000000000000000000000
00000
11111
000011111
1111
00000
11111
Home
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00011111
111
00000
000
111
11
00
00000
11111
00011111
00 111
11
00000000
111
00 111
11
00000
11111
000
00
11
Existing telephone wiring
POTS
narrowband
network
NB
NB (POTS)
BB
111111
000000
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
Broadband
network
BB
111111
000000
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
0000
1111
frequency
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
POTS 00000000000000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111111111111
0000
1111
POTS
line card
splitter
NB + xDSL
Network
termination
equipment
xDSL
modem
Line terminating
equipment
New home wiring carrying

Ethernet or ATM
Figure 6.32 xDSL as a broadband (BB) overlay technology on the narrowband (NB) POTS local
loop.
Broadband e.g. DSL has evolved from high-speed digital

subscriber line (HDSL) in 1993 through assymetric DSL
(ADSL) to very-high-speed digital subscriber line (VDSL) with
xDSL being the generic term.
The assymetric DSL service provides the high rate downstream
channel which is required for users to access rapidly internet
data pages.
The key problem with xDSL is that the transmitted spectrum
can extend to 10 MHz to give 10 Mbit/s transmission capability.
As in the previous data modems xDSL relies on multi-symbol
modulation techniques to reduce the signalling rate and
occupied bandwidth. Equalisation then lets a wideband signal
occupy this narrowband channel.
2007
Data modems 43
Figure 6.18 (a) Input and (b) output 2 Mbit/s pulse for a 2 km length of cable.
Figure 6.20 Line equaliser frequency responses.
Figure 6.25 Combined equaliser response for ISI and crosstalk.
2007
44
Conclusion
For simple binary modulation PSK has the best bandwidth

efficiency but it requires coherent demodulation.
For improved bandwidth efficiency we need to use multisymbol alphabets, i.e. MPSK to improve the bit/s/Hz.
MPSK has a constant envelope and can tolerate nonlinearities
and is a bandwidth efficient modulation technique.
QAM covers same bandwidth efficiency for lower received
CNR or SNR but it has envelope amplitude modulation and
hence needs linear repeaters.
If power efficient modulation is desired and bandwidth
occupancy is not of concern then we must extend binary FSK
into MFSK.
(The GSM system uses Gaussian filtered 2 frequency MFSKGMSK to optimise its performance.)
OFDM is becoming the favoured modulation for mobile,
broadcast and other e.g. DSL data transmission channels.
2007

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CHAPTER 11

11.3.1 Binary amplitude shift keying (and on-off keying)

In binary amplitude shift keyed (BASK) systems the two digital

IF bandpass (carrier) modulation

Binary amplitude shift keying (and on-off keying)

Decision instant voltage, f (kT o ), at the receiver OOK matched

E 1 is the normalised energy in symbol 1. The normalised o/p

where N 0 (V2 /Hz) is the normalised one sided noise power

These equations can be expressed in received carrier to noise

where C is the carrier power averaged over all symbols, N is

IF bandpass (carrier) modulation

Figure 11.2 Coherent and incoherent bandpass OOK receivers.

Binary amplitude shift keying (and on-off keying)

An OOK IF modulated signal is detected by an ideal matched

Thus from equation (11.5):

IF bandpass (carrier) modulation

11.3.3 Binary frequency shift keying (BFSK)

BFSK represents the digital 1s and 0s by carrier pulses with

Binary frequency shift keying (BFSK) 7

(c) BFSK modulator

(a) Baseband data

(b) Baseband voltage spectrum of a single symbol

(e) BFSK voltage spectrum (of two symbols, 0 and 1).

IF bandpass (carrier) modulation

Figure 11.7 Coherent and incoherent BFSK receivers.

Binary frequency shift keying (BFSK) 9

then when the output of one channel is a maximum the other

BFSK receiver input is

i.e. 2 the OOK case .

i.e. as OOK but E is now twice as large.

IF bandpass (carrier) modulation

11.3.2 Binary phase shift keying (BPSK)

BPSK codes baseband information onto a carrier, by changing

Binary phase shift keying (BPSK)

Double balanced mixer connections for modulator and demodulator

IF bandpass (carrier) modulation

PSK modulation and demodulation both occur in a double

Double balanced mixer circuit diagram

Binary phase shift keying (BPSK)

It outputs a sinusoidal voltage from the baseband port

Figure 11.4 PRK correlation detector.

IF bandpass (carrier) modulation

For a bi-phase (0, ) modulated signal the normal phase locked

For bi-phase modulation a squaring loop (based on another

Figure 11.11 Squaring loop for suppressed carrier recovery.

Binary phase shift keying (BPSK)

A 140 Mbit/s PRK signalling system uses pulse shaping to

IF bandpass (carrier) modulation

Table 11.1. Comparison of the P e for coherent detection of

Binary phase shift keying (BPSK)

Figure 11.10 Comparison of binary ASK/PSK/FSK systems performance.

IF bandpass (carrier) modulation

We increase the capacity by deploying more phase states e.g. 4,

Figure shows the parallel QPSK modulator where an input data

Figure 11.23 Schematic for QPSK (OQPSK) modulator.

IF bandpass (carrier) modulation

11.4.4 Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK)

Figure shows the QPSK demodulator. The input is

Figure 11.24 Schematic for QPSK (OQPSK) demodulator.

Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) 21

Constant amplitude BPSK and QPSK are ideal for satellite

Figure 11.25 Unfiltered (constant envelope) QPSK signal (T o = 2T b ).

IF bandpass (carrier) modulation