X

Conservation Strategies for Native Plant Species

and their Sustainable Exploitation: Case of the
Balkan Botanic Garden of Kroussia, N. Greece
Eleni Maloupa1 Nikos Krigas1,2 Katerina Grigoriadou1 Diamanto Lazari3
Georgios Tsoktouridis1*
1 Laboratory of Conservation and Evaluation of the Native and Floricultural Species-Balkan Botanic Garden of Kroussia, National Agricultural Research Foundation, P.O.
Box 60125, GR-570 01, Thermi, Thessaloniki, Greece
2 Laboratory of Systematic Botany & Phytogeography, Department of Botany, School of Biology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
3 Department of Pharmacognosy - Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
Corresponding author: * bbgk@bbgk.gr

Keywords: GIS, ITS1, ITS2, propagation, molecular markers, native plants, Origanum dictamnus, sustainable cultivation, taxonomy

ABSTRACT
This study outlines a pioneer initiative concerning the native plant conservation that is considered as one of the most important plant refuges in
Europe. The Balkan Botanic Garden of Kroussia has designed a system built on people, infrastructure and a strategy of seven hierarchical and
complementary policies. To formulate and implement this strategy, we have created a flexible research team with scientists from different
disciplines that collaborate interdisciplinary. In this team, information flows horizontally, experience and expertise are joined and used collectively
and know-how is delivered vertically to all interested or involved parties. In the frame of this strategy, target plants are being initially explored,
located and collected from the wild and Important Plant Species are maintained, evaluated and studied. Explicitly documented living plant
collections are maintained with classical and innovative methods and species-specific propagation protocols for wild plants are being developed.
Environmental awareness is promoted and several educational activities on the native biodiversity are organized. Numerous plant conservation
actions are undertaken; all attempt to integrate the ex-situ with the in-situ plant conservation and contribute to the implementation of the targets
of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation at local, regional and (inter-) national levels. Furthermore, evaluation of the medicinal, cosmetic,
flavouring, floricultural and ornamental value of selected native plants is performed, aiming at their sustainable exploitation in collaboration with
the state, the stakeholders and the market. This approach has the ultimate goal to deliver promising and unique new crops that are carefully
selected and designed, sustainably produced and managed, successfully launched and fair traded internationally.

1. TARGET AREA: NATURAL FEATURES AND THE RICHNESS OF THE GREEK FLORA
Greece has an exceptionally rich flora with more than 5,700 native taxa (species and subspecies); about 15-20% are unique, found nowhere
else in the world (Greek endemic taxa), presenting the highest degree of endemism for any comparable territory in Europe and the
Mediterranean region (Strid and Tan 1997).
This figure is all the more striking considering the relatively small area (132,000 km2) and the complex topography of the country. Much of
the land is wild, rugged, mountainous, with more than 40% of the national area lying above 500 m of altitude (including 314 mountains and 1,674
individual peaks above 1,000 m; Strid and Tan 1997). Varied climatic conditions may be found in Greece ranging from subtropical to subalpine
environments. The geology of the area is diverse and dissected, mainly with limestone massifs, serpentine regions, schistose and granite
mountains. A mosaic-like forest cover is estimated at ca. 18%, including forest, open woodland and scrub and at least 400 wetlands of various
sizes can be found in Greece. The Greek coastline stretches along more than 15,000 km, one of the longest in Europe, while about 3,000
islands and islets dispersed in the Aegean, Ionian and Cretan Seas, comprising ca. 19% of the land area of Greece.
The Greek territory can be divided into 13 different floristic regions, the borders of which almost follow natural geographic features such as
rivers and lowland areas between mountains (Fig. 1).
Abbreviations: ABS, Access and Benefit-Sharing; BBGK, Balkan Botanic Garden of Kroussia; CBD, Convention on Biological Diversity; GIS, Geographical
Information Systems; GSPC, Global Strategy for Plant Conservation; IPS, Important Plant Species; IPEN, International Plant Exchange Network; ITS1, Internal
Transcribed Sequence 1; MAT, Mutually Agreed Terms; MTAs, Material Transfer Agreements; PIC, Prior Informed Consent

Maloupa et al.

Generally, mountain summits and islands seem to host the

rarest endemic wild plants. Such plants, confined as they are to
Greece, are a treasure of international importance, whose conservation will benefit future generations not just in Greece but in the whole
world; the rarity of many of the Greek endemic plants makes them
vulnerable to extinction through human activity, a loss not only to
Greece but to the world (IUCN Threatened Plants Committee
Secretariat 1982).
In total, four areas in Greece are considered as European
Centers of Plant Diversity and Endemism (CPDEu14-17; Akeroyd
and Heywood 1994), 10 areas have been declared as National
Parks, 10 wetlands are included in the Ramsar Convention, 575
areas are considered under protection and 270 sites have been proposed to be included in the EU NATURA 2000 Network.
Nevertheless, the rich and unique native flora of Greece is being
threatened by global warming, fires, land reclamation, over-grazing
and current urban and tourism expansion.
Though Greece is no doubt a hot-spot for global biodiversity
(Akeroyd and Heywood 1994) due to its exceptionally rich and
unique flora, it has no long tradition in botanic gardens dedicated to
plant conservation.

2. THE ONLY NATIVE PLANTS POLICY

Conservation strategies for native plants in Greece

Fig. 1 Collection areas of native Important Plant Species (IPS: rare, endangered,
vulnerable, protected and endemic taxa of Greece and/or the Balkans, plants with
potential ornamental and/or medicinal value) currently in ex-situ conservation (white
circles) at the Balkan Botanic Garden of Kroussia (BBGK), N Greece and their distribution across the different phytogeographical regions of Greece (Strid and Tan
1997). Every red dot in the map concerns at least one botanic expedition and collection of at least one accession number of IPS (Krigas et al. 2007).

In-situ conservation of rare and endangered plant species is no

doubt indispensable and it may be achieved basically with habitat
and ecosystem conservation. Nevertheless, in-situ conservation is
also a difficult task to achieve since effective protection regimes are
not easily applied in the wild, they are costly and difficult to control and evaluate. The ex-situ conservation of rare plant taxa in botanic gardens is
an internationally acknowledged contribution to species conservation (CBD 1992), able to prevent the extinction of endangered species (e.g.
Diplotaxis siettiana, Lotus berthelotii, Lysimachia minoricensis) and able to guaranty their possible re-introduction in the wild. The majority of
botanic gardens feel proud of their botanic collections of rare or endangered plant species from every corner of the world and these displays are
often a major attraction for visitors.
The Balkan Botanic Garden of Kroussia, N. Greece (BBGK) is a newly established botanic garden founded in 2000, as an initiative of the
National Agricultural Research Foundation of Greece (NAGREF). Today it covers an area of 31 ha, located in Mt. Kroussia (Northern Greece), at
600 m of altitude, within a natural deciduous oak forest. Since its establishment, the BBGK in order to focus exclusively to the ex-situ
conservation of native plants of Greece and the Balkans has decided to leave aside the exotic plants and ornamental species commonly found in
other botanic gardens of Europe and the world.
All plants of the displays and the ex-situ conservation sections in the BBGK are native plant species originating in the wild (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 Schematic representation of the Balkan Botanic Garden of Kroussia, N Greece.

Maloupa et al.

Conservation strategies for native plants in Greece

3. THE IMPORTANT PLANT SPECIES

POLICY
Since 2001, BBGK has launched a series of
botanic expeditions to every different phytogeographic region of Greece in order to obtain wild
propagation material of native plants (Fig. 1;
Krigas et al. 2007).
With a special permit provided by the Ministry
of Rural Development and Foods, renewed every
year, the scientific staff of the BBGK is enabled to
collect wild plant material even from NATURA
2000 sites, Nature Reserves, National Parks and
other protected areas of Greece. The BBGK,
combining conservation principles and sustainable
plant exploitation policies, has formulated priorities
for the collection of propagation material of wild
plants. Five target-plant categories have been prioritized:
(i) Greek endemic plants (plant species found
exclusively in Greece and nowhere else in the
world); This category includes (a) single-island enFig. 3 (A) Viola cephalonica, (B) Helichrysum sibthorpii, (C) Campanula incurva, (D) Stachys ionica in
their collection sites.
demics e.g. Origanum dictamnus, Campanula hierapetrae and Ebenus cretica (Crete island), Limonium arcuatum (Corfu island), Anchusa samothracica (Samothraki island), Viola cephalonica (Fig. 3A; Mt. Aenos, Cephallonia island) etc, (b) single-mountain endemics e.g. Helichrysum sibthorpii (Fig. 3B) and Anthemis sibthorpii (Mt. Athos), Thymus plasonii (Mt. Chortiatis), Crocus hadriaticus subsp. parnassicus (Mt. Parnassos),
Achillea occulta (Mt. Koulochera), Centaurea cithaeronea (Mt. Kithaeronas) etc., (c) single-area narrow endemics e.g. Limonium antipaxorum
(Paxi and Antipaxi islands), Limonium ithacense (Cephallonia and Ithaca islands), Muscari cycladicum (Cyclades and Crete) etc, (d) regional
endemics (restricted to few phytogeographical regions) e.g. Crocus hadriaticus subsp. hadriaticus, Scaligeria moreana, Stachys ionica (Fig. 3D),
Campanula incurva (Fig. 3C) etc. and (e) national endemics (restricted to numerous phytogeographical regions of Greece) e.g. Anchusella
variegata, Cerastium candissimum, Dianthus corymbosus, etc.
(ii) Narrow Balkan endemics; This category includes native plants occurring around the boundaries of Greece with neighbouring Balkan
countries e.g. Lilium rhodopaeum, Centaurea pawlowskii, Marrubium thessalum, Stachys iva, etc.,
(iii) Other rare taxa found in Greece; This category includes native plant species of wider distribution than (i), (ii) or (iii) with one or only a few
scattered populations in Greece (e.g. Poa molinieri, Datisca canabina, Galanthus nivalis, Diathus crinitus, etc.),
(iv) Balkan (sub-) endemics; This category includes taxa found exclusively in the Balkan countries and/or extending to W Turkey and/or
parts of Italy with scattered populations e.g. Dianthus giganteus, Hypericum olympicum, Scabiosa crenata subsp. dellaportae, Thymus thracicus,
etc.) and
(v) Potentially ornamental and/or medicinal plants native to Greece and/or the Balkans (e.g. Geranium macrorrhizum, Coridothymus
capitatus, Digitalis grandiflora, Salvia officinalis, Crataegus monogyna, etc.).
All plant species of groups (i), (ii) and (iii) and numerous species of group (iv) have been characterized as Other Important Plant Species
(IPS) of the NATURA 2000 Network (in total 1,853 IPS for Greece, Kokkini et al. 1996).
To date, at least 60 botanic expeditions have been organized (Fig. 1) and more than 1,200 taxa (>20% of the Greek flora) have been
collected from the wild (ca. 2,300 accession numbers). All native taxa are currently cultivated and maintained ex-situ in BBGK. In total, ca. 40%
of them belong to target-plant groups (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) and another ca. 45% belong to group (v).

4. THE EXPLICIT PLANT DOCUMENTATION POLICY

4.1. Preparation of the botanic expeditions
A complete work about the flora of Greece is absent nowadays. Floristic data are widely scattered to numerous scientific papers and various
modern floras. The Flora Hellenica (Strid and Tan 1997, 2002), the only complete work for the flora of Greece, has produced hitherto only two
volumes (out of 10 expected). The Mountain Flora of Greece (Strid 1986; Strid and Tan 1991) covers exclusively mountain summits above ca.
1,500 m. The Flora Europaea (Tutin et al. 1968-1980) lack significant amount of information concerning the East Aegean Islands of Greece,
recently described taxa and updated distribution areas of plant species, while the Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands (Davis 19651985) covers only the flora of the East Aegean Islands of Greece. As a result, numerous areas of Greece are considered as floristically illexplored and therefore botanists may still encounter and describe taxa new to science (e.g. Constantinidis and Calpoutzakis 2005; Snogerup et
al. 2006).
Consequently, the scientists of the BBGK, prior to every botanic expedition scheduled to a specific area, have to:
(a) Review and study in advance all the published floristic literature concerning the target-area,
(b) Prepare working lists of the known IPS cited from this area,

Maloupa et al.

Conservation strategies for native plants in Greece

(c) Group target-plant species, target-sites and target-routes that have to be followed in the field,
(d) Assess the target-plant groups, sites and routes based on estimated cost vs. on the expected benefit.

4.2. Collection of data

Field and in-situ collection data are indispensable in many ways. Every botanic collection is considered unique by the combination of the
collector(s)-area-date information. Documentation takes place by using accession numbers (specific codes for different plants from different
localities), when only explicit and precise information is provided i.e. geographical coordinates and site description, specific location, region,
prefecture, and country; otherwise, no accession number is given to plant collections arriving with poor documentation and no subsequent
propagation is planned.
Habitat information for each plant individual collected from the wild (substrate, soil type, forest zone, habitat type, slope and altitude) is
valuable and necessary for future ex-situ conservation actions (Krigas et al. 2007). All these site and habitat characteristics mentioned above,
are documented in special collection forms in-situ, which accompany each accession number throughout the subsequent propagation.

4.3. Taxonomic identification and nomenclature

Taxonomic identification of herbarium specimens and collected propagation material from the wild is indispensable (Jarvis 2007). A plant species
without a name does not exist in terms of science and conservation (Taylor 2007). Each plant species has a unique scientific name; this is the
tag that allows to be found, counted, researched, and monitored, encoding and classify among other plants in the world; additionally this is the
index key that retrieves everything we know about it from various sources (Taylor 2007). The value of accessions in botanic gardens depends
critically on the correct identification and nomenclature, either they are utilized as conservation resources, either as reference material; the
consequences of inaccurate taxonomy could be very serious or even fatal (Heywood 2007).
Nomenclature of plant taxa conserved in the BBGK follows Strid and Tan (1997, 2002), for the taxa covered by Flora Hellenica, Strid (1986)
and Strid and Tan (1991), for the taxa included in the Mountain flora of Greece, and Tutin et al. (1968-1980) for all the rest.

4.4. Evaluation of the Important Plant Species (IPS)

The mother stock plants maintained in the nursery of the BBGK, are periodically evaluated according to the IUCN status (IUCN 2001), endemism
category, inclusion in Other Important Plant Species of EU NATURA 2000 Network (Kokkini et al. 1996), inclusion in national and/or international
catalogues and/or conventions (e.g. Greek Presidential Decrees, EU Directives and Annexes, Red Lists, CITES, Bern Convention, etc.). This is
exercised in order to identify the Important Plant Species (IPS) in the BBGKs mother plantations, meriting special ex-situ conservation
programmes as defined by the International Agenda of Botanic Gardens in Conservation (Wyse-Jackson and Sutherland 2000). Under this view,
four groups of IPS are identified as Priority Important Plant Species (Priority IPS; Table 2):
As Priority 1 IPS are designated (a) all taxa included in national and/or international catalogues and/or conventions (e.g. Greek Presidential
Degrees, EU Directives and Annexes, Red Lists, CITES, Bern Convention etc), regardless of endemism, as well as (b) narrow Greek endemics
(single-island, single-mountain, single-area or regional endemics), which are not included in national and/or international catalogues and/or
conventions.

Table 1 Ex-situ cultivation guidelines in the Balkan

geodatabases (Krigas et al. 2007).
Source
Type of variable
ESDB v.2 (EC 2004)
Soil moisture
ESDB v.2 (EC 2004)
Soil classes and types
CORINE Soil
Classification (EC 1985)
ESDB v.2 (EC 2004)

Soil nutrient

ESDB v.2 (EC 2004)

Soil limitations

WorldClim Database
(Guerin et al. 2002;
Hijmans et al. 2005)

Climate

Digital Terrain Model

created

Topography

Mavromatis (1980)
CORINE Land cover
EC & ETC/LC (1999)

Vegetation zones
Land cover classes
and types

Botanic Garden of Kroussia regarding Important Plant Species (IPS) based on links of IPS collection data with
Examples of attributes
Topsoil and subsoil available water capacity
Textural class
FAO 1985 soil class
World Reference Base soil class
Dominant parent material
Topsoil and subsoil base saturation
Cation exchange capacity
Depth to a gleyed horizon
Depth to rock
Depth of an obstacle to roots
Volume of stones
Mean minimum or maximum temperatures of the
coldest or the warmest month, respectively
Annual mean temperature range
Temperature seasonality
Mean diurnal temperature range
Precipitation of the driest month or the wettest month
Mean monthly precipitation
Annual precipitation
Mean precipitation of driest, wettest, coldest or
warmest quarter
Aspect
Slope
Altitude (elevation)
11 vegetation zones
45 land-use classes and types

Guidelines for the ex-situ cultivation of IPS in BBGK

Selection of watering regimes
Selection of growing medium (texture, pH, drainage)

Selection of growing medium and fertilization regime

Selection of growing medium (texture, drainage)
and potting volume

Selection of appropriate growing sites and conditions in

greenhouse as well as in ex-situ cultivation
Selection of temperatures for seed germination
Selection of shading and ventilation
Variation of watering regimes per month

Customizing microclimate in ex-situ cultivation sites and

in positioning of plants in the displays
Selection of the ex-situ conservation sites
Selection of shading
Selection of species assemblages and sites for specific
plant displays

Maloupa et al.

Conservation strategies for native plants in Greece

Priority 2 IPS include all taxa which they are not included in national and/or international catalogues and/or conventions but they (a) are
endemic to more than a single phytogeopraphical area of Greece, (b) are endemics of any other Balkan country and (c) are narrow endemics to
the boundary areas of neighbouring Balkan countries.
All taxa which are endemic to the Balkan Peninsula and they are not included in national and/or international catalogues and/or conventions
are designated as Priority 3 IPS.
All taxa that are found exclusively in the Balkan countries and/or extending to W Turkey and/or parts of Italy with scattered populations and
they are not included in national and/or international catalogues and/or conventions are designated as Priority 4 IPS.
Other plants native to Greece and/or the Balkans with potential ornamental and/or medicinal value, which are not included to the previously
mentioned categories, are designated as Priority 5 Plant Species.

4.5. Species-specific baseline cultivation guidelines for IPS using GIS

All collection data of taxonomically identified and evaluated as IPS are being incorporated in a GIS (Geographical Information Systems) environment (Krigas et
al. 2007). The collection data are consequently combined and/or verified with
data from ecological databases (Fig. 4);
this includes several topographic and
habitat features (altitude, slope, aspect,
vegetation zones, habitat types), climatic
conditions (minimum, maximum and
mean temperature per month, accumulated temperature, minimum, maximum
and mean monthly and annual precipitation, isothermality, Emberger ombrothermic quotient) and soil properties (soil
water capacity, soil types and dominant
Fig. 4 Schematic representation of the link created in a GIS environment between the collection data of IPS and
parent material).
the data from ecological databases. (Table 1; Krigas et al. 2007)
This approach (Krigas et al. 2007) is
being used to: (i) consider the in-situ ecoTemperature profiles
logical amplitude of different IPS populations, (ii) inform and guide the ex-situ
32,2
32,3
growing conditions preferred and/or tolero
17,9
35,0 C
ated by each IPS, (iii) minimise the risk of
29,5
17,7
cultivation failure, (iv) select the best pos25,0
sible different treatments, (v) help or15,0
23,9
6,7
Tmean
ganize better ecological groupings of
15,0
Tmax
mother plants in the nurseries of BBGK
6,3
9,2
Tmin
5,0
and (vi) provide species-specific baseline
SileCepCep
3,9
cultivation guidelines for each IPS (Table
Limo_ith
-5,0
1; Figs. 5-6; Mouflis et al. 2007). This
Thym_hol
-1,6
Tmean
approach may additionally facilitate gap
Viola_ceph
Tmax
analysis of the botanic expeditions orgaTmin
nized so far, permits better schedule of
Fig. 5 Temperature profiles (Tmean, Tmax, Tmin) regarding four selected IPS of Cephalonia island (Viola
next expeditions of BBGK, analyses and
cephalonica (Fig. 3A), Thymus holosericeus, Limonium ithacense, Silene cephallenia subsp. cephallenia. (Mouflis et
reveals gaps in representation of IPS
al. 2007).
from different altitudes, phytogeographic
and climatic regions of Greece, and finally is aimed to permit assessment of the conservation strategy and actions of BBGK.

4.6. Distribution of plant material and the International Plant Exchange Network Policy
The BBGK produces yearly an Index Seminum distributed in other botanic gardens worldwide. All available plant accession numbers maintained
in ex-situ conservation in BBGK are numbered according to the International Plant Exchange Network (IPEN) (www.bgci.org). The IPEN policy
has been adopted by botanic gardens in Europe as well as by the BBGK in order to meet the provisions of 15 of the Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD 1992) in receiving, storing, and supplying plant material, including free exchange only for non-commercial purposes and free
exchange only between botanic gardens. Otherwise, regarding institutions not sharing this policy and their request to access the phytogenetic
resources of Greece, an Access and Benefit-Sharing (ABS) policy is adopted by BBGK; this requires a Code of Conduct endorsing bilateral
agreements with Mutually Agreed Terms (MAT), Prior Informed Consent (PIC) and Material Transfer Agreements (MTAs), before the distribution
of the plant material.

Maloupa et al.

Conservation strategies for native plants in Greece

Adonis cyllenea
Anthemis sibthorpii

Ranunculaceae
Asteraceae

1
1

A1

Biebersteinia orphanidis

Biebersteiniaceae

#Campanula hierapetrae
#Campanula incurva
#Campanula pelviformis
Centaurea cithaeronea

Campanulaceae
Campanulaceae
Campanulaceae
Asteraceae

Centaurea pawlowskii
#Cerastium
candidissimum
#Crocus cartwrightianus

Acid/ Clay
Lime

S/iv
iv

L
L

Lime
Lime

P1
P1

T
S/C

L
L

Lime
Lime

P1

1
1
1
1

A1

P1
P1
P1
P1

S/iv
S/iv
S/iv
iv

L
M
L
L

Sandy
Clay
Acid
Acid
Acid
Lime

Asteraceae
Caryophyllaceae

1
2

A1
A

P1

S
C

M
L

Lime
Lime

Iridaceae

A1

Lime

#Crocus hadriaticus
subsp. hadriaticus
$ Crocus veluchensis

Iridaceae

A1

P1

Lime

Iridaceae

A1

P1

Lime

$ Dianthus crinitus
Dianthus fruticosus
subsp. occidentalis
$ Dianthus
haematocalyx
$ Digitalis lanata
$ Digitalis viridiflora
# Ebenus cretica
Erodium hartvigianum
Erysimum naxense

Caryophyllaceae
Caryophyllaceae

4
1

A1
A1

P1
P1

S/C/iv
S/C/iv

L
L

Lime
Lime

Caryophyllaceae

A1

P1

S/C/iv

Lime

Scrophulariaceae
Scrophulariaceae
Fabaceae
Geraniaceae
Brassicaceae

4
4
1
1
1

P
P
P
P1
P1

S
S
C
T
S

H
M
L
L
L

Acid
Acid
Lime
Lime
Lime

Fritillaria pelinea

Liliaceae

A1

P1

Lime

$ Gentiana verna subsp.

balcanica
$ Haberlea rhodopensis
# Helichrysum sibthorpii

Gentianaceae

A1

P1

Acid

Gesneriaceae
Asteraceae

1
1

P1

Iv
T

M
M

Acid
Lime

A1

Lime

A1

Cut flower

M
L

Apiaceae

Clusiaceae

Lime

Asteraceae

A1

P1

$ Iris reichenbachii

Iridaceae

A1

P1

$ Jasione heldreichii
Lilium rhodopaeum

Campanulaceae
Liliaceae

4
1

A1

P1

T
S

M
M

Sandy/
Clay
Sandy/
Clay
Lime
Lime

$ Linaria peloponnesiaca
Muscari cycladicum
# Origanum dictamnus
$ Origanum onites
$ Paeonia mascula
subsp. hellenica
$ Pancratium maritimum

Scrophulariaceae
Liliaceae
Lamiaceae
Lamiaceae
Paeoniaceae

2
2
1
4
1

T
T
C/iv
C
T

M
L
L
L
M

Lime
Lime
Lime
Lime
Lime

A
A
A

P1
P1
P
P
P

Amaryllidaceae

S/C

Sandy

Large
Glaucous

d
b

Hairy

c
e

Large

b
a

Large

Velutinous
Pubescent
Hispid
Glaucous

a
a
b
b

Glaucous

c
c

Everlasting
flowers
Everlasting
flowers

Everlasting
flowers
Coloured bracts

Long orange
stigmas
Coloured corolla
throat
Orange stamens
and stigma
Dissected petals
Toothed petals

b
b
b
Glaucous
Fleshy

Cushion form

Heptaptera
colladonioides
Hypericum rumeliacum
subsp. rumeliacum
$ Inula ensifolia

Everlasting
flowers

Post harvest
/ transportation
characteristics

P
P1

T
S/iv

Leaves

A
A1

Other

2
1

Dense inflorescence

Asteraceae
Asteraceae

Large flowers

P1

Type of soil

A1

Irrigation

3
2

Propagation

Pharmaceutical properties

Acanthaceae
Asteraceae

Potted plant

Aromatic properties

Acanthus balcanicus
$ Achillea ageratifolia
subsp. ageratifolia
$ Achillea chrysocoma
Achillea occulta

Garden ornamental

Conservation priority

Table 2 Example of evaluation of 50 native plant taxa (species or subspecies) of Greece that are currently maintained in ex-situ conservation at the Balkan Botanic
Garden of Kroussia aiming at assigning their potential commercial value according to conservation priorities, aromatic and pharmaceutical properties, impressive
botanical features, ornamental and/or horticultural interest, propagation methods and cultivation regimes.
Use
Impressive botanical features
Taxon (species or
Family
subspecies)

Coloured stems

Hairy

Long fruits
Densely arranged
leaves
Glaucous-green
stems
Coloured calyces,
compact form

Hairy

Everlasting
flowers

Glaucousgreen shiny

b
b
d
c
d
c
a

Glaucous

b
b

Large

Densely arranged
leaves

b
b

Compact form

a
b

Orange long
stamens

Long, Shiny

Hairy
Large
Glaucous-green
stems

Glaucousgreen

b
c
e
d
a
a
b
b

Maloupa et al.

A
A1

P
P1

C
T

L
M

Lime
Clay

A1
A

P1
P1

S
C

L
M

Lime
Clay/
Alkaline

Lime

P?

Compact form

Dotted petals

Rounded

Compact form

Everlasting
flowers

Post harvest
/ transportation
characteristics

Acid

Leaves

Large flowers

S/C

Cut flower

Aromatic properties

Other

Compositae

Dense inflorescence

1
1

Type of soil

Caryophyllaceae
Lamiaceae

Irrigation

2
2

Propagation

Lamiaceae
Saxifragaceae

Potted plant

Impressive botanical features

Garden ornamental

Staehelina uniflosculosa

Dipsacaceae

Use

Pharmaceutical properties

Pterocephalus perennis
subsp. bellidifolius
Satureja cuneifolia
$ Saxifraga rotundifolia
subsp. chrysosplenifolia
Silene orphanidis
Stachys ionica

Family
Conservation priority

Table 2 (Cont.)
Taxon (species or
subspecies)

Conservation strategies for native plants in Greece

Glaucousgreen,
hairy
Large

c
b
c
c

C
L
Lime

d
$ Thymus sibthorpii
Lamiaceae
4
A
P1

Thymus thracicus
Lamiaceae
4
A
P1

C
L
Lime

c
T
M Acid

Rosette
d
Verbascum
Scrophulariaceae 4
A1
P1

xanthophoeniceum
S
M Lime

b
Viola cephalonica
Violaceae
1 A1
P1

Empty cells concern absence of information. Taxa marked with (#) concern narrow Greek endemics that according to the Royal Horticultural Society Plant Finder have
been or are currently purchased in nurseries of Great Britain, while taxa (sub-) endemic to the Balkans are marked with ($).Conservation priorities 1: Taxa included in
national and/or international catalogues and/or conventions (e.g. Greek Presidential Degrees, EU Directives and Annexes, Red Lists, CITES, Bern Convention etc),
regardless of their endemism and/or narrow Greek endemics (single-island, single-mountain or single-phytogeographic area endemics). 2: Taxa endemic to more than a
single phytogeopraphical area of Greece or of other Balkan country or endemic to the boundary areas of neighbouring Balkan countries. 3: Taxa endemic to the Balkan
Peninsula. 4: Taxa found mainly in the Balkan countries and/or extending to W Turkey and/or parts of Italy or other taxa rare in Greece. A: Species with aromatic
properties. A1: Known aromatic properties in other species of the genus. P: Species with pharmaceutical properties. P?: under investigation. P1: Known
pharmaceutical properties in other species of the genus. Propagation S: seed, C: cuttings, Iv: in vitro, T: testing in process. Irrigation L: low. M: medium, H: high. Post
harvest / transportation characteristics: refer to desirable for the market characteristics based on observations during maintenance. a: very good, b: good, c:
medium, d: not good, e: bad.

5. THE DNA BARCODING POLICY

5.1. Molecular markers for plants
Molecular markers have been developed to characterize/distinguish closely related plant species, moreover to investigate the genetic diversity
and find the genetic relationship of plants grown in different geographical areas. Potential target genes, which are conserved in all plants, play
significant role in plant species evolution. These genes/genomic areas are used to define polymorphisms among species and to develop
molecular markers to characterize and find the genetic relationships among them.
Selection of the appropriate molecular markers for species identity is very difficult for plants. This is due to the large genome of plants and
not unique high plasticity genomic regions they contain. Depending on the intimacy of species individuals, the molecular marker selection in
BBGK focus on using the matK and ndhF genes at family level, while the nrDNA ITS1 and ITS2 regions for genus and species level. To
differentiate individual plants at subspecies level, or within a population having undistinguishable phenotypes, the MADS-box gene pistillata and
three plastid DNA regions of the rbcL gene will be attempted to apply. There are also many other useful molecular markers described in the
literature applied in particular species, which may potentially be used in cases that we could not find genetic differences in some taxa.
The most widely used molecular markers for plants focus on the cpDNA rapidly evolving genes, such as matK and ndhF (Soltis and Soltis
1998), the phytochrome genes PhyA and PhyC (Mathews and Donoghue 1999), the RPB2 gene (encoding the RNA Polymerase II gene)
(Denton et al. 1998), two loci, Adc1 and Adc2, of the arginine decarboxylase gene Adc, (Galloway et al. 1998), the granule-bound starch
synthase gene (waxy) (Mason-Gamer et al. 1998), a portion of the exon 1 of the phytochrome B gene PhyB (Mathews et al. 2000), a low copy
nuclear gene encoding 4-coumarate: coenzyme A ligase (4CL) in the lignin biosynthesis pathway (Wang et al. 2000), the alcohol dehydrogenase
genes Adh1 and Adh2 (Sang et al. 1997), the chloroplast-expressed glutamine synthase gene ncpGS (Emshwiller and Doyle 1999), a portion of
the intron of a MADS-box gene pistillata and the cpDNA trnL intron (Bailey and Doyle 1999), the vicilin gene (Whitlock and Baum 1999), the
single-copy nuclear genes Glb1 (Hilton and Gaut 1999) and cl (Hanson et al. 1996), three plastid DNA regions of the rbcL gene, the trnL-F
intron/intergenic spacer and the rps16 intron (Goldblatt et al. 2003) and many other molecular markers were also used and found in literature
with very little significance. Additionally, the nrDNA ITS1 and ITS2 regions, which have been widely used at interspecific level in plant
phylogenetic studies (Baldwin et al. 1995) and it is nowadays applied in thousands of species.

5.2. DNA barcoding for plants through the nrDNA ITS1 and ITS2 regions
Nucleotide sequence information of multicopy genes provide accurate evidence of divergence in closely related organisms and have been widely
used for phylogenetic inference. This is the main reason that internal transcribed sequence (ITS) information of the nrDNA ITS1 and ITS2
regions were selected in BBGK to apply to the different accession numbers of native Greek plants. The dynamics of DNA sequences constitute
worldwide attention and significance for species identification and origin. Therefore these sequences can be used as DNA barcodes and
accompany every individual plant or vegetative clone propagated in the nursery or tissue culture laboratories of BBGK, stimulating the creation

Maloupa et al.

Conservation strategies for native plants in Greece

M e a n m o n th ly m a x im u m
t
t

M ea n m o n th ly m in im u m tem p er atu re
35

25

3 2 ,2

V io la _c e p
2 0 ,8

T hym _ h ol
20

1 8 ,1

Lim o _ ith

30

2 1 ,2

28,5

1 8 ,7

2 4 ,5

25

S ile C ep C e p

12

6 ,7

12

1 1 ,9

8 ,6

10

15

9 ,6

9 ,3

6 ,8

11

10

-1 ,6

Ja
n
-5

T h ym _ h ol

Ap
r

M
ay

Ju
n

Ju
l

Au
g

Se
p

Oc
t

No
v

De
c

1 0 ,1

L im o _ith

S ileC ep C ep

4 ,6

F e -1 ,4
M
b
ar

15

1 4 ,8

V iola_ c ep

7 ,1

2 ,3

19

1 6 ,4

8 ,8
6 ,3

20

1 6 ,1
1 3 ,4 1 4 ,1

2 3 ,9
2 0 ,7

20
20

1 1 ,2

2 4 ,1

2 3 ,8

1 5 ,6

1 4 ,5

15

3 2 ,2

2 8 ,7

Ja
n

Fe
b

Ma
r

Ap
r

Ma
y

Ju
n

Ju
l

Au
g

Se
p

Oc
t

No
v

De
c

Fig. 6 Differences in monthly temperature profiles (mean minimum and maximum temperature), mean precipitation of the wettest and driest quarter of the year, Emberger
pluviothermic quotient and variation of the mean monthly precipitation regarding four selected IPS of Cephalonia island (Viola cephalonica (Fig. 3A), Thymus holosericeus,
Limonium ithacense, Silene cephallenia subsp. cephallenia, Mouflis et al. 2007).

of a database of documented reference sequences in a universal library worldwide, to which comparisons of unidentified taxa can be made.
In 2003, researchers at the University of Guelph in Ontario, Canada, proposed DNA barcoding as a way to identify species (see
www.barcoding.si.edu). DNA barcoding follows the same principle like a basic taxonomic practice of associating a name with an exact reference
collection, in conjunction with a functional understanding of species concepts (i.e., interpreting discontinuities in interspecific variation) (Kress et
al. 2005). In other words, it is a standardized genetic approach that uses short but specific DNA tags, bar codes, from a uniform locality on the
genome presented in all living organisms, in order to distinguish one species from another. The aim and the benefits are subject to problems
related to biodiversity and the tree of life (Stoeckle et al. 2004). The most important ones which meet the objectives and standards of BBGK
focus on: (i) distinguishing species that look alike, enabling a more accurate view of biodiversity, (ii) reducing ambiguity because a sequence of
four discrete nucleotides CATG along a uniform locality on genomes, providing a digital identifying feature which supplements the more
analogue gradations of words, shapes and colours, (iii) making expertise go further by facilitating plant identification, and (iv) contributing to a
more democratized access to a standardized library of barcodes, that will empower many more people to call by name the species worldwide,
making possible the identification of species whether abundant or rare, native or invasive, engendering appreciation of biodiversity locally and
globally.

Maloupa et al.

Conservation strategies for native plants in Greece

Generally, four individual steps are required in

order to barcode each plant individual. The first
step is the specimen under investigation, which all
of them are currently maintained in living collections in the BBGK. The second step is the experiments in the laboratory, which are subject to DNA
extraction, PCR for amplification of target genes,
purification steps and sequencing the obtained
sequences for each specimen. There are a large
number of protocols in the literature to apply and
work with even difficult samples, but there is not
any universal protocol yet to apply for every specimen and therefore, it is necessary to be developed. The third step is to deposit these sequences in a Database with free worldwide access.
Such Databases are found available at: (i) The
International Nucleotide Sequence Database
Collaborative, (ii) the GenBank in the U.S.A., (iii)
the European Molecular Biology Lab in Germany,
(iv) the DNA Data Bank of Japan and (v) the
Fig. 7 (A) Dianthus crinitus, (B) D. corymbosus, (C) D. gracilis subsp. gracilis, (D) D. gracilis subsp.
drenowskianus
Barcode of Life Database (BOLD). The forth step
applies to data analysis, where first the sequences
of the specimens are annotated and then they are
identified or compared to all closest relatives that are located in the database.
To improve species concepts, there is a need to develop a more sophisticated approach to barcoding, which would ideally include
sequences from multiple (perhaps six to eight) independent markers, a multi-locus barcode, and specific inference tools that could be used to
explore species limits and identify genetic gaps. This second type of barcode would improve the information, which DNA barcodes depend on
(Chase et al. 2005).
Currently the BBGK maintains more than 1,200 different species and more than 2,300 accession numbers (>20% of the native flora of
Greece). Identification of these species is many times difficult and a time-consuming process. Furthermore, there is a need to reveal the genetic
identity of different accession numbers for many reasons i.e. uniqueness of specimens from different native plant populations originating in
different phytogeographical regions, possible sustainable exploitation of selected accessions, explicit plant documentation, and copyright.
Therefore a molecular DNA-based procedure has been adopted in the laboratories of BBGK.
Currently there are three projects subject to the phylogenetic relationships by using the nrDNA ITS1 and ITS2 molecular markers. The first
one concerns the wild carnations Dianthus crinitus (Fig. 7A), D. corymbosus (Fig. 7B), D. gracilis subsp. gracilis (Fig. 7C), D. gracilis subsp.
drenowskianus (Fig. 7D), D. giganteus, D. deltoides, D. petraeus, D. haematocalyx, D. monadelphus subsp. pallens, and 23 more unidentified
accessions belonging to wild Dianthus spp. The second one is an EU financed project for saffron and its wild allies, investigating cultivated
clones of Crocus sativus from different phytogeographical regions with different accession numbers of wild relatives of Crocus sativus such as C.
cartwrightianus and C. hadriaticus, collected from different areas of Greece (see www.crocusbank.org). The third project is related to different
accessions of plants belonging to Satureja sensu stricto (35 accessions of species belonging to Satureja montana group) and representatives of
other closely related genera like Micromeria, Calamintha and Acinos all belonging to Satureja sensu lato. Preliminary results from this project
have revealed high levels of interspecific divergence in ITS1 and ITS2 ribosomal regions (Tsoktouridis et al. 2007).
In the future the aim is to extend and cover all the IPS and further to apply to the whole collection of taxa maintained in the BBGK. Data will
be deposited in the NCBI GeneBank DNA sequence database and the sequences will be compared with the existed ones in order to possibly
confirm and/or identify the accession numbers examined or to contribute new reference material to the database for future comparisons by other
scientists. In addition it is aimed that such an action would act as a unique documentation of the phytogenetic resources evaluated and managed
by the BBGK.

6. THE PROPAGATION OF THE IPS FIRST POLICY

6.1. Maintenance of IPS mother plants in the BBGK
In the BBGK, information from the literature and particular ecological databases (Krigas et al. 2007, Mouflis et al. 2007) are used in order to
provide the cultivation guidelines for the IPS (Table 1), aiming at decreasing the transplanting sock and increasing cultivation and propagation
success (Table 1; Figs. 5-6). In addition, IPS mother plants with similar ecological requirements are grouped accordingly, in order to save time
and labour.
All IPS are maintained on farm or in pots in the full equipped extensive mother plantations and nurseries of BBGK under ideal conditions,
which are as similar as feasibly possible to the wild habitat of each taxon studied (Maloupa et al. 2003b).
Although great consideration is constantly given to climatic conditions and soil properties, similar to the natural habitat of the plants,
sometimes looses of few mother plants are unavoidable especially regarding the mountainous plants and the (sub)alpine species. In this case,
the maintenance of problematic species has been overcome by in vitro culture methods. For instance, the single-mountain Greek endemic
Achillea occulta (Contstantinidis and Kalpoutzakis 2005), which grows in semi-shade, hidden limestone rock hollows, could not adapt in the

Maloupa et al.

Conservation strategies for native plants in Greece

Fig. 8 In vitro propagation of Achillea occulta (up), Aubrieta erubescens (middle) and Dianthus crinitus (bottom) in the BBGK.

environments of the nursery (sea level). Therefore, apical meristems from mother plants have been successfully established in vitro in MS
(Murashige and Skoog 1962) medium supplemented with 4 M 6-benzyladenine (BA), 0.5 M indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), 2% sucrose, 0.6% agar
and pH 5.8. Cultures were kept at 222oC and 16-h photoperiod under cool white fluorescent light (40 mol m-2 s-1). Explants produced
adventitious shoots and they were divided in small shoot clusters which formed roots in MS medium supplemented with 10 M IBA. Rooted
plantlets were planted in trays filled with a peat-perlite 1:1(v/v) mixture and they were maintained in a glasshouse under a 90% RH fog-system
and 50% shading for 10 days. In the following 10 days, RH was reduced (5%/day), while light intensity was gradually increased. Plants were
acclimatized and transferred from the nursery to BBGK at 600m altitude where the climatic conditions were more suitable for their development.
Plant material at the nursery is now maintained only in vitro until the elimination of the problems described above (Fig. 8).
Emphasis is also given to the hygienic state of the stock mother plants. In some taxa, a water stress is recommended in order to eliminate
pathogen infections prior propagation (Hadidi 1998; Smith 2002, 2005). Viruses and virus-like diseases are very common in native species
(Dovas et al. 2002; Oshima et al. 2004) and the danger of spreading could always become catastrophic, especially in some species like
Dianthus spp. (Smyrnioudis et al. 2001; Terzakis et al. 2002). Thus, all the initial propagation material is obtained from mother plants treated with
exceptional care followed the standards of BBGK.

6.2. Propagation of the IPS in the BBGK

The major priority of the BBGK is to support, promote and contribute to the combined in-situ and ex-situ conservation and management of the
IPS. Propagation and mainly the asexual reproduction of the IPS constitute the most significant stage prior to their evaluation for sustainable
exploitation in order to improve human well being (Maloupa et al. 2003a, 2003b, 2003c, 2005).
The plants collected from nature comprise the initial source provided for the production of hundred thousands of plants, in a very short
period of time; therefore, an error in this procedure could be very critical (Hartman et al. 2002). The production of certified propagation material of
the IPS requires a broad-spectrum of research strategies and methods that have been extensively described and successfully applied for other
cultivated plants (George 1993, 1996; Pierik 1997; Hartman et al. 2002).
At the Laboratory-BBGK, each mother plant collected from the natural environment is treated as a clone; it is asexually propagated and

Maloupa et al.

Conservation strategies for native plants in Greece

considered as the fundamental propagation material for the reproduction of the IPS. The selection of certain clones requires specific criteria
according to the standards followed by the BBGK. This certified propagation material provided for the reproduction, should be derived from a
selection procedure in order to supply products of high quality. These criteria strictly focus on:
a. The characteristics of the plants related to their sustainable exploitation (high production and quality of essential oils, potential
exploitation in floriculture or landscaping etc),
b. True to type, certified for the genetic identity and stability, of the selected clone (by using molecular DNA markers, Section 5),
c. Disease free, to ensure a tolerable limit (if not absence) of pathogens (Smith et al. 2002),
d. Yield, necessary to evaluate the selected material in order to verify that the unique characteristics are maintained after cultivation
treatments, achieving the maximum economic benefit, and
e. Asexual reproduction of the selected clones.
The BBGK currently maintains 2,300 accession numbers belonging to 1,200 native plant taxa (more than 20% of the native Greek flora). In
total, 326-selected Priority 1, 2, 3 and 4 IPS are maintained (176 taxa as stock mother plants and 150 taxa as seeds preserved within adjusted
environments). All of them have been or are currently subject to propagation research in the nursery and laboratories of BBGK (Table 2). Already
ca. 45% of them (139 taxa) have been successfully propagated and species-specific mass multiplication protocols have been developed (Table
2). Taking into account their ornamental characteristics and/or aromatic-medicinal properties, these taxa could be possibly considered as
commercially valuable plants for sustainable cultivations (Table 2). Additionally, ca. 100 propagation protocols and cultivation protocols have
already been developed regarding Priority 5 IPS (ca. 45% of the total mother plants maintained in the nurseries of BBGK).

6.3. In vitro production of elite pre-basic material and IPS mother plants
In vitro culture of any tissue used as explant material (meristem, bud, shoot, node, etc.) makes possible vegetative cloning from axillary buds, by
the adventitious shoot multiplication method (Daunay et al. 2007). Propagation is carried out under aseptic conditions, free from pathogens,
yielding millions of plants within a year. The plant material derived from in vitro cultures become the elite stock plant material, from which mother
plantations of IPS are established for massive reproduction.
Currently, in the tissue culture laboratory of BBGK are mainly maintained Priority 1 IPS, which either could not adjust and grow at the
nursery conditions or they were not even possible to be propagated using conventional methods. Furthermore, the massive reproduction of
socio-economically valuable Priority 5 IPS is studied. Characteristic examples are Aubrieta erubescens, Astragalus maniaticus, Campanula
incurva, Centaurea cithaeronea, C. subsericans, Crithmum maritimum, Dianthus spp., Melissa officinalis, Origanum dictamnus etc. (Fig. 8).
Further propagation of the selected clones of the IPS is carried out asexually, using mainly softwood cuttings from the elite mother plants
(Table 2). The propagation material is preserved by the BBGK with the possibility to be provided for research in other research institutes. These
elite IPS materials are being also characterized genetically by using the ITS1 and ITS2 molecular markers in order to certify true to type
clone/species identity. However, the elite certified IPS becomes the best value initial explant material for sustainable commercial utilization and
therefore, many competitive companies are interested to establish collaboration with the BBGK.

7. THE COMBINED EX-SITU AND IN-SITU PLANT CONSERVATION POLICY

The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC 2002) acknowledges 16 main targets in order to halt biodiversity loss by 2010 and, the
Convention on Biological Diversity prioritizes the in-situ conservation of rare and endangered plant species and their back up by ex-situ
conservation (CBD 1992). If the steady decline of plant diversity is to be halted in Europe as well, a thorough understanding of the flora is
needed, including listing and assessment of wild plant species, their abundance, and monitoring of changes in their distribution and status
(Council of Europe 2002).
During the last years, BBGK has undertaken efforts in order to contribute for the implementation of the Global Strategy for Plant
Conservation targets (GSPC) at local, national, regional and (inter-) national levels (Table 3).

7.1. Local scale actions

At the local level, BBGKs major plant display sections are dedicated to the ex-situ and the in-situ conservation of native plants (15 ha and 16 ha,
respectively). All propagated material of IPS is hosted in the ex-situ conservation sections of BBGK, where plants are arranged thematically and
ecologically (Fig. 9). Additionally, attention has been given in incorporating the issue of native biodiversity within the environmental activities in
order to increase public awareness (Krigas et al. 2006; Maloupa et al. 2006; Krigas et al. 2007). In order to reveal distribution changes due to
construction works in the garden or trampling from visitors and spreading of involuntarily introduced invasive species, population monitoring of ca.
300 plant species is in process in-situ at the 16 ha of BBGKs natural oak forest which hosts ca. 10% of the regional flora. Furthermore,
numerous micro-reserves are being created in-situ for wild orchids protected from (inter-) national legislation as well as for regional endemic
species (Fig. 10; Maloupa et al. 2007). Labeling of wild plant populations is made evident along the Path of Biodiversity within the oak forest by
using plant identity tags (ca. 500 tags for populations of 126 plant taxa, Fig. 10). Additionally, regular transplanting of orchids from trampled sites
into protected display areas is being exercised (Maloupa et al. 2007).

7.2. Regional scale actions

At the regional level, the in-situ population monitoring, backed up by ex-situ conservation actions, is currently in process at different
phytogeographic regions of Greece (Maloupa et al. 2007): (a) in Mt Athos, NE Greece, concerning the single-mountain endemics Silene
orphanidis, Helichrysum sibthorpii, Anthemis sibthorpii, and Aubrieta erubescens, the regional endemic Fritillaria euboica, as well as the rare in
Greece Galanthus nivalis subsp. nivalis, and (b) in Mt Aenos National Park and Cephalonia, Ionian Islands, SW Greece, concerning some
single-area and regional endemic plant species (e.g. Teucrium halacsyanum, Dianthus fruticosus subsp. occidentalis, Stachys ionica, S. parolinii,
Silene cephallenia subsp. cephallenia, Viola cephalonica etc). Additionally, in-situ population monitoring, investigation of the genetic variability

Maloupa et al.

Conservation strategies for native plants in Greece

Table 3 In-situ and ex-situ conservation actions of the Balkan Botanic Garden of Kroussia (BBGK) contributing to the implementation of the principal targets of The
Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) at local, national, regional, and international levels. Local level (LL): actions within and/or around the grounds of BBGK
(31 ha). National level (NL): actions of BBGK in collaboration with other institutes and/or organizations of Greece or actions in different administrative and/or
phytogeopraphic areas of Greece. Regional (RL): actions of BBGK in collaboration with adjacent countries and/or targeted in borderline areas of Greece. International
level (IL): actions of BBGK in collaboration with institutes of other countries and/or international organizations. BBGKs principal target is the documentation and
conservation of the Important Plant Species (IPS) of Greece and the Balkans, including single-mountain endemics, single-area endemics, Greek endemics, and local
Balkan endemics, other rare, threatened and/or endangered taxa, and Balkan subendemics with scattered distribution (Maloupa and Krigas 2007).
Target number (#) and short description in GSPC
BBGKs
In-situ /
BBGKs activities realized and/or in process
(2002)
contribution level Ex-situ
# 1: A widely accessible working list of known plant
LL, NL
In-situ
Synthesis of existing floristic knowledge scattered in various sources
species as a step towards a complete world flora
and compilation of working lists of known IPS and their distribution
for 10 areas in different phytogeographical regions of Greece
(including a national park, 14 Natura 2000 sites, 8 islands, and 3
mountain areas)
LL, NL, RL, IL
In-situ
GIS mapping, monitoring and preliminary assessment of the size, the
# 2: A preliminary assessment of the conservation
exact location and the distribution of known wild populations of
status of all known plant species at national, regional
globally and/or nationally threatened and endangered plant species in
and international levels
Mt Athos, Mt Aenos National Park and the Ionian Islands
Fieldwork searching for new populations
Recording of ecological and habitat preferences
# 3: Development of models with protocols for plant
LL, NL, RL, IL
Ex-situ
Plant propagation protocols for 109 plant taxa
conservation and sustainable use
Cultivation protocols for 101 plant taxa
In vitro cultivation protocols
Establishment of propagation and conservation priorities
# 4: At least 10% of each of the Worlds ecological
LL, NL
In-situ
In -situ conservation section in BBGK
regions effectively conserved
Guided in -situ conservation in Cephalonia Botanica and in Chios
Botanic Garden of the East Aegean Islands
# 5: Protection of 50% of the most important areas for
LL, NL
In-situ
Identification of the most important sites for IPS diversity in a
plant diversity assured
mountain, a national park, 2 islands and 3 botanic gardens
GIS mapping of IPS
Labelling of plant populations in the wild in 3 botanic gardens
Delimitation and protection of populations of wild orchids and endemic
species in 3 botanic gardens
# 6: At least 30% of production lands managed
LL
In-situ
Fine scale pilot application of different forest management actions in
consistent with the conservation of plant diversity
BBGKs natural oak forest
# 7: 60% of the worlds threatened species conserved
LL, NL
Ex-situ
Propagation, hardening and cultivation protocols of rare and
in -situ
In-situ
threatened plant species, aiming to potential future re-introduction in
the wild
LL, NL, RL, IL
Ex -situ
>2,300 accession numbers of >1,200 taxa (ca.20%) of the Greek flora
# 8: 60% of threatened plant species in accessible ex in ex -situ conservation in BBGK
situ collections preferably in the country of origin and
Official call and request for the repatriation of IPS and native species
10% of them included in recovery and restoration
programmes
of Greece from other botanic gardens
Integration of all living collections of BBGK in BGCIs website in
preparation
LL, NL, RL, IL
Ex-situ
Documentation, characterization and evaluation of Crosus genetic
# 9: 70% of the genetic diversity of crops and other
resources, including saffron and its allies (Crocusbank, EU Project)
major socio-economically valuable plant species
Pilot cultivation of 22 accession numbers of the protected vulnerable
conserved and associated indigenous and local
Cretan endemic Origanum dictamnus for essential oils research and
knowledge maintained
production of natural cosmetics
Pilot cultivation of Melissa officinalis and Crithmum maritimum for
essential oils research and production of natural cosmetics
LL, NL
In -situ
Identification and assessment of invasive alien species in numerous
# 10: Management plans in place of at least 100 major
alien species that threaten plants, plant communities
Greek cities (in collaboration with the Laboratory of Systematic Botany
and associated habitats and ecosystems
& Phytogeography, School of Biology, Aristotle University of
Thessaloniki)
# 11: No species of wild flora endangered by
LL, NL
Ex-situ
IPEN numbering in all accession numbers of BBGK
international trade
# 12: 30% of plant-based products derived from
sources that are sustainably managed
LL
In-situ
Ethnobotanical survey in villages of Mt Kroussia (in collaboration with
# 13: The decline of plant resources, and associated
the Department of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, Aristotle
indigenous and local knowledge, innovations and
University of Thessaloniki)
practices that support sustainable livelihoods, local
food security and health care, halted
In-situ
Bi-lingual thematic calendars of native plant species produced yearly,
# 14: The importance of plant diversity and the need for LL, NL, RL, IL
Ex-situ
distributed in Europe
its conservation incorporated into communication,
Leaflets, presentations, posters, fliers
educational and public-awareness programmes
Environmental games, Environmental Trail, Path of Biodiversity,
Educational Field Work, Experiential Conservation of Wild Orchids, for
primary, secondary and tertiary education target groups
Organization of official events open to public and policy-makers,
yearly
Design and 3D modelling of the Botanic Garden of Environmental
Awareness, in Thermi, Thessaloniki

Maloupa et al.

Conservation strategies for native plants in Greece

Table 3 (Cont.)
Target number (#) and short description in GSPC
(2002)
# 15: The number of trained people working with
appropriate facilities in plant conservation increased,
according to national needs, to achieve targets of this
strategy
# 16: Networks for plant conservation activities
established or strengthened at national, regional and
international levels

BBGKs
contribution level
LL, NL

In-situ / Exsitu
-

NL, RL, IL

In-situ
Ex-situ

BBGKs activities realized and/or in process

Increasing number of researchers, agriculturalists, horticulturalists and
technicians in BBGK
Seminars concerning capacity building for the staff of BBGK
In collaboration with Botanic Garden Conservation International
(BGCI), efforts to establish a National Network of Greek Botanic
Gardens of small size in different phytogeographic areas of Greece,
dedicated to the combined ex-situ and in-situ conservation.

Fig. 9 Ex-situ conservation sections with different micro-environments in the BBGK. (A, B) Aromatic-medicinal plants, (C) Stone-dwellers, (D, E) Aquatic and
hydrophillus (hydrophilic?) plants, (F) Educational herb garden, (G) Mediterranean stone garden.

and ex-situ conservation of Greek endemic Crocus spp. (C. cartwrightianus, C. hadriaticus) which are considered as socio-economically valuable
wild relatives of saffron is in process, through a multilateral EU funded project (see www.crocusbank.org).

Maloupa et al.

Conservation strategies for native plants in Greece

7.3. (Inter-)national scale actions

At the international level, BBGK being an active member of Botanic Garden Conservation International (BGCI, see www.bgci.org) and is currently undertaking efforts
towards the establishment of a National Network of Greek Botanic Gardens dedicated to the combined in-situ and ex-situ plant conservation of the native Greek and
Balkan flora (Maloupa et al. 2007). These efforts are aiming to deliver the message to
all institutions and stakeholders involved in plant conservation. The concept of this
initiative is subject to the establishment of numerous new, small-scale botanic gardens across different phytogeographical regions of Greece, which will dedicate
accordingly to the ex-situ conservation of the endemic flora of different regions. In
addition, BBGKs conservation actions of IPS attempt to meet targets 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9,
14, 16 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC 2002), contributing to the
effective conservation of globally threatened plant species, implemented at local and
regional levels (Maloupa et al. 2007).

8. THE EVALUATION FOR SUSTAINABLE EXPLOITATION POLICY

8.1. The importance of medicinal plants and natural products
Natural products have been investigated and utilized to alleviate disease since early
human history. Natural products were considered as a valuable source of drug leads,
and the testing of natural product extracts was widely practiced in the pharmaceutical
industry. In more recent times, natural products have continued to be significant
sources of drugs and leads. Their dominant role is evident since approximately 60%
of anticancer compounds and 75% of drugs for infectious diseases are either natural
products or derivatives of natural products (Shu 1998; Newman et al. 2003). Plants
Fig. 10 In-situ conservation actions in the BBGK.
continue to provide us with new chemical entities (lead molecules) for the development of drugs against various pharmacological targets, including cancer, HIV/AIDS,
malaria, Alzheimer's disease and pain. The fact that many currently used drugs have being derived from natural sources (including paclitaxel,
camptothecin-derived analogues, artemether, galanthamine, tiotropium to name a few), suggests that there might be compounds in the plant
kingdom with promising clinical use.
The most interesting agents that are identified as natural products come directly from the biodiversity, i.e., the richness in variety of
organisms and genomes in the ecosphere. There are literally millions of natural chemical structure types resulting from natures combinational
chemistry effort supplying almost unimaginable chemical diversity, which yields stereochemically complex structures with diverse functional
groups, molecules ideal for interacting spherically with biological target molecules. There are undoubtedly many more unique and potent
biologically active natural products waiting to be discovered.
In addition to medicinal plants, many aromatic plants are used for the preparation of herbal drinks, in cooking or for phyto-cosmetic uses
(Sideritis spp., Origanum spp., Rosa spp., etc.). More opportunities for natural products discovery and development concern agrochemicals,
cosmetics, new chemicals and nutraceuticals. However, wild plants have played an important role in complementing staple foods to provide a
balanced diet by supplying trace elements, vitamins, and minerals, and may do so again in the future. Their interest as a source of nutraceuticals has been highlighted in recent studies (Heinrich et al. 2005).
In the case of native plants of Greece, Alkanna tinctoria has been known from ancient times for its wound healing properties. Native A.
tinctoria plants, with alkannin and shikonin, two enantiomeric hydroxynaphthoquinone red pigments found in their roots, have been the base for
the development of a famous ointment which is approved and marketed in Greece and abroad as a drug of botanical origin, as well as for other
pharmaceutical and cosmetic preparations. Although Greece has been blessed with a diversity of flora, most of it remains unexploited regarding
species chemical constituents and biological potentials.
The BBGK, in collaboration with the Department of Pharmacognosy-Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,
are directed towards the study of bioactive molecules found in IPS. The prime concern is to discover or develop pharmacologically active agents,
which might be interesting for clinical practice in the future. Up to date results show that a significant number of IPS appear to contain
compounds with interesting biological activities i.e. antioxidant, antivirus, antibacterial etc. (Skaltsa et al. 2003; Mata et al. 2006; Sylignaki et al.
2006; Charami et al. 2007; Karalaki et al. 2007; Kreziou et al. 2007; Mata et al. 2007a, 2007b; Papaioannou et al. 2007).
Furthermore, IPS with potential high economic value are under special investigation. In this approach, two types of plant material are used
and analyzed: (a) plant material collected in-situ from wild populations and (b) plant material originating at the same populations and sites,
accordingly, which has been asexually propagated and ex-situ cultivated in the BBGK (at sea level and at 600m). This approach concern several
aromatic-medicinal plants (e.g. Crithmum maritimum, Origanum dictamnus, Melissa officinalis, Staehelina uniflosculosa, Geranium macrorrhizum,
Thymus spp., Sideritis spp., Achillea spp., Scutellaria spp.) and is adopted aiming to evaluate and/or compare their quantitative and qualitative
composition (essential oils and biologically active secondary metabolites) under different cultivation regimes.
In the last few years, Greek and foreign companies have developed applied research projects, aiming at the exploitation of the unique
characteristics of the native Greek aromatic-medicinal species, many of which are confined to Greece only (Korres 2005; Grigoriadou et al.
2006). These research projects have been extensively considered by the BBGK and are carried out with the joint collaboration of Research
Institutes, Universities, National Research Centers and industry in applied research programs, financed by different sources. The aim for all of

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Conservation strategies for native plants in Greece

these research projects focus on contributing to the integrated conservation and management of the aromatic-medicinal plants as well as other
major socio-economically valuable native Greek species (Maloupa et al. 2005).
The most representative examples of these research projects concern Origanum dictamnus and Melissa officinalis (both Lamiaceae) and
Crithmum maritimum (Apiaceae) (Maloupa et al. 2003c, 2005; Grigoriadou et al. 2006), all plants with exceptional characteristics and valuable
properties, which could potentially play an important role at the local economy (see www.bgci.org/cultivate/article/400/).
In addition, this initiative seems perfectly harmonized with the key role of Botanic Gardens, ensuring that plant recourses are not only
conserved but also used sustainably for the benefit of all people, in order to improve human well-being (Wyse-Jackson and Sutherland 2000;
GSPC 2002).

8.2. Evaluation of native plants prior commercialization

There is a rich base of information from many developmental projects and case studies that have been explored on various aspects on new crop
development. This information has been assembled in a non-unique improvised mode, using a range of methods at different levels, focusing
mainly on different elements, which are mostly related to product production, processing and marketing systems.
A universal standardized evaluation system is required to be established worldwide, in order to document and compare cases using
consistent terms and definitions for particular range of variables, following a data matrix as the basis for the comparative analysis (Armitage
1996).
The ultimate goal is to provide guidance for action-oriented interventions based on new crop development, moreover to identify conditions
and types of cases that are amenable to development interventions, as well as to flag types of cases that may not be good investments.
Exploratory data analysis will be used to outline patterns, gradients of variability, clusters of cases and key variables associated with them.
The objective is to create typologies of cases, identify conditions associated with particular kinds of development and conservation outcomes
and identify/test hypotheses about new crop development (Becker 2004).
This chapter provides some guidelines and describes the categories of information and the necessary steps required to take under
consideration in order to select promising plant taxa for commercialization. Interventions, and outcomes of new crop development provide
definitions and rationales for the various descriptors used. The evaluation parameters are described within five individual interconnected stages.
Stage I: Targeting the market
It is very important to initially characterize the plant material collected from the wild and to make a brief estimation of the sector that is
targeting in the market. Depending on the characteristics of each taxon it is necessary to be associated with a market category of promotion
according to the relative importance and use (Roh and Lawson 1996; Armitage 1996; Daly 2005; Johnston 2005). These major categories, which
lead to corresponded industries include:
a. Ornamental horticulture and floriculture; this sector holds a huge number of species, cultivars and hybrids, therefore, it is very
difficult to establish a new flower crop in a relative short period of time. There is too much competition among the species promoted but it is
also necessary to enrich the market with new taxa in order to maintain and increase the consumption. The related ornamental groups
include cut flowers, potted plants (usually for indoor use), dried flower compositions, amenity and landscaping. Many promising examples of
such plants originating in the wild Greek flora can be found in Table 2.
b. Cosmetology; this sector includes plants with aromatic properties for the production of fragrances, as well as taxa that provide
substances extracted and mixed with crmes, lotions and other cosmetics. This is a profitable category, due to the high demand of products
based on natural extracts, therefore, new valuable crops provide high income to farmers in rural areas. Many promising examples of such
plants originating in the wild Greek flora concern Origanum dictamnus, Crithmum maritimum, Melissa officinalis, etc.
c. Pharmaceuticals; this sector focus on taxa with very particular chemical substances, which mainly used for therapeutic/medicinal
purposes. These taxa automatically become valuable and research focus on the production of high quality plants used as the initial raw
material for drugs. In this case, advanced technology and systems can be used throughout the production process, because of the
importance and value of the raw materials. Many promising examples of such plants originating in the wild Greek flora can be found in Table
2.
d. Herbs and spices; this sector is nowadays of great interest because people prefer on consuming more fresh and natural healthy
products in their diet. Interesting examples originating in the wild Greek flora concern Origanum dictamnus, O. onites, Thymus thracicus, Th.
sibthorpii, Satureja cuneifolia, Crocus spp., etc. Most of the products are available in open markets as row material, which usually is not
certified. The production of culinary herbs in diverse agroforestry systems may provide small-scale farmers on competitively priced products
for local and potential export markets (Runham 1996). The increased demand and knowledge of people require an organized system that
provides certified and branded name products.
e. Sustainability and conservation; this category concerns taxa with very particular characteristics. Usually they are not
commercialized but maintained for research and conservation reasons. Plant species used for sustainability include taxa that are aimed to
be re-introduced in the wild and they are part of a countrys biodiversity. These taxa are massively propagated for plantations in nature
under particular circumstances such as fires, flooding problems, highway constructions and sinking of the ground, where there are
governmental programs to sustain or re-introduce the regional flora (Runham 1996). Conservation of threatened species, which tend to
extinct from the wild, is subject from most Botanic Gardens, which are aiming to rescue and maintain this genetic material and germplasm of
plants. Moreover, national and international research programs support the conservation, propagation of these endangered species and
further re-introduction to nature. Such actions of the BBGK are described in short in Table 3 and many examples of such species originating
in the wild Greek flora can be found in Table 2.
Stage II: Basic marketing information
Basic value chain issues and information in marketing is required in order to select the potential taxa for commercialization. It is very difficult

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Conservation strategies for native plants in Greece

to explore and analyze multiple marketing parameters that may affect the introduction of new species in the market. The reason is that many
scientists who are specialized in the marketing of agricultural products should exclusively work on the establishment of new crops in the market,
increasing the cost and final price of the new products.
However, there is a lot of research developed on a variety of agricultural products from Universities. Research topics are considered from
time to time depending on the market. In this case, a joint collaboration program will help to promote the native IPS of Greece and the Balkans in
the market. Moreover, postgraduate research dissertations at MSc or PhD level would be potentially applied on native flora, aiming to
dynamically lead the IPS into the market. As the size of the Greek market and sales are limited, the native plants are often not appreciated by
the local consumers and therefore, it would be much more plausible to promote them into the foreign markets.
The size of the market in the European Union is promising to support the native plants from Greece produced with sustainable methods
since Greek native plants collected from the wild have already been on sale. From the native species mentioned in Table 2, a total of 54% are
being purchased in nurseries of Great Britain (18% are narrow Greek endemics and 36% are Balkan endemics).
It is not astonishing that many rare plants, which are endemic to Greece or the Balkans, can be found and are actually being sold in several
markets. For instance, everyone could easily find in the Royal Horticulture Societys Plant Finder (www.rhs.org.uk/rhsplantfinder/plantfinder.asp)
and purchase at least 115 Greek endemic taxa (ca. 10% of the endemic flora of Greece; Maloupa and Krigas 2007). Many among them are
included in the Red Data Book of Rare and Threatened Plant of Greece (Phitos et al. 1995), Annexes II and/or IV of the EU Directive 92/43
(Dafis et al. 1996) and WCMC lists (1991). To name but a few: the Cretan endemic Origanum dictamnus, the regional Greek endemic
Campanula incurva and the single-mountain (Mt. Athos) local Greek endemic Helichrysum sibthorpii (the latter is also included in the Bern
Convention). This fact brings about some legal and authority issues: Although clearly stated in 15 of the CBD (1992), no official agreement has
been made with the country of origin, regarding access to its phytogenetic resources, fair trade and benefit sharing. Furthermore, nowadays it is
recognized by most authorities that the collection of rare species is a significant problem in Greece and the Balkans (Polunin 1980). Either
advent of botanical interest tours or independently organized tours, the threat from the naturalist, amateur botanist, gardener or plant hobbyist
who uproots plants for his own collection, whether of live plants in a garden or pressed specimens in a private herbarium, is internationally
deplored (IUCN Threatened Plants Committee Secretariat 1982).
Apart from the legal and authority issues mentioned above, it is necessary to consider additionally the basic information adapted to regional
or national standards. The suggested topics for consideration are subject to: (a) Market characteristics (location, size, distance, etc), (b) Number
of participants in the market, (c) Role of participants in the market, (d) Production group processes, (e) Number of people with capability and
skills (production capacity and schedule) (Johnston 2005).
Stage III: Production
Important keys to success in the high value horticulture crop production are the low cost of production, high quality and the likely returns. A
chain of value issues takes part during the production process aiming to yield the best for the market and the consumer. The vast number of
different species commercialized requires special treatments for each taxon, therefore, a lot of research and many people are needed to
optimize every production line. This procedure (Roh and Lawson 1996; Armitage 1996; Daly 2005; Johnston 2005) focus on particular stages
which are subject to (see Table 2 and Figs. 4-6 for examples originating in the native flora of Greece):
(a) Propagation by seed or vegetative in vivo or in vitro, (b) Ability to produce planting material, (c) Climatic requirements and limitations, (d)
Soil and nutritional requirements (soil type, drainage, nutrient availability), (e) Production systems and their relative costs, (f) Qualitative growth
characteristics (flowers/inflorescences, roots, habit/sprouts, leaves, fruits/seeds, inner substances, habitat, diversity, hybridization, stability,
durability, special sensibilities, etc.), (g) Controlled flowering, flowering percentage and photoperiod, (h) Plant health (pathogens, pests and
weeds), (i) Total cropping time, yield and supply period, and (j) Price per unit.
Stage IV: Postharvest and transportation
Postharvest requirements focus mainly on packaging, maintenance and transportation (see Table 2 for examples originating in the native
flora of Greece). Packaging is depended on the size/shape of plants or flowers, delicacy and the market of sale. For auctions and wholesale
markets, packaging is of decisive significance; alternatively packing which presents the products require means and features like transparent foil,
text with the name, origin and indications for use etc., that increase the final cost of the products (von Hentig 1996).
Maintenance is the most diverse parameter to estimate. There are different requirements for each type of product and it is very difficult to
hold simultaneously different products within appropriate conditions. The main factors that affect maintenance include humidity, temperature,
chemical treatments and stress of the plants. The durability of the plants/flowers is connected also with the transportation; in many cases
controlled environments are necessary for fragile products that also increase the durability. The way of transportation and distance from the
producers is also very critical, affecting the final price and competence of the products in the market. Postharvest manipulations for herbs and
spices, are much easier and simple, due to most of them are sold as dried materials.
Stage V: Economics
Economics is a critical factor in producers adoption of new crops and technologies. Aspects of economic benefits include the maintenance
or restoration of the productivity of land or the provision of low cost alternatives to fertilizer and soil conditioners, direct economic benefits to
farmers by the addition of products or the diversification of the range of farm outputs and capital reserves in the form of new crops that accrue
value over time and can be harvested as needed (Arnold 1983).
The cost-benefit analysis can be used to determine which of a combination of systems is the most efficient (Becker 2004). The three
principal components of a cost-benefit analysis are the determination of Net Present Value (NPV) (Gittinger 1982), the Internal Rate of Return
(IRR) (Wojtkowski 1998) and the Benefit/Cost ratio (B/C ratio) (Becker 2004). The NPV is the sum of the discounted benefits (goods and
services) minus the costs (excluding intangibles) generated over a period of time. If the NPV is greater then zero then the system will have a net
economic benefit over the time evaluated (Gittinger 1982). The IRR is the internal rate of return on the investment, the amount of interest that is

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Conservation strategies for native plants in Greece

Phases of IPS Development process

Market analysis for

background
Market
analysis
Economic analysis of New
Crops
Concept testing to select the more
promising

Development: collection
propagation investigation of
agronomic potential breeding and
selection for improved characteristics
mass propagation field testing
in small scale field evaluation

Methods of IPS Development process

Product innovation charter

Market research all stages (I-V)
Problem-based Perceptual gap analysis
Trade-off analysis dimensional analysis
Relationship analysis
Formation of crop profile. Usage of
scoring models such as Profile sheet
and Analytical Hierarchy Process.
Plant Prototype

Launch: marketing plan

regional and commercial-scale
testing
Product lifecycle:
collection of lifecycle
Fig. 11 Phases and methods of the Theory Model for the Important Plant Species (IPS) Development process in the BBGK.

generated by the investment. Looked at another way, it is the maximum amount of interest that can be paid for the project to still break even. A
higher IRR is preferred when comparing alternatives (Wojtkowski 1998). The B/C ratio, simply the ratio of benefits to costs currently being
incurred by an enterprise modified by an estimator that discounts the ratio over time, provides a snapshot of the present value of the system. The
B/C ratio allows a simple comparison of the costs and benefits, a ratio greater than one indicating a net benefit. The B/C ratio can be used as a
basis for comparison between alternative systems, when the same discount rate is applied. The discount rate at which the B/C ratio is equal to
one is the IRR2 (Becker 2004). All three indicators, NPV, B/C ratio and IRR are used in an economic analysis; however, they may not necessarily
lead to the same conclusion and each one is applied accordingly (Becker 2004)

8.3. The Theory Model for the Important Plant Species Development in the BBGK
The BBGK is constantly trying to identify secure ways of developing and introducing IPS in todays technology driven markets proposing a
process of developing new products (Zervaki et al. 2007).
It is well known that innovation becomes successful by using an integrated strategy, which joins together the technology-push and the
market-pull models or in other words the supply-led and the demand-led models. Results showed that the floricultural industry should use an
interactive model, which will combine research with technology and the customers needs and desires (Australian New Crops 2000). Networking
of the involved carriers is an essential part of the road to success. Communication has to flow across the whole network horizontally, from the
customer perceptions to the final product, involving all the functions of the process chain, as well as vertically, from the top management to the
last worker (Thomke and von Hippel 2002; Trott 2002; Franke and Piller 2003). A stage-gate model is the tool for innovation for such an industry.
There is a gate, a checkpoint, in the end of each of the phases included in the IPS development process (Trott 2002). The project leader and the
whole team should bring a set of known deliverables to each gate, before the project is able to continue for the next stage. A cross-functional
team (consisting of marketers, researchers, design and manufacturing engineers, component suppliers from other companies, production
workers, accountants, salespersons and service representatives) is required (Hart 1993). The phases and the methods of this customized theory
model are presented in Fig. 11 (Zervaki 2001).
The case study of Origanum dictamnus
Origanum dictamnus (dittany of Crete) (Figs. 12A, 12B) is an aromatic and pharmaceutical, perennial chasmophyte, endemic to the island
of Crete. Its included as Vulnerable in The Red Data Book of Rare and Threatened Plants of Greece (Phitos et al. 1985) and as a Strictly
protected at the Revised Appendix I of the Bern Convention. It grows at calcareous stony soils and it has a wide altitudinal range from sea level
to 1900 m. Its very difficult to grow outside the island because of its sensitivity to low temperatures and records for O. dictamnus grown outside
Crete refer only to cultivated plants.
O. dictamnus was used in medicine in Ancient Greece for its pharmaceutical properties on stomach, stomach-ache and complaints of
digestive system. It is thought that wild beasts used to eat it to heal them when injured by hunters. Today leaves and flowers of dittany are widely
used in Crete, mostly as infusions in hot water, to cure cough and sore throats, relieve several pains and maintain good health. Recent
investigations (Lagouri and Boskou 1996; Triantaphyllou et al. 2001; Couladis et al. 2003; Chorianopoulos et al. 2004; Racanicci et al. 2004;
Fokialakis et al. 2007; Kouri et al. 2007) have demonstrated antioxidant, antimicrobial and antileishmanial properties, enhancing the economic

Maloupa et al.

Conservation strategies for native plants in Greece

importance of the plant. It is has been recently

B
A
exploited in cosmetics for the production of antiageing, anti-wrinkly products and other products
related with oily skin or hair. The plant is sold
dried in the local markets of Crete for herbal teas.
The increasing demand may pose a threat to the
wild populations due to their eradication, as
many local people extensively collect and sell
wild dry plant material of O. dictamnus although
sustainable cultivation should have been introduced and cultivated plants should be the exclusive source for sale.
D
Application of the BBGK methodology was
C
followed in order to provide qualitative information in details prior commercialization. These
standard but essential steps which have been
followed in BBGK focus on the:
a. Collection of O. dictamnus plants
from natural habitats
Individual plants of O. dictamnus have been
collected from 22 different localities of Crete. The
plants have been divided into 5 main groups,
Fig. 12 Piloted cultivation experiments of Origanum dictamnus (A, B) plants in different substrates in the
based upon the region of collection and their greenhouse (C) and in the field (D) taken place in Thermi, Thessaloniki, Greece.
phenotype. Each plant has been individually
maintained at the mother plantations of the nursery of BBGK and it has been the subject for further research.
b. Stock plant material
Stock plant material has been maintained in similar environmental setting (temperature, light, humidity) and treated according to general
agronomic manipulations and physiology responses (nutrient supply, irrigation, pH fluctuations, salinity, weeding etc) for their best development.
c. Asexual propagation
Mass propagation protocols via both in vitro and vegetative propagation have been developed, by using softwood cuttings, during a year of
research.
d. Selection of plants
The aim of the project was connected with the quantity and quality of essential oils produced from each O. dictamnus individual plant. The
evaluation of every accession number was carried out in the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, where a collaboration scheme was necessary in
order to identify the type and the quantity of particular substances contained in the essential oils.
e. Reproduction of the elite pre-basic material
Reproduction of the elite pre-basic material has been developed for the establishment of stock mother plantations in the BBGK, using the in
vitro and in vivo protocols for massive production of O. dictamnus plants. The know-how of the asexual reproduction of O. dictamnus plants,
supplemented with the initial explant material required was transferred into a participating authorized company in order to massively produce
these plants for cultivation and trade.
f. Field trials/yield comparisons of the selected material
The conversion of wild native species into regular crops is a very difficult task, due to the multiple parameters applied in advanced farming
systems, targeting to maximize the production with the highest quality. A cultivation protocol was essential for O. dictamnus plants, in order to
provide it to farmers for the extensive cultivation of this new crop. Hence, field trials (Fig. 12D) were carried out in the nursery of BBGK,
subjected to the type of soil, irrigation, and hydroponics (Fig. 12C); however, the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, as mentioned above,
evaluated the yield from each treatment. The evaluation criteria imposed from the company (Korres Natural Products) in this joint research
program was the adequate quantity of dried plant material, the quantity of the extracted essential oils from the dry material and the quality and
quantity of the isolated secondary metabolites, which will be used for the production of natural cosmetics.
g. Sustainable exploitation of O. dictamnus - Fair trade
Private companies specialized in para-pharmaceutical products and natural cosmetics are directed towards the production of new natural
products, which attract consumers more than the synthetic ones. The utilization of new wild species in the initial raw material of these products
increases the demand of the market and consequently the high value and prices. This new crop is scheduled to be established for cultivation in
the region of the origin (Island of Crete), a plant that is not native anywhere else in the world and provides the resources for development and
economic support for the local farmers of Crete.
The aim of the project is the establishment of pilot cultivations from the farmers of Crete through contracts with private companies. In such
way, the re-introduction of O. dictamnus in Crete will be achieved and the wild populations will be deplored from uncontrollable collection.
The case of O. dictamnus is one of the best examples of fair trade worldwide (see www.bgci.org/cultivate/article/400/). Currently, wild
populations of several plant species (e.g. Sideritis spp., Salvia spp., Cistus spp., Paeonia spp., etc.) suffer in several areas of Greece and the
Balkans from extensive and uncontrolled massive collections made both by local inhabitants for personal use as well as by foreign people
trading herbs and medicinal plants; however such actions are internationally deplored (IUCN Threatened Plants Committee Secretariat 1982).

Maloupa et al.

Conservation strategies for native plants in Greece

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Dimitra Zervaki for her contribution in Section 8.3 and Fig. 11.

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