Introduction

Almost every remote sensing exercise will require field surveys at some stage. For
example, field surveys may be needed to define habitats, calibrate remotely sensed
imagery (e.g. provide quantitative measurements of suspended sediments in
surface waters), or for testing the accuracy of remote sensing outputs. This chapter
aims to describe some of the key generic issues that must be borne in mind when
planning a field survey. Specifically, the chapter sets out the general considerations
involved in surveying coastal habitats, describes the importance of recording the
positions of survey sites using Global Positioning Systems (GPS), and gives an
introduction to the costs of field survey (costs are explored further in The
importance of assessing the accuracy of remote sensing outputs is stressed and
guidance given on appropriate statistical methods for calculating the accuracy of
habitat maps. Specific coral reef, seagrass and mangrove field survey methods
(Plate 5) are too varied to include here and are discussed in Chapters 11, 12 and 13
respectively.
The need for field survey
Before the need for field survey is discussed, it is worth briefly reviewing the
concept of remote sensing. Remote sensing provides a synoptic portrait of the
Earths surface by recording numerical information on the radiance measured in
each pixel in each spectral band of the image being studied. To create a habitat
map, the operator must instruct the computer to treat certain reference pixels as
belonging to specific habitats. The computer then creates a spectral signature for
each habitat and proceeds to code every other pixel in the image accordingly, thus
creating a thematic map.
Historically, some researchers have looked upon remote sensing as a means of
mapping without the need to conduct field work. Whether this is an appropriate
tenet depends on the objective of the study and familiarity of the operator with the
study site. On a general basis, most people can view a satellite image or aerial
1 | Page

photograph and easily distinguish different features according to their

colour, contrast, pattern, texture and context. In some instances instances, this may
be all that is required to make use of the imagery. For example, visual
interpretation is usually sufficient to delineate the shape of coastlines. In the
majority of studies, however, the objective is more sophisticated (e.g. mapping
submerged habitats) and the thematician may not be able to draw on visual
interpretation and background knowledge to identify each habitat type. In fact, the
thematician is unlikely to be aware of the variety of habitat types in the image. Our
own experience supports this view (see Chapter 9): even when moderately familiar
with an area (the Caicos Bank), the overall accuracy of the final map was low if
field surveys were not conducted (e.g. 1530%).
The aims of field survey are three-fold. Firstly, to identify each feature of interest
(e. g. each habitat type). Secondly, to locate representative areas of each feature in
order to generate spectral signatures (spectra) from the imagery. Thirdly, to
generate adequate additional data to test the quality or accuracy of the
image classification (i.e. habitat map). This latter consideration is extremely
important for any mapping exercise. In a coastal management context, imagine the
legal problems in suggesting that a developer had cleared a particular mangrove
area if the accuracy of mangrove maps were unknown. Taken a step further, where
do decision makers stand legally if offenders are fined according to the extent of
habitat that they have illegally destroyed? Legal problems may not be the only
consequence. In biological terms, management initiatives based on a habitat map
of unknown accuracy could lead to unnecessary or inappropriate action, although it
is difficult to predict or generalise specific problems arising from such
circumstances. Surprisingly though, accuracy assessments are fairly scarce in the
context of mapping tropical coastal resources.

Planning field surveys

2 | Page

Field surveys must be planned carefully and due consideration must be given to the
objectives of the study and the nature of habitats being surveyed. These issues will
dictate most aspects of survey design, such as the sampling strategy, sampling
technique, sampling unit, amount of replication, time to survey (i.e. weather
conditions, date of image acquisition), ancillary data (e.g. depth, water turbidity)
and the means of geographically referencing data. Specific considerations on
methods, sampling units and ancillary data are described in the relevant chapters of
this handbook (i.e. for mapping coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangroves) but
more general comments are made here.

Estimate costs of field survey

3 | Page

Field surveys are expensive and not all of the costs incurred in gathering field data
and relating it to remotely sensed data are immediately obvious. However, a full
analysis of field costs is vital when designing a remote sensing campaign to ensure
that realistic budgets and work schedules are planned. A generalised discussion of
costs is presented here. Detailed advice on planning a remote sensing field
campaign in terms of cost and the actual costs incurred in mapping the habitats of
the Turks and Caicos Islands are given in

What is accuracy?

4 | Page

Accuracy is referred to in many different contexts throughout this book. The

accuracy of a GPS position fix is a measure of the absolute closeness of that fix to
the correct coordinates, whereas positional accuracy refers to the accuracy of a
geometrically corrected image and is measured with the root mean square (Chapter
6). This section is concerned with thematic accuracy, that is, the non-positional
characteristics

of

spatial

multispectral classification then

as classification accuracy

data.

If

data

thematic

(Stehmen

1997).

have

accuracy
This

been
is

accuracy

subjected

to

also

known

refers

to

the

correspondence between the class label and the true class, which is generally
defined as what is observed on the ground during field surveys. In other words,
how much of the class labelled as seagrass on a classified image is actually
seagrass in situ.

Surveying

5 | Page

This article is about measuring positions on Earth. For other uses, see Survey.at zero chainage
at Katra to Maihar Distt. Road

A surveyor at work with an infrared reflector used for distance measurement.

Surveying or land surveying is the technique, profession, and science of determining the
terrestrial or three-dimensional position of points and the distances and angles between them. A
surveying professional is called a Surveyor. These points are usually on the surface of the
Earth, and they are often used to establish land maps and boundaries for ownership, locations
like building corners or the surface location of subsurface features, or other purposes required by
government or civil law, such as property sales.

Surveyors work with elements

of mathematics (geometry and trigonometry), physics, engineering and

the law.

They

use

equipment like total stations, robotic total stations, GPS receivers, prisms, 3D scanners, radios,
handheld tablets, digital levels, and surveying software.

6 | Page

Surveying has been an element in the development of the human environment since the
beginning of recorded history. The planning and execution of most forms of construction require
it. It is also used in transport,communications, mapping, and the definition of legal boundaries for
land ownership.

History

Modern surveying
Abel Foullon described a plane table in 1551, but it is thought that the instrument was in use
earlier as his description is of a developed instrument.

7 | Page

Gunter's chain was introduced in 1620 by English mathematician Edmund Gunter. It enabled
plots of land to be accurately surveyed and plotted for legal and commercial purposes.

Table of Surveying, 1728Cyclopaedia

In the 18th century, modern techniques and instruments for surveying began to be used. Jesse
Ramsden introduced

the

first

precision theodolite in

1787.

It

was

an

instrument

for

measuring angles in the horizontal and vertical planes. He created his great theodolite using an
accurate dividing engine of his own design. Leonard Digges, Joshua Habermel and Jonathan
Sisson invented more primitive devices in the previous centuries, but Ramsden's theodolite
[4]

represented a great step forward in the instrument's accuracy. William Gascoigne invented an
instrument that used a telescope with an installed crosshairas a target device, in 1640. James
Watt developed an optical meter for the measuring of distance in 1771; it measured
the parallactic angle from which the distance to a point could be deduced.
Dutch mathematician Willebrord Snellius (a.k.a. Snell) introduced the modern systematic use
of triangulation. In 1615 he surveyed the distance from Alkmaar to Bergen op Zoom,
approximately 70 miles (110 kilometres). The survey was a chain of quadrangles containing 33
triangles in all. Snell calculated how the planar formulae could be corrected to allow for the
curvature of the earth. He also showed how to resection, or calculate, the position of a point
inside a triangle using the angles cast between the vertices at the unknown point. These could
be measured more accurately than bearings of the vertices, which depended on a compass. His
work established the idea of surveying a primary network of control points, and locating
subsidiary points inside the primary network later. Between 1733 and 1740, Jacques Cassini and

8 | Page

his son Csar undertook the first triangulation of France. They included a re-surveying of
the meridian arc, leading to the publication in 1745 of the first map of France constructed on
rigorous principles. By this time, triangulation methods were by then well established for local
map-making,

Surveying equipment

Chain (unit)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

1 chain =
SI units
20.1168 m

2,011.68 cm

US customary / Imperial units

22.0000 yd

66.0000 ft

A chain is a unit of length. It measures 66 feet, or 22 yards, or 100 links,[1] or 4 rods(20.1168 m).
There are 10 chains in a furlong, and 80 chains in one statute mile. An acreis the area of 10
square chains (that is, an area of one chain by one furlong). The chain has been used for several
centuries in Britain and in some other countries influenced by British practice.
By extension, chainage (running distance) is the distance along a curved or straight survey line
from

9 | Page

fixed

commencing

point,

as

given

by

an odometer.

Origin[edit]
The chain was commonly used with the mile to indicate land distances and in particular in
surveying land for legal and commercial purposes. In medieval times, local measures were
commonly used, and many units were adopted that gave manageable units; for example the
distance from London to York could be quoted in inches, but the resulting huge number would be
unmemorable. The locally used units were often inconsistent from place to place.

In 1620, the clergyman Edmund Gunter developed a method of surveying land accurately with
low technology equipment, using what became known as Gunter's chain; this was 66 feet long
and from the practice of using his chain, the word transferred to the actual measured unit. His
chain had 100 links, and the link is used as a subdivision of the chain as a unit of length.
In countries influenced by English practice, land plans prepared before about 1960 associated
with the sale of land usually have lengths marked in chains and links, and the areas of land
parcels are indicated in acres. A rectangle of land onefurlong in length and one chain in width has
an area of one acre. It is sometimes suggested that this was a medieval parcel of land capable of
being worked by one man and supporting one family, but there is no documentary support for this
assertion, and it would in any case have predated Gunter's work.

The main surveying instruments in use around the world are the theodolite and steel band,
the total station, the level and rod and surveying GPS systems. Most instruments screw onto
a tripod when in use. Tape measures are often used for measurement of smaller distances. 3D
scanners and various forms of aerial imagery are also used.

10 | P a g e

The Theodolite is

an

instrument

for

the

measurement

of

angles.

It

uses

two

separate circles, protractors or alidades to measure angles in the horizontal and the vertical
plane. A telescope mounted on trunnions is aligned vertically with the target object. The whole
upper section rotates for horizontal alignment. The vertical circle measures the angle that the
telescope makes against the vertical, known as the vertical angle. The horizontal circle uses an
upper and lower plate. When beginning the survey, the surveyor points the instrument in a known
direction (bearing), and clamps the lower plate in place. The instrument can then rotate to
measure the bearing to other objects. If no bearing is known or direct angle measurement is
wanted, the instrument can be set to zero during the initial sight. It will then read the angle
between the initial object, the theodolite itself, and the item that the telescope aligns with.
The Gyrotheodolite is a form of theodolite that uses a gyroscope to orient itself in the absence of
reference marks. It is used in underground applications.
The total station is a development of the theodolite with an electronic distance measurement
device (EDM). A total station can be used for leveling when set to the horizontal plane. Since
their introduction, total stations have shifted from optical-mechanical to fully electronic devices.
[citation needed]

Modern top-of-the-line total stations no longer need a reflector or prism to return the light pulses
used for distance measurements. They are fully robotic, and can even e-mail point data to a
remote computer and connect tosatellite positioning systems, such as Global Positioning
System. Real Time Kinematic GPS systems have increased the speed of surveying, but they are
still only horizontally accurate to about 20 mm and vertically to 3040 mm.

[8]

GPS surveying differs from other GPS users in the equipment and methods used. Static GPS
uses two receivers placed in position for a considerable length of time. The long span of time lets
the receiver compare measurements as the satellites orbit. The changes as the satellites orbit
also provide the measurement network with well conditioned geometry. This produces an
accurate baseline that can be over 20 km long. RTK surveying uses one static antenna and one
roving antenna. The static antenna tracks changes in the satellite positions and atmospheric
conditions. The surveyor uses the roving antenna to measure the points needed for the survey.
The two antennas use a radio link that allows the static antenna to send corrections to the roving
antenna. The roving antenna then applies those corrections to the GPS signals it is receiving to
calculate its own position. RTK surveying covers smaller distances than static methods. This is
because divergent conditions further away from the base reduce accuracy.
Surveying instruments have characteristics that make them suitable for certain uses. Theodolites
and levels are often used by constructors rather than surveyors in first world countries. The
constructor can perform simple survey tasks using a relatively cheap instrument. Total stations
are workhorses for many professional surveyors because they are versatile and reliable in all
conditions. The productivity improvements from a GPS on large scale surveys makes them

11 | P a g e

popular for major infrastructure or data gathering projects. One-person robotic-guided total
stations allow surveyors to measure without extra workers to aim the telescope or record data. A
fast but expensive way to measure large areas is with a helicopter, using a GPS to record the
location of the helicopter and a laser scanner to measure the ground. To increase precision,
surveyors place beacons on the ground (about 20 km (12 mi) apart). This method reaches
precisions between 540 cm (depending on flight height).

[9]

Surveyors use ancillary equipment such as tripods and instrument stands, staves and beacons
used for sighting purposes, PPE, vegetation clearing equipment, digging implements for finding
survey markers buried over time, hammers for placements of markers in various surfaces and
structures, and portable radios for communication over long lines of sight.

Distance measurement
Before EDM devices, distances were measured using a variety of means. These included chains
having links of a known length such as a Gunter's chain, or measuring tapes made
of steel or invar. To measure horizontal distances, these chains or tapes were pulled taut to
reduce sagging and slack. The distance had to be adjusted for heat expansion. Attempts to hold
the measuring instrument level would also be made. When measuring up a slope, the surveyor
might have to "break" (break chain) the measurement- use an increment less than the total
length of the chain. Perambulators, or measuring wheels, were used to measure longer
distances but not to a high level of accuracy. Tacheometry is the science of measuring distances
by measuring the angle between two ends of an object with a known size. It was sometimes
used before to the invention of EDM where rough ground made chain measurement impractical.

Angle measurement
Historically, horizontal angles were measured by using a compass to provide a magnetic bearing.
The deflection from the bearing was recorded. Later, more precise scribed discs later improved
better angular resolution. Mounting telescopes with reticles atop the disc allowed more precise
sighting. (see theodolite). Levels and calibrated circles allowed measurement of vertical
angles. verniers allowed measurement to a fraction of a degree, such as with a turn-of-thecentury transit.
The Plane table provided a graphical method of recording and measuring angles, which reduced
the amount of mathematics required.
By observing the bearing from every vertex in a figure, a surveyor can measure around the
figure. The final observation will be between the two points first observed, except with a 180
difference. This is called a close. If the first and last bearings are different, this shows the error in
the survey, called the angular misclose. The surveyor can use this information to prove that the
work meets the expected standards.

12 | P a g e

Leveling

13 | P a g e

The simplest method for measuring height is with an altimeter using air pressure
to find height. When more precise measurements are needed, means like precise
levels (also known as differential leveling) are used. When precise leveling, a
series of measurements between two points are taken using an instrument and a
measuring rod. Differences in height between the measurements are added and
subtracted in a series to get the net difference in elevation between the two
endpoints. With the Global Positioning System (GPS), elevation can be
measured with satellite receivers. Usually GPS is somewhat less accurate than
traditional precise leveling, but may be similar over long distances.
When using an optical level, the endpoint may be out of the effective range of the
instrument. There may be obstructions or large changes of elevation between the
endpoints. In these situations, extra setups are needed.Turning is a term used
when referring to moving the level to take an elevation shot from a different
14 | P a g e

location. To "turn" the level, one must first take a reading and record the elevation
of the point the rod is located on. While the rod is being kept in exactly the same
location, the level is moved to a new location where the rod is still visible. A
reading is taken from the new location of the level and the height difference is
used to find the new elevation of the level gun. This is repeated until the series of
measurements is completed. The level must be horizontal to get a valid
measurement. Because of this, if the horizontal crosshair of the instrument is
lower than the base of the rod, the surveyor will not be able to sight the rod and
get a reading. The rod can usually be raised up to 25 feet high, allowing the level
to be set much higher than the base of the rod.

Datum and coordinate systems

Many surveys do not calculate positions on the surface of the earth, but instead
measure the relative positions of objects. However, often the surveyed items
need to be compared to outside data, such as boundary lines or previous surveys
objects. The oldest way of describing a position is via latitude and longitude, and
often a height above sea level. As the surveying profession grew it created
Cartesian coordinate systems to simplify the mathematics for surveys over small
parts of the earth. The simplest coordinate systems assume that the earth is flat
and measure from an arbitrary point, known as a 'datum' (singular form of data).
The coordinate system allows easy calculation of the distances and direction
between objects over small areas. Large areas distort due to the earth's
curvature. North is often defined as true north at the datum.
For larger regions, it is necessary to model the shape of the earth using an
ellipsoid or a geoid. Many countries have created coordinate-grids customized to
lessen error in their area of the earth.

The surveying profession

15 | P a g e

The basic principles of surveying have changed little over the ages, but the tools used by
surveyors have evolved. Engineering, especially civil engineering, often needs
surveyors.
Surveyors help determine the placement of roads, railways, reservoirs, dams, pipeline
transports, retaining walls, bridges, or buildings. They establish the boundaries of legal
descriptions and political divisions. They also provide advice and data for geographical
information systems (GIS) that record land features and boundaries.
Surveyors must have a thorough knowledge of algebra, basic calculus, geometry,
and trigonometry. They must also know the laws that deal with surveys, real property,
and contracts.
Most jurisdictions recognize three different levels of qualification:
Survey assistants or chainmen are usually unskilled workers who help the surveyor.
They place target reflectors, find old reference marks, and mark points on the ground.

16 | P a g e

The term 'chainman' derives from past use of measuring chains. An assistant would
move the far end of the chain under the surveyor's direction.
Survey technicians often operate survey instruments, run surveys in the field, do survey
calculations, or draft plans. A technician usually has no legal authority and cannot certify
his work. Not all tehnicians are qualified, but qualifications at the certificate or diploma
level are available.
Licensed, registered, or chartered surveyors usually hold a degree or higher
qualification. They are often required to pass further exams to join a professional
association or to gain certifying status. Surveyors are responsible for planning and
management of surveys. They have to ensure that their surveys, or surveys performed
under their supervision, meet the necessary legal standards. Many principals of
surveying firms hold this status.

Cadastral land surveyors are licensed by governments. In the United

States, the federal government conducts most cadastral surveys through
the cadastral survey branch of the Bureau of Land Management (BLM).
[11]

They consult with Forest Service, National Park Service, Army Corps of

Engineers, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of

17 | P a g e

Reclamation, and others. The BLM used to be known as the General Land
Office (GLO).
In states organized per the Public Land Survey System (PLSS), surveyors
must carry out BLM cadastral surveys under that system.
Cadastral surveyors often have to work around changes to the earth that
obliterate or damage boundary monuments. When this happens, they must
consider evidence that is not recorded on the title deed. This is known as
extrinsic evidence.[12]

Surveying has traditionally been defined as the science and art of

determining relative positions of points above, on, or beneath the surface of
the earth, or establishing such points. In a more general sense, however,
surveying can be regarded as that discipline which encompasses all
methods of gathering and processing information about the physical earth
18 | P a g e

and environment,. Conventional ground systems are now supplemented by

aerial and satellite surveying methods, which evolved through the defense
and space programs.
In general, the work of a surveyor can be divided into five parts:
1. Research analysis and decision making. Selecting the survey method,
equipment, most likely corner locations, and so on.
2. Field work or data acquisition. Making measurements and recording data
in the field.
3. Computing or data processing. Performing calculations based on the
recorded data to determine locations, areas, volumes, and so on.
4. Mapping or data representation. Plotting measurements or computed
values to produce a map, plat, or chart, or portraying the data in numerical
or computer format.
5. Stakeout. Setting monuments and stakes to delineate boundaries or
guide construction operations.
Surveying is one of the oldest and most important arts practiced by bman
because from the earliest times it has been necessary to mark boundaries
and divide land. Surveying has now become indispensable to our modern
way of life.
Surveying continues to play an extremely important role in many branches
of engineering. For example, surveys are required to plan, construct, and
maintain highways, railroads, buildings, bridges, tunnels, canals, land
subdivisions, seweage systems, pipelines, etc. All engineers must know the
limits of accuracy possible in construction.

19 | P a g e

Leveling

20 | P a g e

CHAPTER 2 ROAD SURVEYING Section I. RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY

PREPARATION AND SCOPE The reconnaissance survey is an extensive
study of an entire area that might be used for a road or airfield. Its purpose
is to eliminate those routes or sites which are impractical or unfeasible and
to identify the more promising routes or sites. Existing maps and aerial
photographs may be of great help. Contour maps show the terrain features
21 | P a g e

and the relief of an area. Aerial photographs show up-to-date planimetric

details. The reconnaissance survey must include all possible routes and
sites. The reconnaissance survey report should summarize all the collected
information, including a description of each route or site, a conclusion on
the economy of its use, and, where possible, appropriate maps and aerial
photographs. Design Design and military characteristics should be
considered during the reconnaissance survey. Keep in mind that future
operations may require an expanded road net.

A study of the route plans and specifications is necessary. If these are

unavailable, use the following as guides. Locate portions of the new road
along or over existing roads, railroads, or trails, whenever possible.
Locate the road on high-bearing-strength soil that is stable and easily
drained, avoiding swamps, marshes, and organic soil. Locate the road
along ridges and streamlines, keeping drainage structures to a minimum.
Keep the grade well above the high waterline when following a stream.
Select a route as near to sources of material as practical, and locate the
road along contour lines to avoid unnecessary earth work. Locate the road
on the sunny side of hills and canyons, and on that side of the canyon wall
where the inclination of the strata tends to support the road rather than
cause the road to slide into the canyon. Locate roads in forward combat
zones so that they are concealed and protected from enemy fire. This may
at times conflict with engineering considerations. Select locations which
conserve engineer assets, avoiding rockwork and excessive clearing.
Level Party The level party establishes benchmarks and determines the
elevation of selected points along the route to provide control for future
surveys, such as the preparation of a topographic map or profile and crosssection leveling. The level party takes rod readings and records elevations
22 | P a g e

to the nearest 0.01 foot or 0.001 meter. It sets the benchmarks in a place
well out of the area of construction and marks them in such a way that they
will remain in place throughout the whole project. If there is no established
vertical control point available, establish an arbitrary elevation that may be
tied to a vertical control point later. An assigned value for an arbitrary
elevation must be large enough to avoid negative elevations at any point on
the project. Topographic Party The topographic party secures enough relief
and planimetric detail within the prescribed area to locate any obstacles
and allow preparation of rough profiles and cross sections.

Survey & leveling

Cente
r
100.1

LHS
99.78

23 | P a g e

RHS
100.4

95

5
100.2

99.97
100.7

99.97
99.88

5
100.8

99.89
99.99

5
100.0

5
100.5

45
100.2

99.97
101.2

9
100.6

9
100.6

55
100.7
100.7

2
99.82

8
99.82
100.7

5
100.0

99.07

7
100.2

6
100.8

99.97

1
100.3

1
100.5

99.78
100.0

7
100.7

99.85
100.7

5
100.6

99.91
100.0

6
100.3

7
100.7

5
100.2

8
100.0

3
100.7

25
100.4

2
100.4

5
100.6

1
100.0

1
100.0

95

7
98.77

98.33

5
98.71

98.33

98.82
98.79
98.77

5
98.36

98.01
98.31

5
98.78

98.75

98.33
98.31

5
98.76

98.12
98.29

5
97.04

5
97.36

98.42
97.04

24 | P a g e

96.96

97.70

97.93
98.13

9
98.01

96.06
96.57

96.36
96.53
96.81

98.01
98.04
98.02

97.01
96.99
96.84
96.12

5
96.74
96.87

98.22

98.22
92.86

94.3
94.35

93.24
93.27

5
92.92
93.06

94.41

92.96
93.47

94.47
94.49

93.31

5
89.91

93.76
89.91
90.28

93.27
90.07
90.91

91.07
91.08

5
90.15

90.07
90.07

91.1

5
89.82

90.18

91.19
91.26
91.29
90.69

5
90.59
90.16

89.78
90.14
90.16

5
90.80

90.02

89.56

90.21
90.23

90.09

90.91

5
90.21

89.78

91.04
91.19
91.33

8
89.44

90.95
90.05
90.82

5
91.61
89.21

90.32
90.86
90.33

5
91.11
90.04

25 | P a g e

5
89.21
88.52
88.61
90.19

90.08
88.64
88.72

5
90.19

89.81

5
90.97

89.16

90.87
89.16
89.69

90.54
90.62
90.72
90.82

91.01
91.23
91.39

5
89.65
89.76

5
91.62
89.75
91.76

90.89
90.68

91.77
91.35
91.61
91.45
91.31

91.03
90.84
90.08
91.03

5
91.02

90.76
90.59

90.82
90.48
90.23

91.14
91.09

90.51

90.51

90.11
89.82

26 | P a g e

91.75

105
100
95
90
85
80
Center

LHS

RHS

Preliminary work in road construction is surveying & leveling works. This consists of
Traverse Survey, TBM Survey, and Centre Line Setting out, Centre Line marking,
Cross Section Survey and Submittal of Drawings.

Traverse Survey

TRAVERSE SURVEYING

Traverse Surveying is a popular method of surveying. This article includes definition of traverse
surveying along with its classification,errors in traversing, checks, the completed method of
traversing and plotting of traverse survey.

DEFINITION

Traversing is that type of survey in which a number of connected survey lines form the
framework and the directions and lengths of the survey lines are measured with the help of
an

angle

measuring

instrument

and

tape

or

chain

respectively.

At the commencement of contract all the basic traverse points will be checked and if
any are found to be missing or appear to have been disturbed, necessary
arrangements should be made to re-establish the points and traverse survey is
carried out after that.

TBM Travers
TBM traverse is done to establish the reduce levels of each and every TBM with
reference to the Permanent bench marks established by us. Engineering level is
used to establish TBMs.
Centre Line Marking
Centerline marking is the primary survey part in road construction. Centerline is
useful while setting out for any road construction work. So it is very essential marking
centre line first, before any construction work.
Equipment using for centre line marking

Linen tape

Road marking paint

Nylon cord

concrete nails
Safety equipment (e.g. Traffic cones, Bastinade boards etc.)
Centre Line Setting Out And Marking

Using total stations and approved coordinates of control points, the road centre line
should be marked at every 10m interval on the road. With the aid of rope and road
marking paint, the centre points marked in every 10m intervals of the road should be
extended as a centre line and that established centerline should be maintained until
the end of the project.

Chain age Marking

Chain age marking is done to describe the location of the road. Chain age should be
marked on the road centre line in each 20m and 100m interval with meter and
kilometer interval respectively.
Equipment used for chain age marking

Linen tape

Road marking paint

Nylon cord

Concrete nails

Ranging rods

Compass

Theodolite
Safety equipment (e.g. Traffic cones, Barricade boards etc.)
Process of chain age marking

Lay the nylon cord through the 10m interval centre points and draw the
centerline using chalk.

Write the chain ages using road paint.

Designed Data Of Traverse Survey

SIEVE ANALYSIS

Sieve analysis helps to determine the particle size distribution of the

coarse and fine aggregates.This is done by sieving the aggregates as per
IS: 2386 (Part I) 1963. In this we use different sieves as standardized
by the IS code and then pass aggregates through them and thus collect
different sized particles left over different sieves.
The apparatus used are
i) A set of IS Sieves of sizes 80mm, 63mm, 50mm, 40mm,31.5mm,
25mm, 20mm, 16mm, 12.5mm, 10mm, 6.3mm,4.75mm, 3.35mm,
2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600m, 300m, 150m and 75m.
ii) Balance or scale with an accuracy to measure 0.1 percent of the weight
of the test sample.

The weight of sample available should not be less than the weight given
below:-

The sample for sieving should be prepared from the larger sample either
by quartering or by means of a sample divider.
Procedure to determine particle size distribution of Aggregates.
i) The test sample is dried to a constant weight at a temperature of 110 +
5oC and weighed.
ii) The sample is sieved by using a set of IS Sieves.
iii) On completion of sieving, the material on each sieve is weighed.
iv) Cumulative weight passing through each sieve is calculated as a
percentage of the total sample weight.
v) Fineness modulus is obtained by adding cumulative percentage of
aggregates retained on each sieve and dividing the sum by 100.
Reporting of Results

The results should be calculated and reported as:

i) the cumulative percentage by weight of the total sample
ii) the percentage by weight of the total sample passing through one sieve

and retained on the next smaller sieve, to the nearest 0.1 percent. The
results of the sieve analysis may be recorded graphically on a semi-log
graph with particle size as abscissa (log scale) and the percentage smaller
than the specified diameter as ordinate.

WBM (Water Bound Macadam)

Macadam
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the Scottish family name, see McAdam (disambiguation). For the regions of imperceptible
colour differences, see MacAdam ellipse.

Macadam country road

Macadam is a type of road construction pioneered by Scottish engineer John Loudon

McAdam around 1820. The method simplified what had been considered state of the art at that
point. Single-sized aggregate layers of small stones, with a coating of binder as a cementing
agent, are mixed in an open-structured roadway.

1 Predecessors
o

1.1 Pierre-Marie-Jrme Trsaguet

1.2 Thomas Telford

2 Advent of the macadam

o

2.1 John McAdam

2.2 McAdam's methods

2.3 The first macadam in North America

2.4 McAdam's influence

3 Water-bound macadam

4 Tar-bound macadam

5 See also

6 References

7 Further reading

8 External links

Predecessors[edit]

Water-bound macadam
McAdam's road building technology was applied to roads by other engineers. One of these
engineers was Richard Edgeworth, who filled the gaps between the surface stones with a
mixture of stone dust and water, providing a smoother surface for the increased traffic using the
roads. This basic method of construction is sometimes known as water-bound macadam.
[18]

Although this method required a great deal of manual labour, it resulted in a strong and freedraining pavement. Roads constructed in this manner were described as "macadamized."

[18]

Construction of WBM roads

(I) - WBM (Water Bound macadam) roads construction:

The water bound macadam road construction technique was given by the John Macadam.
This

technique

in

present

day

is

used

as

given

below.

For WBM construction we use three materials:

1.

Aggregates

2.

Screeners

3.

Binders.

Aggregates:
We use the aggregates of different grades. IRC(Indian Roads Congress) has classified the
coarse

aggregates

into

grades,

according

to

their

size.

For the construction of the WBM roads aggregates are used in the sub-base, base and surface

course and so the aggregates are divided into 3 grades according to their size.
Grade

particles

of

size

90

mm

to

40

mm.

Grade

particles

of

size

63

to

40

mm.

Grade

particles

of

size

50

to

20

mm.

The grade 1 aggregates having size of 90 mm to 40 mm are preferred for the sub-base
material and grade 2 for the base and grade 1 for the surface course. However, if we only use
the WBM as the surface course, it gets deteriorated fast due to abrasion with the traffic so,
bituminous surfacing over the WBM is general practice.
Screeners are the aggregates of the smaller sizes, generally 12.5 mm or 10 mm, for grade A
and grade B. They are of the same chemical composition as of the coarse aggregates. For
economic considerations IRC has suggested non plastic materials such as, crushed over burnt
bricks, moorum, gravels, etc. provided the liquid limit of the material is less than 20%,
plasticity index is less than 6.0% and the portion of fines passing 0.075 mm sieve is less than
10%. However if crush-able type of aggregates are used, use of the screeners may be
disposed off.
Binders: Binders, are the layers of materials which are laid after the compaction of the
aggregates and the screening materials one after the another. Kankar dust or lime stone dust
may be utilized if locally available. The binding material with plasticity index value of 4% to
9% is used in surface course construction; the plasticity index of binding course material
should be less than 6% in the case of the WBM layers used as base course or sub-base course,
with bituminous surfacing. However if the screening used are of crushable material like
moorum or soft gravel, there is no need to apply binding material, unless the plasticity index
value is low.

(II) - WMM(Wet mix macadam) road construction:

Aggregates used are of the smaller sizes, varies between the 4.75 mm to 20 mm sizes and the
binders(stone dust or quarry dust having PI(Plasticity Index) not less than 6%) are
premixed in a batching plant or in a mixing machine. Then they are brought to the site for
overlaying

and

compaction.

The PI(plasticity Index) of the binding material is kept low because it should be a sound and
non plastic material. If the plasticity index is more then there are the chances of the swelling
and more water retention properties. So this value should be kept in mind.

WBM ROAD CONSTRUCTION

WBM Stands for Water Bound Macadam which is the most commonly used road
construction procedure for over more than 190 years.Pioneered by Scottish Engineer
John Loudon McAdam around 1820 Macadam is a type of Road Construction. The
broken stones of base and surface course,if any are bound by the stone dust is
presence

of

moisture

is

called

WBM

Roads.

Macadam means the pavement base course made of crushed or broken aggregate
mechanically interlocked by rolling and the voids filled with screening and binding
material with the assistance of water.WBM may be used as a sub-base,base or a
surface course.The thickness of each compacted layer of WBM ranges from 10cm to
7.5cm depending on size and the gradation of aggregate used.

Construction
1.Prepare

Procedure:
the

foundation

for

receiving

the

WBM

course.

2.Lateral confinement may be done by compacting the shoulder to advance,to a thickness equal
to that of the compacted WBM layer and by trimming the inner side vertically.
3.Spreading of Coarse Aggregate.

4.Compaction of coarse aggregate is done by wheeled power roller of capacity 6 to 10 tonnes or alternately
by an equivalent vibratory roller.

5.Dry screening is applied gradually over the surface to fill the interstices in these.
6.The

surface

is

sprinkled

with

water,swept

and

rolled.

7.Binding material is applied at a uniform and slow rate at two and more layers.
8.WBM Coarse is allowed to set overnight.

VERTICAL CURVE DESIGN

Parabolic Formulation

A Road Through Hilly Terrain with Vertical Curves in New Hampshire

A Typical Crest Vertical Curve (Profile View)

Two types of vertical curves exist: (1) Sag Curves and (2) Crest Curves. Sag curves are used
where the change in grade is positive, such as valleys, while crest curves are used when the
change in grade is negative, such as hills. Both types of curves have three defined points: PVC
(Point of Vertical Curve), PVI (Point of Vertical Intersection), and PVT (Point of Vertical
Tangency). PVC is the start point of the curve while the PVT is the end point. The elevation at
either of these points can be computed as

and

roadway grade that approaches the PVC is defined as

PVT is defined as

for PVC and PVT respectively. The

and the roadway grade that leaves the

. These grades are generally described as being in units of (m/m) or (ft/ft),

depending on unit type chosen.

Both types of curves are in parabolic form. Parabolic functions have been found suitable for this
case because they provide a constant rate of change of slope and imply equal curve tangents,
which will be discussed shortly. The general form of the parabolic equation is defined below,
where

is the elevation for the parabola.

At x = 0, which refers to the position along the curve that corresponds to the PVC, the elevation
equals the elevation of the PVC. Thus, the value of

equals

. Similarly, the slope of the

curve at x = 0 equals the incoming slope at the PVC, or

. Thus, the value of

equals

. When

looking at the second derivative, which equals the rate of slope change, a value for

can be

determined.

Thus, the parabolic formula for a vertical curve can be illustrated.

Where:

: elevation of the PVC

: Initial Roadway Grade (m/m)

: Final Roadway Grade (m/m)

: Length of Curve (m)

Most vertical curves are designed to be Equal Tangent Curves. For an Equal Tangent Curve, the
horizontal length between the PVC and PVI equals the horizontal length between the PVI and the
PVT. These curves are generally easier to design.

Offset
Some additional properties of vertical curves exist. Offsets, which are vertical distances from the
initial tangent to the curve, play a significant role in vertical curve design. The formula for
determining offset is listed below.

Where:

: The absolute difference between

percentage

and

, multiplied by 100 to translate to a

: Curve Length

: Horizontal distance from PVC along curve

Stopping Sight Distance

Sight distance is dependent on the type of curve used and the design speed. For crest curves,
sight distance is limited by the curve itself, as the curve is the obstruction. For sag curves, sight
distance is generally only limited by headlight range. AASHTO has several tables for sag and
crest curves that recommend rates of curvature,

, given a design speed or stopping sight

distance. These rates of curvature can then be multiplied by the absolute slope change
percentage,

to find the recommended curve length,

Without the aid of tables, curve length can still be calculated. Formulas have been derived to
determine the minimum curve length for required sight distance for an equal tangent curve,
depending on whether the curve is a sag or a crest. Sight distance can be computed from
formulas in other sections (See Sight Distance).
Crest Vertical Curves
The correct equation is dependent on the design speed. If the sight distance is found to be less
than the curve length, the first formula below is used, whereas the second is used for sight
distances that are greater than the curve length. Generally, this requires computation of both to
see which is true if curve length cannot be estimated beforehand.

Where:

: Minimum Curve Length (m)

: The absolute difference between

and

, multiplied by 100 to translate to a

percentage

: Sight Distance (m)

: Height of driver's eye above roadway surface (m)

: Height of objective above roadway surface (m)

Sag Vertical Curves

Just like with crest curves, the correct equation is dependent on the design speed. If the sight
distance is found to be less than the curve length, the first formula below is used, whereas the
second is used for sight distances that are greater than the curve length. Generally, this requires
computation of both to see which is true if curve length cannot be estimated beforehand.

Where:

: The absolute difference between

and

, multiplied by 100 to translate to a

percentage

: Sight Distance (m)

: Height of headlight (m)
: Inclined angle of headlight beam, in degrees

To find the position of the low point on a SAG vertical curve: x is the horizontal distance between
the PVC and Low Point

: Grade Down (%)

: Grade Up (%)

: Length of Vertical Curve (station) ei. 600 ft =6

Passing Sight Distance

In addition to stopping sight distance, there may be instances where passing may be allowed on
vertical curves. For sag curves, this is not an issue, as even at night, a vehicle in the opposing
can be seen from quite a distance (with the aid of the vehicle's headlights). For crest curves,
however, it is still necessary to take into account. Like with the stopping sight distance, two
formulas are available to answer the minimum length question, depending on whether the
passing sight distance is greater than or less than the curve length. These formulas use units
that are in metric.

Where:

: The absolute difference between

percentage

: Passing Sight Distance (m)

: Minimum curve length (m)

and

, multiplied by 100 to translate to a

References
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Jump up^ Johnson, Anthony, Solving Stonehenge: The New Key to an Ancient Enigma.
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Jump up^ Hong-Sen Yan & Marco Ceccarelli (2009), International Symposium on History
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Jump up^ Turner, Gerard L'E. Nineteenth Century Scientific Instruments, Sotheby
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Jump

up^ Sturman,

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Tellurometer"(PDF). http://www.fig.net/.

Wright,

International

Alan."The

Federation

of

History
Surveyors.

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Retrieved 20

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First

Name

in

EDM".http://www.profsurv.com/magazine/. Retrieved 2014-07-20.

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Retrieved 2014-07-20.

Jerry. "Electronic

Distance

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The Cassell English Dictionary, London 1990, p. 214, ISBN 0304-34003-0

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Jump

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Franois

Cradarelli

(2003). Encyclopaedia of Scientific Units, Weights and Measures.

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