THE

AET

OF

SOAP-MAKING
A

PRACTICAL

HANDBOOK
'

THE

MANUFACTUEE

THE

MANY

NEW

RECOYBET

OP

By
AUTHOR

07

"

HAED

OF

ETC.

PEOOESSES,

AND

GLYCEEINE

SSith

FEOM

SOAPS,

CHAPTER

WASTE

LETS

WATT

ALEXANDER
rBACTICALLT

ELECTBO-USTAIiLniiaT

SOFT

AND

SOAPS,

TOILET

INCLUDING

01?

TBSATBD,"

ZTO.

BTC.

S^umexoxts iUastrations

LONDON

CROSBY
7, STATIONEES'

AND

LOCKWOOD
HALL

COTJET, LTJDGATB
1S84

[Allrightsreserved]

CO.
HILL

ON

/^\
RNEi

UN8VERSITY

LIBRARY

LONDON

PKINTED

BY

J.

ASD

VIUTUB

B.

CITY

BOAD.

00.,

LIMITBO

PEEFACE.

In

tiis

compiling

fill

void

in

English

art

is

represented

every
more

less

or

the

Author

and

chapter
in

the

on

which

product

are

great

which
To

it

would

include

number

of

Ott,

from

have
debted
in-

regards
and

soaps

Kiirten.

and

volume

present

is

"Waste

recovering

an

have

not

every
processes

fail to

cannot

write

for

States,

especially as

Grlycerine

processes

venience
con-

greatly

ordinary

as

this

the

Leys,
valuable

given.

Although
to

of

been

Oristiani,
the

the

United

been

foreign origin

has

making

in

Recovery

many

desirable

of

feature

important

of

far

time

f6r

the

of

so

present

In

information,

methods

almost

handbooks

reference

author

the

given by Dussauce,

soaps,

An

of

to

While

or

the

treatises

valuable

Continental

until

followers.

these

to

endeavoured

Soap-making,

book

elaborate

for much

toilet

treatises

not

numerous

several

has

literature.

by

special

of its

appeared,

technical

has

aware,

with

however,

Author

the

practical character,

is

furnished

the

took,

be

original

known
in

useful
work

been

possible

process
an

to

upon

abridged
the
an

of

nor

even

soap-making,

form

are

given,

manufacturer.
art

which

has

been

PREFACE.

VI

built
of

up,

so

inventors

the

useful

in.

his

endeavour

both

reference,

original

an

as

as

he

may

the

would

to

practical
not

have

be

accepted
and

processes

treatise,

and

the

handbook

and

been

wholly

as

an

improvements
Author

trusts

would

which

work

host

great

impossibility:

an

be

must

produce

the

of

ingenuity

therefore,
collective

their

than

by

patentees,

work,

of

rather
that

and

present

epitome

speak,

to

work

of

unsuccessful.

be

general

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Inthodl'otion

OHAPTEE

I.

SAFONIFIGATION

Chevreul's

Theory

EXFLAINED.

Liebig's Kesearches

"

Saponification

on

CHAPTER
SOAP

TEB

7
.

II.

FACTORY"

AND

AFPASATUS

ITS

AFFLIANGES.

The

Soap-pans
"

Morfit's

"

"Wooden

Various

Frames
other

Series

Steam
Iron

"

The

"

Frames

Implements

The

"

Fats

and

Oil

Castor-oil

"

Oils

or

covered

Grease

Potash
"

or

Silicate

"

"

Sulphate

"

Tallow

of

"

Fat

Soda,

of Soda,

or

or

Lard

"

"

"

Eesin,
The

CAUSTIC

Ley

Tanks

"

Method

of Preparing

Colophony

or

Glass

Cocoa-nut

"

Kitchen-stuff

"

Alkalies

Soluble

China

"

Ee-

"

Soda

Caustic

"

"

Clay,

or

Salt

Glauber's

25
....

CHAPTER

The

"

16
.

Palm-oil

"

Horse-grease

Fish-oils

Torkshire

Crutch

SOAF-MAKING.

IN

^-Bone-grease

Tallow-oil

Oleine,

Kaolin

Olive-oil

Frames

III.

USED

"

The

"

Steam

"

Apparatus

CHAPTER
MATERIALS

Tanks

Crutches

"

Barring

"

Ley

ly.
LEYS.

the

Leys

.32
.

CONTENTS.

vm

CHAPTEE
MANUFACTURE

V.
SOAFS.

HARD

OF

PACE

Castile,or

Soap

Olive-oil

Soap

Marseilles Soap

"

French

"

Olive-oil

Pure

"

French

"

Meinicke's

OF

Method

"

Mgers

Anderson's

"

Sturtevant's Process

French

"

SOAFS"

Process

Hawes's

System

White

Soap

"

"

SOAP

BY

Soap by

TRE

COLD

Oleic Acid

ACID"

SOAP

Soaps

Soaps
"

.71

PROCESS.

Quantities of Soap

the Cold

Process

CHAPTEE
OLEIC

Oil

Oil

VIII.

small

Making
Lard

"

Continued.

Cocoa-nut

"

Cocoa-nut

CHAPTEE
MAKING

Process

VII.
HARD

OF
"

Dunn's

MANUFACTURE
of

"

SS

CHAPTEE

Treatment

Cmtimed.

SOAPS"

SARD

"

Process

36
.

VI.

Soaps Continental

Eesin

tling
Mot-

on

MANUFACTURE
or

Notes

"

"

CHAPTEE

Yellow,

Soap

Castile

White

or

Soaps The Composition of Pure

Mottled
Soap" White Curd Soap

London

Soap

Soap,

Marbled

for

Formula)
"

Olive-oil

FROM

"

To

prepare

.79

IX.
RECOVERED

GREASE.

Morfit's System of SoapSoap from Recovered Grease

Oleic Acid
Soaps Kottula's
making
Soaps Instantaneous
Soap
"

"

"

"

"

...

CHAPTEE
CHEAPENED
Dr.

84

X.
SOAPS.

Normandy's Process" Silioated Soaps : Sheridan's Process

Gossage'sProcesses Preparationof Silicate of Soda
tion
Preparaof Silicate of Potassa
Mixing Silicate of Soda with Soaps
"

"

"

"

96

ix

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER
CEEAPENED

XI.
SOAPS"

Continued,
PAGE

Dunn's

Process

Thomas's
Process
PotatoGuppy's Process
China
in
Soap
Clay (KaoUn)
Soap Douglas'sImprovements"
Fuller's Earth Soap" Davis's Process
.105

flour in

"

"

"

"

"

CHAPTEE

XII.

DISINFECTING

Chloridised

SOAF.

Pearlash
SanitarySoap Bleaching Soap in the Pan
added to Combined
^Lime
Method
Soap, by Lunge's
Soap
"

"

112

"

CHAPTER

Xin.

SAPONIFICATION
Bennett

and

UNDER

Gibbs's Process

Process of

Mr.

"

in

"

Soap
"

"

from

117

PROCESSES.
Process

Dumbarton's

Soaps made

New

"

XIV.

VARIOUS

Villart's Process

Rogers's Process

Soap

CHAPTER

"

PMESSURE.

W.

G.

SaponificationGluten

Kiirten's Process

Animal

CreveVs

Mr.

"

Kef

Process

"

use

Symons's Disinfecting
Bemadet's

"

Process

Villaorose's Process

"

^^Cut-

"

ting Soap

123

CHAPTER
.

OF

MANUFACTURE

Preparation of the
Scotch Soft Soap
"

XV.

Continental

Potash
"

Ley

London

"

"

Fatty Materials employed

Crown
Eesin in Soft Soaps
Soap
"

"

"

Methods

128

OF

MANUFACTURE

"

SOAPS.

^The

XVI,

CHAPTER

Belgian Soap

SOFT

Russian

Soft

Soap

SOFT

"

SOAPS"

Gentele's

Soap for Silks and Printed Goods

Loch's Soft Soap
Process

"

.........

Continued.
Process
"

"

Jaoobson's

FullingSoap

"

^M.
136

CONTENTS.

XVII.

CHAPTEE
MANUFACTTTRE

SOAPS.

FANCY

OR

TOILFT

OF

PAGE

Apparatus for

Soap

the
Be-meltiiig

Machine

"

Slicingthe Soap

for

Perfumes-

and

Ee-melting the Soap" Mixing Colouring Matters

Cuttingthe Soap Stamping the Soap

"

HO

"

XVIII.

CHAPTER

Eose

Savon

Soap, or
Soap Musk

Soap

"

Amferes

Soap

^Windsor

"

Savon

"

au

^Almond-oil

"

la

Eose

Cinnamon

Orange-flower Soap

"

"

Soap, or Savon d'Amandes

Windsor
Soap Violet Windsor

Bitter Almond

"

Soap
Bouquet

Brown

"

Soap

Continued.

SOAPS"

TOIZET

OF

MANUFACTURE

"

Savon

"

la Cannelle

Soap

Marshmallow

"

"

(Cinnamon Soap)

^Vanilla Soap

Benzoin

"

149

Soap

CHAPTER
MANUFACTURE
French

Soaps

Savon

"

ap

Lemon

Soap

Orange

"

"

Savonnettes
au

"

Crim^e

Miel

"

Savon

de

Eose-leaf

"

Palme

Soap

"

"

Savon

Violet
h, la

^Amhergris Soap Elder-flower Soap

Soap Glycerine Soap Savonuettes or
"

"

"

"

SavonHoney Savonnettes
of Camphor
Savonnettes of

"

"

Savonnettes

"

Continued.

"

Washhalls

Herbs

SOAPS"

Soaps Formulas for French Toilet

(Marshmallow Soap) Savon aux

^Vanilla Soap

"

Violet

nettes of Sweet
"

de

Lettuce Soap

"

Washballs

Neroli

Savon

"

Marechale
"

Toilet

de Guimauve

d'ltalie

(Yellow)

TOILET

OF

System df making

Fleurs

XIX.

la Vanille

"

"

^Marbled Savonnettes

nettes
Savon-

"

(Honey Savonnettes) Floating Savonnettes

"

"

Sand-Balls

154

CHAPTER
TOILET

SOFT

XX.
SOAPS.

White
Kaples Soap, or Almond Cream" French Method"
Soaps Shaving Paste
Essence
Soap" Powdered
"

Essence

de Savon

Soap

Vienne

"

"

Essence

de Savon

Soft Toilet
of

Corinthe

Soap
"

parent
Trans165

CONTENTS.

XI

CHAPTEE

XXI.

MEDICATED

SOAFS.
PAGE

Sir "H.

Sulphur Soap

Marsh's

Mercurial

"

Medicinal

Soap
Soap

"

Soft

Tar
Medicated
Soap Carbolic Acid
Bordtardt's
Herb
Soap
Soap Liquid Grlycerine
^Arsenical Soap A Soap for Washing Dogs
Turpentine
Substances introduced
Soap Tar Soap Black Soap Various
into Manufactured
172
Soaps

Soap
Soap
Soap

Antimonial

"

"

Tooth

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

CHAPTEE

XXII.

MISCELLANEOUS

FROCESSES.

Process
Levat's
Violet's Palm-oil Soap
Jennings'sProcesses
in
Sawdust
Hampel's Shaving Soap Mrs. Marriott's Process
and
Ammonia
Process
Borax
Soap-^Lewis's
Soap Camphor
and
Process
Seller's
Petroleum Soap : Bastet's
Soaps Mackay
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Process
resin

"

Soap

"

Mr.

"

Besson

Eemy's Process
Mr. G. Payne's Process

Jeyes's Process

W.

Process

and

Cleaver's Terebene

"

Bichford's Process

ASS,

"

Mohr's

Alkalimeter

Sampling

"

or

"

Mr.

176

TSE

CENTAGE
PERSODA

COMMERCIAL

ALKALI.

Acid, or Standard Solution

ing
TestAssay Normandy's Method
To determine the Percentageof real

The

Pearlashes

IN

USTIO

CA

Preparationof

Alkalies

Commercial

Lorbui'y's
"

DETERMINING

ALKALI

AND

"

"

XXin.
OF

REAL

FOTASH,

Process

Process

"

METHODS
OF

Mr. Bankinann's

Half-

"

Soap Scharr's Liquid Soap

Marking Soaps

CHAPTEE
ALKALIMETET"

"

Tardani's Process

Varicas's

M.

"

"

Test-

"

"

"

188

anhydrous Alkali
XXIV.

CHAPTEE
OF

METEODS

Soap Assay

ANALYZING

Eampel's Method

"

^Kichardson

and Watt's

of

OR

AND

SOAPS.

Assaying Soaps ^D'Arcet's Method

"

201

System

CHAPTEE
PURIFYING

ASSAYING

BLEAOSING

XXV.
OILS

FATS.

AND

Process
Eecovery of the
Bleaching Palm-oil: Wktt's' Chrome
Chrome
Purifying
BleachingPalm-oil with Chromate of Lime
"

"

"

CONTENTS.

xu

PAGE

Oils"

Dunn's

Method

Bleaching Oils

and

208

Fats

XXVI.

CHAPTEE
SSCOVERY

OF

Process

Thomas

"

LEYS.

Payne'sProcess

"

and

Sulman's

and

Co.'s Method

and

"

Versmann's

Fuller's Process

Benno, Jappe,

SOAPS.

in Cloth Manufactories

Soap

White

"

Soap
Ox-gall Soap
Oil

Cocoa-nut

^Altenhurge'sEeainSoap
Soouring-Balls Borax Soft Soap Borax Soap Powder
Soap Powder
Dresden

Palm

"

"

"

"

CHAPTEE

The

"

Oleometer

AND

"

^London

"

223

TABLES.

Aluminate

"

"

XVIII.

NOTES

USEFUL

PicklingSoap

Lawson

"

XXVn.

MI8CELLANE0VS
be used

Process

AUan's

"

O'Farrell's

"

215

CHAPTER

vSoapto

Process

M. Victor Clolus's Jlethod"

Process"

OS

WASTE

FROM

GLYCERINE

TSE

SFENT

Young's Process

Purifying and

of

Justice's Method

"

of Soda

"

To

determine

Quantity of Resin ia Soap Detection of llesiu in Soap

Soap ^Analysesof Soft Soaps" Potato-flour in
Cheap Almond
of Neutral Fatty Bodies
Soft Soap
Saponification
by Soaps
Twaddell's
Hydrometer
Soda
Jellifying
CausticisingSoda
the

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Soap Half-palm Soap Adulteration of Commercial Silicate

of Soda
Soaps for Calico-printers Fulling Soaps
Table
Table
showing Percentage of Soda in Caustic Ley at 60" Fahr.
of
the
Percentage
Anhydrous Caustic Potash in
showing
Ley
at 60" Fahr.
Comparative French and English Thermometer
Table showing the SpecificGrravity
Scales
correspondingwith
the Degrees of Baumg' s Hydrometer for Liquids denser thanWater
Table showing the SpecificGravitycorresponding
with the Degrees
of Baume's
Hydrometer for Liquidslighterthan Water
Table of Essential Oils" Fusing and
CongealingPoints of Fats
Kiirten's Table, showing the Compositionand Product
and Oils
Soft

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

of Soap by the Cold Process from Concentrated Ley and Mixture

Oil with
of Cocoa-nut
Palm-oil, Lard, and Tallow
Boilingof Caustic Alkaline
pointsof some Volatile Oils" Boiling-points
"

Leys"

Table

showing

the

Quantityof Ca,ustio
Soda

different-Densities"Table of the Mechanical

Power

in

Leys of

of Steam

228

THE

ART
OP

SOAP-MAKING.

INTRODUCTION.
AccoKDiNG

to the

great Roman

the

were

their
the

originalinventors
best product being a

ashes of the

Hstorian, Pliny,the G-aulsof

the

art

of

combination
The

beech-tree.

of

Romans

soap-making"
goats'fat

and

subsequently
duced
eventuallyintro-

acquired a knowledge of the art, and

it into Italyafter their successful invasions of Gaul.
In proof of the antiquityof soap
article of comas
an
merce,
has
been discpvered in the
a
soap-maker'sshop
to travellers.
ruins of Pompeii, and is still exhibited
Prior to the invention
of soap, the ancients
employed
of
certain
and
also
fullers'the.juices
plantsas detergents,
the surface of their
spread upon
then stamped in by the feet. By this means
removed
matter
on
was
subsequent scouring,the
greasy
fullers'-earth having the property of absorbing grease
to

earth, which
clothes,and

was

considerable

first

extent.

this

Sometimes

earth

was

ployed
em-

in baths, and even

cleansingmedium
up to
the beginning of the eighteenthcentury this system was
adopted in Rome
by persons of the highestdistinction.
tories
In the eighth century there were
many
soap manufacand
in Italy and
Spain, but it is a remarkable
interestingfact that nearly five hundred
elapsed
years
as

ere

soap

manufacture

practised as
industrious
first soap

an

race,

art

of

by

was

introduced

the

Phoceans,

Grecian

manufactories

in

and

into

France

and

and
intelligent
Egyptian origin. The

France

an

were

established

at

natural advantages of
with
Marseilles,a citysurrounded
soil and climate for the production of all the crude mateB

THE

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

tlie fruit
olive-tree,
of -which yieldsa fixed oil in great abundance, flourished

rials necessary

nean
of the Mediterra-

the shores

France, while

in the south of

The

soap-making.

for

plants,from
ample supplyof maritime
obtained by calcination, Marseilles,
which crude soda was
however, with all these advantages,was unable to produce
yieldedan

sufficient material

of her

the demands

to meet

turers
manufac-

therefore,as time progressed,Italy furnished

of olive-oil,
while Spain contributed crude soda,
supplies
;

or

barilla.
The

manufacture
to the

present century, when

the

oil were

cocoa-nut

toilet,
or
formed

an

also

employed

fancysoaps,

in

the

soda

until

the

palm-oiland
artj and

quently
subsemately
ulti-

introduced, and

were

extensive and

confined
entirely

was

of olive-oil and

combination

beginning of

in France

of soap

importantaddition

to the

soap trade.

The
in

exact

England

periodat

which

soap

first manufactured

was

but it was
somewhat
uncertain,,
bably
proin the fourteenth century, when
it was
made
chiefly
the

appears

French

barilla
say, with
other manufacturers

system, that is
(crudecarbonate of soda); and some

upon

adopted a

to

method

in Germany, in which
practised
potash,
followed up by salt,
the
of
soda
obtained by
use
superseded
"the calcination of maritime
plants.
find that the first patent for improvements in the
We
of soap was
manufacture
obtained
in 1622, by Messrs.
and
Jones
Palmer, an abridgment of which is given

below

"The
hard

misterie,arte, way,

soape,

comonly

castile soape, without

called
the

and

by
of

means

the

name

of

makinge

of Venice

anie fire in the

of
or

boyling
makinge thereof,and with a materiall comonly called,
known
of berillia,
or
and The
by the name
art, misterie,
and
of
of
means
softe soape without the vse
makinge
way
of fire in the boylingeand. makinge thereof."
From
above
period up to the present time,many
the_
patents for importantimprovementsin soap-makinghave
been taken out in England.
or

vse

INTRODUCTION.

Having passed through a long periodof rude and unscientific

the art of soap-making at last
manipulation,
namely,at the beginning of the present century commanded
"

"

the attention

of scientific men,

startled first by Leblanc's

of

soda

from

and

splendidprocess

common

the world
for the

was

facture
manu-

salt,which
was
process
this
the
lato.
country by
St. Helen's, near
Liverpool.

practicallydeveloped in
Mr.
James
Muspratt, of
The advantages of this invention are
far beyond estimation,
and
although it has since been superseded to a
certain extent
be
by the ammonia
never
process, it can
did more
for. the soap
forgottenthat its introduction
and glassmanufacturer
than
any other invention under
the

sun.

The

next

though
great discovery,

who

to another

due

was

French

not

chemist

second
"

portance
in imChevreul
"

soap-making from empiricism and rule-ofthumb

guesswork to its present exalted positionas a
trulyscientific art. With the rapidadvance of chemical
the
followed
discoveries
of Davy,
knowledge which
Dalton,Chevreul, and other Englishand foreign
chemists,
the art of soap-making gradually
and
improved,
many
introduced
from
substances
time
to
were
saponifiable
time, until,at the present day, the lengthylist includes
oils and other fattymatters
dreamed
which were
of
never
by our forefathers. It would not be incorrect,however,
manufacture
to say that up to fortyyears ago soap
was
without
generallyconducted
any reference to scientific
principlesor chemical theories. Except in very rare
raised

instances,the

aid of science

operationswere
void

of

was

frequentlycarried
even

the

on

rudiments

Indeed, the manufacturers

the power

consulted,and

never

were

the

lutely
absopersons
of chemical
knowledge.

by
so

completelyin

that any attempt to recogsoap-boilers

nise
it
fair
trial,
an
a
was
improvement, by giving
invariably
opposedand frustrated by the so-called practical
the
man."
the
time
refer
At
to,
we
prejudice
if we may
so
so call it,was
againstchemical interference,
of the highestability
scientific men
great, that even

of their

"

THE

spurned,and

were

art

SOAP-MAKING.

improve

their attempts to

tlie crude

ever,
There
possible
were, howway.
exceptionsto the generalrule (ofthumb),
large firms notablythe firm of Benjamin,

foiled in every

were
a

and

OF

ART

few

several

William,

"

and

Hawes, of Lambeth

Thomas

"

dared

who

to

portals.Not
improvements
only did these manufacturers
encourage
but
also
based upon
chemical
employed
principles, they
furnished
with
chemists in their works, who,
a laboratory
converted
the operationof soapand
soon
appliances,
The
making into an art,in the proper sense of the term.
estimation
of the actual amount
of alkali in a given
sampleof soda-ash was determined by their own chemist,
instances indicating
in many
difference when coma wide
pared
with the analysisof the alkali-broker's chemist.
All
to examination
goods were
subjected
by the soapmaker's
analystbefore purchase,and thus the intelligent
manufacturer
was
protectedfrom fraud and imposition,
which gave him
incalculable advantage over
his unan
aided
competitors.
Although the great French
chemist, Chevreul, had
clearlyexplainedthe nature of the reactions which take
treated
with boiling
are
place when
fatty substances
solutions of caustic alkali,
few soap-makers would venture
to modify their antiquatedsystem of manufacture
by
their
aid
the
to
of
science.
man
The
calling
soapmaker's argument seemed
to be :
My soap has a large
sale,it yieldsa good profit
I require?
more
can
; what
If the chemist told him
that he was
liberating a large
which
flowed away
with liis
portion-of glycerine,
waste
into
the
river
instead
of being recovered,
or
leys
sewer,
and he was
thereby losinga large sum
annually,the
soap-makercared not, for he stillhad a good profiton his
admit

the

teachingsof

science

their

within

"

"

"

"

soaps.
In

1836, the author's father,the

Watt, patentedhis

now

palm-oilby

of chromic

several years
process and

means

late Mr.

well-known

after that

process for
acid ; but it was

soap-makers

adoptedit. So great was

the

"took

Charles

bleaching
not

until

up" the
prejudice
against

INTRODUCTION.

for

was

all improvement,that

and

any

time

rejected
; and

induced, after

of

even

when

the

trial of tlie process

at last the trade were
a

firms had
intelligent
become
licencees under the patent,to give the
process a
n
ot
trial,
would
the workmen
unfrequently
(that
put raw
is,unbleached)
palm-oilinto the batch which had been
operatedupon, during the patentee's
absence,so that their
employersmight denounce the demonstration as a failure.
In at leastone
instance a trick of this kind was
practised
some

more

the author,who for many

years conducted
of bleachingpalm-oil,
his father's
on
London
and the provinces.

upon

Referringto

the

importanceof

chemical

the operation

behalf,ia

knowledge in

Hawes, in a paper which

soap manufacture, Mr. William
he read before the Society
of Arts on the 28th of March,
1856,

stated that

6,000 tons

of tallow

glycerine
annually,
causinga
there is
could

doubt

no

be

whatever

were

loss of about

that

the whole

converted

"180,000,

into
and

of this waste

avoided

by manufacturingsoap by the cold process,

this valuable product should
at all events
be
or
recovered
hereafter described.
At the present day,in
as
of the largersoap-works,the teachingsof science
most
not only recognised,
but an
are
experiencedchemist is
engaged, under whose skilful guardianshipthe various
In some
instances the sons
operationsare conducted.
of members
of the firm have
been
properlyinstructed
in chemical
knowledge,and to them are instrusted the
chemical
In some
scientific details of this strictly
art.
of them,
at least one
or
establishments,the principals,
have acquired
suflieient knowledge of chemistryto enable
them
their operations
miih a knowledgeof what
to conduct
now
they are doing; so that we
say that at last
may
in hand, except in a
science and soap-making go hand
few instances
upon as an
Another
was

the

place of
made

in

where

the

British workman

is still looked

idol.

important feature in the manufacture of soap

of steam, and superheatedsteam, in
application
the ordinary fire. Again, improvements were
of the soap-works,
the machinery and appliances

'6

THE

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

OF
.

which

amongst
iron

frames

many

for

place

fitted

the

especially)

more

been

introduced

the

added

long

object

the
of

the

soap,

enable

treating

the

of

it

To

patented
of

cheapening

various

The
of

series

the

substances
be

to

at

will

processes

manufacture

of

hard

these

be

by
without

price

fully

soaps.

be

may

for

having

manufacture

lower

(in

ing
hasten-

and

processes

which,

sold

and
contrivances

labour

diminishing

manufacture.

of

certain

mechanical

for

supplanted

works,

some

took
ladle

ordinary

implement,

many

for

operations
the

in

hand-worked

iron

or

solidification

the

superseded

cast-

which

from

ones,

before

out

steam-crutch,

the

wooden

America

their

wooden

leaked

soap

steam-pump

soaps

the

have

of

ton

old-fashioned

the

of

substitution

the

noticed

be

may

the

troduction
in-

injuring
to

described

the

sumer.
con-

when

might

into the

its way

ally found

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

THE

sewer,

or

river,as

the

case

be.
acids

The

liberated

during

the

converting

of

process

"fatty acids," those

tallow being chieflystearic and palmitic
obtained from
acids. Olive-oil and other soft fats yieldon sapobification
of palmiticand
Palm-oil yieldsa mixture
oleic acid.
oil furnishes palmitic,oleic,
oleic acids; and
cocoa-nut

fats

oils into

and

soap

called

are

lauro-stearicacids.

and

of

Soap, then, is a compound

alkali and

Other

water.

fattyacids

combined

with

substances, however, besides oils

employed in soap-making; for example,resin,

a
compound of several vegetable acids, is used, with
Metallic soaps, as they are
tallow,to form yellowsoap.
called,are produced by boilingoxides of metals with oils
is
which
other
Diachylon-plaster,
or
fatty matters.
formed
by boUing litharge(oxideof lead)with olive-oil
fats

and

are

and

water, is

insoluble

an

The

margarate of lead.
process

soap

composedof

glycerineformed

oleate and

during

the

the water.
divided
into iwo
with

remains

principalclasses, namely
The
Hard
and
Soft
Soaps.
former
are
produced by
combining soda and water with fattymatters, and the
with horse-oU,fish,
latter are made
with potash combined
Soaps

and

are

inferior oils,
and hence these are
soda soaps and potashsoaps.
as

other

Hard

sometimes

tinguish
dis-

of various

kinds, the most important

Curd, Mottled, Yellow, and
being Castile Soap, White
of tallow,
Transparent Soap. These soaps are combinations
cocoa-nut
oil,olive oil or other fattysubstances
palm-oil,
that is, soda deprived of its carbonic
with caustic soda
soaps

are

"

acid

fresh lime and

by boilingwith
tallow

When
solution

is boiled

of caustic soda

folds of

; and
a

if

piece of

considerable
the solution is

time

in

(orley,as
assume
a granular or
palmitine,
entirely
losingtheir greasy and oily
small portionbe pressed between
the
will
it.
not
produce a greasy
paper

fattymatters, stearine
curd-like appearance,
character

for

water.

and

the
called)

SAPONIFICATION

stain.

This is
into

that the

mass

proofthat

EXPLAINED.

the conversion

of the

stances
fattysuband palmitateof soda is complete
stearate
in fact. If the boiling
is saponified,
has been
"

and
suflB.cient,

an

of caustic alkali

excess

remains

in

will subside,and the soap, after being allowed

for a short time, will appear
the surface.
on

ley,this
repose

the

to
It

small

alcohol,it will
portionbe treated with warm
tion
readilyand entirelydissolve,forming a transparent soluof soap.
After expellingthe alcohol by evaporation,
the transparent soap will remain, which
on
coolingwiLL
now

considerable

assume

In
the

hardness.

saponifyingthe

present time

in

various
soap

fattymatters

manufacture,

and

employed
which

at

differ

much
is exercised
to
care
as
greatlyin their composition,
the strengthof alkalme
leyused in the firstand subsequent
operations of boiling. If the ley be too strong, its
superior densitywill retard its free diffusion through the
of fattymatter.
It is commonly the practice,
fore,
theremass
with
tallow soaps, to apply caustic ley of a moderate
this has become
exhausted
and when
or
strengthat first,
spent,"as it is termed, it is pumped out of the copper or
strengthgiven,
pan, and a fresh charge of ley of superior
and
until
the
fat is
the boilingcontinued
or
grease
killed
or neutralised
by the alkali. During the boiling
glycerineis liberated,and this substance, being soluble in
the exhausted
water, subsides with the ley. Until recently,
allowed to flow away
as
a waste
product; at the
leyswere
present time, however, the glycerineis usuallyrecovered
by one or other of the various processes fullydescribed in
Chapter XXVI.
It is well known
that caustic ley acts differently
upon
the various fattybodies
it comes
in contact.
with which
For example, a weak
ley will act upon tallow until its
alkali becomes
a ley of
exhausted, or nearlyso ; whereas
if at all,saponifycocoa-nut
equal strengthwiU scarcely,
"

"

oil.

"

When,

however,

cocoa-nut

oil is blended

with

other

acted upon
by
fatty substances, it will readilybecome
converted
weak
leys. Again, resin,althoughit is readily

THE

10

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

with alkali,
will not form
iato soap by treatment
of
with a certain proportion
soap unless combined

chemical

exerts

influence

powerful

action not yet

Iiiebig'sBesearcbes

fullyunderstood.
Saponification.

on

mind
original

to whose

"

tallow,

of saponification,
a
process
its constituents,probably by
upon

the

which, during

hard

we

Justus

"

for

indebted

are

Liebig

so

many

organic chemistry ^made some

of fattybodies,
important researches on the saponification
should
be well .understood
and
his views
by the soapthe value of scientific knowledge in
maker
who
recognises
the pursuitof his interesting
art.
and
soda soaps," says Liebig,"are
"Potassa
readily
discoveries in

valuable

soluble

in

quantityof

hot

decomposing
and

which

soaps
soda.

type of hard
water

of

margarate

in the
precipitatfes

Potassa

much

salts

are

more

Stearate

potassa
water.

Oleate

thick

and

of soda

of

producesprecipitation,
margaric acid
in

solution,

(potashor soda),

scales.
pearly crystalline

soluble

in water

of soda

may

be

in contact

than

those

considered
with

ten

strikingchange.

paste

of

addition

remains

of the alkali

form

soaps, and when

it undergoes no

forms

stearic

free alkali,which

into

and

stearate

solution

to the aqueous

neutral

The

alcohol.

and

water

water

the

"

with

the

is soluble in

taining
conas

the

times

as

Stearate of

quantity

same

of

parts of water,
while
oleate of potassa dissolves in four parts of water,
with
two parts, and
forming a gelatinousmass
possesses
such a strong affinity
for water
that 100 parts absorb 162

parts

in

moist

stearic acid.

From

proportionto

the

stearates

and

ten

atmosphere. Margaric
this it follows

"and
oleates,

hard

acid

that soaps
in

margarates, they contain.

are

acts

soft in

proportionto
Soda

like

the

soap exhibits

behaviour
with common
salt ; it loses the
peculiar
power
of being penetratedby ley or dissolving
in a solution of
salt of a certain strength,
and this remarkable
action is an
important condition in its manufacture,on which depends
the separationof all free alkali and
oxide
of glyceryl
its
(glycerine), percentage of water, and its marketable
a

condition.

SAPONIFICATION

"

If

pieceof

then put into

EXPLAINED.

hard

soap be cut into piecesand

solution of salt,at the ordinary-

common

saturated

temperature, it floats on
moistened, and if heated
which
flocculse,
gelatinous

coolingunite

into

of the

the

surface

without

becoming

boiling,it

to

collect

solid mass,
from grease.

flows off like water

ii

the

on

from

separates into
and upon
surface,

which

the solution

If the flocculss be taken

fluid,they congeal on

coolinginto an opaque
which
be pressed between
the fingersinto fine
mass,
may
laminse without
If the solution of salt
adheringto them.
be not quitesaturated,the soap takes up a certain quantity
of the water, and the flocculfe separate through the fluid
in boiling. But even
when
the water
contains -3-5^^^
of
salt,boilingproducesno solution.
common
out

If the soap be boiled in a dilute and alkaline solution

of salt,and allowed to cool,it again collects on the fluid in
"

less solid state,depending on the greater or less

concentration
of the solution
that is,on the quantityof
a

more

or

"

water

taken

by

up

the soap.. Bv boilingthe dilute solution

considerable time, the watery flocculse

with soap for a

swell up, and the mixture
but

they

from
and

still

are

pasty, even

foaming appearance

undissolved,for the

The

them.

assumes

have

flocculse,
however,
when

cold, and

solution

separates

become

their clamminess

soft
is due

quantityof water they have taken up.

By continued boilingthis character again changes,and in
proportionas the evaporationof water renders the solution
more
concentrated,the latter again extracts water from
continues to foam, but the bubbles
the flocculse,
the liquid
are
larger. At lengtha pointis reached when the solution
before
saturated ; but
becomes
this, large iridescent
more

or

bubbles
froth

less to the

are

observed

the
disappears,

form,

to

and

in

liquidcontinues

foam, all the soap collects in

surface,and the solution and

short time
to

translucent

soap

cease

all the

boil without
mass

to attract

on

the

water

plasticsoap be now removed and

have
the solution is pressed out, it will
cooled while
from
solid as scarcely
to receive an impression
become
so
the finger. In this condition it is called grainsoap.
from

eacb

other.

If the

THE

12

"The
the soap

ART

OF

SOAP-MAKING.

centrated
addition of salt,or a solution thereof,to a conalkaline solution of soap in water, precipitates
behaves
and the mixture
in
flocculae,

gelatinous

solid soap boiled with a dilute solution of

Carbonated
and caustic potassa act exactlylike salt,
from the alkaline fluid (ley)in which

preciselylike
salt.

bj'separatingsoap
insoluble."
it is absolutely
These

and

made
carefully

observations,so

plained,
clearlyex-

fail to be of the greatest value to the

cannot
article so important as soap,
of a commercial
manufacturer
from such a great
and which, at the present day, is made

varietyof fattymaterials,each requiringa

conversion

economical

for its skilful and

different treatment

"

Liebigsays,
Continuinghis observations,

The

into soap.

application

The
of soap
fat is kept boiling
in an alkaline leyuntil all pasty matters
disappear,but the leyshould have only a certain strength,
of the above

to

is evident.

the manufacture

dissolved in it. Thus

perfectly
tallow
for days in a caustic potassa ley of
the specific
gravityof 1"25" without saponifying.If the
takes place,but,
ley be stronger,a partialsaponification
being soluble in the fluid,it floats upon the surface as a
solid mass.
tinued
By the gradualaddition of water and conbecomes
thick
at a certain point the mass
boilings,
and clammy, and with more
is
kind of emulsion
water
a
continued
clear
formed, which
heating renders ;^erfectly
and transparent if a sufficient quantity
of alkali be present.
In this state it may be drawn
into long threadg,which
on
either
remain
cooling
milky and
transparent,or are more
gelatinous. As long as the hot mass, when it drops from
the boiling
a
spatula,exhibits cloudiness or opalescence,
that

so

is

the soap may

be boiled
may

continued

alkali

or

be

fresh

is present the

alkali

added.

cloudiness

When

arises

from

excess

of

imperfect
of
the
is
or
former
water:
saponification
insufficiency
little in pure water, which
seen
a
becomes
by dissolving
clear
when
the
whole is saponified.If the ley
perfectly
contains lime the mixture is also clouded,but the addition
of carbonated
alkali instantly
clarifiesit'.
In order to separate the soap from water, free alkali.
"

SAPONIFICATION

and

oxide

EXPLAINED.

15

of

of salt is gradually
a largequantity
glyceryl,
each addition waiting until
added to the boiling
on
mass,
The first addition increases the consistency
it is dissolved.
of the mass,
while each successive portionrenders it more
fluid,till it loses its threadingcharacter,and drops from
in short,thick lumps. As soon
the spatula
the congeas
lation
is complete that is, when
the gelatinous
flocculss
separatefroma clear watery liquid the fire is extinguished,
"

"

the soap allowed to collect on

the liquidor ladled out
on

the

former

the
and

surface,and cooled
allowed

either

solidify.In

to

it is

impure from water, free alkalies,

of the ley,and is therefore unfit for
other impurities
or
the market, although sufficiently
good for domestic use.
is purified
As in other chemical
operationsa precipitate
by boilingit in a fluid in which it is not soluble,so is
by a solution of salt rendered alkaline.
soap purified
When
the saponified
with potassa,the
fluid is made
of sodium) operatesin a two-fold manner
salt (chloride
: it
dissolves in the pasty liquidand decomposes,forming on
and on the other soda
the one hand chloride of potassium,
When
potash ley is employed in soap-making,the
soap.
first saltingrequires more
than
twice the quantity of
salt. In the preparationof potashsoaps, a concentrated
The
potassa ley is employed for separatingthe soap.
ment
of fats is not completed by the first treatsaponification
with
leys,and the subsequent addition of fresh
more
leys,besides purifying,also renders saponification
perfect."
It must
be obvious,on
perusingthe above remarks of
the great German
chemist, that the first duty of the soapwith the
maker
himself thoroughlyconversant
is to make
of saponification,
and
not to rely solely
principles
upon
ful
skilbe he ever
The soap-boiler,
his own
observation.
so
case

"

and

observant

himself of such
the above

result of slow

are

such

many

by
and

as

"

is

should avaU

conveyed in

observations.
practical

that the combination

seen

is not

there

important information

lucid and

It will be
matter

and

"

any

means

of alkali with

rapid process, but

gradualchemical

fatty
is the

action, during which

THE

14

ART

considerable heat

is

OF

SOAP-MAKING.

generatedover

and

above

the actual

placed in contact.
is hastened
by the process of
Although saponification
it is not advisable to applj'vigorous boiling in
boiling,
the earlier stagesof the operation. On the contrary,it is
found better in practice
to allow the boiling to be gentle
toward
the close of the
and to increase its rapidity
at first,
absorbed their full
the materials have
when
or
operation,
temperature

of

the

materials

when

percentage of alkali.
out
to make
impossible
Although it is practically
soap witha
portionof the fattymatters as glycerine,
liberating

be recovered, as a valuable byproduc

may
either of the processes hereafter described.
The

this soluble substance

by

strengthof leys,their gradual combination with

proper
in contact,
the various fattybodies with which
they come
and

the

slow

operationwhile
be

gentle augmentation of the boiling

is progressing,are
portant
imsaponification

and

too much
considerations,
care
upon which
bestowed.
it
is
know
to
Indeed,
gratifying

cannot

that

of

late years some

of our
leading soap-makers have devoted
much
attention
and
the treatment
to alkalimetry,
of

various

fats and

oils with

alkaline

leys of appropriate
to
according to the nature of the fattymatter
strength,
The examination, by analysis,
be used.
of samples from
various boils of soap enables the manufacturer
not only
of working,but also to determine
to regulatehis mode
the intrinsic value,so to speak,of his productions.
In making what are
called
fitted soaps,"the ingredients
boiled into a thin liquidmass,
are
or
emulsion,
after which
second
dose of
during the first operation,
a
ley,as also a considerable quantityof common
are
salt,
introduced
into the pan
for the purpose
of
cuttingthe
it
is termed, by which
the soap separates,from
pan," as
and rises to the surface,
the leyand salt,
while most of the
and foreignmatters
subside with the ley. If
impurities
the materials are not sufficiently
saponifiedand purified,
the ley is pumped out and
fresh ley introduced,with
and the mass
further boiling,
is again "cut," or
separated,
the
addition
of
weaker
by
ley and salt,the operation
"

"

II.

CHAPTER

TSE

AND

APPARATUS

ITS

FACTORY"

SOAP

APPLIANCES.

The

Soap-Pans.
Wooden

!Frames.

Various

"When

Implements.

othet

we

Frames.

Iron

"

Series.

Steam

Morfit's

"

Crutches.

"

Barring

"

the

of

the

magnitude

the

of

soap-making,

art

"

Frames.

"

"

Crutch.

Steam

"

Apparatus.

consider

with

Tanks.

Ley

"

and

nected
operations conthe
large quantities

turers,
manufacnumerous
annually produced by our
the
cannot
comparative
help reflecting upon
we
and
utensils
at
an
employed
simplicity of the apparatus

of soap

in

set

the

into

cast-iron

or

pails

frames

"shoots"

for

materials
"

"

crutches
into

soap

bars,
of

some

mechanical
will

will

we

soap
has
as

be

an

the

and

ihe

and
;

ordinary

to

endeavour

factory

of

taken

of

operations

the

of

in
to

moderate

of

some

trollies

ladles

the

firing

sundry

and

pumps

various

kinds

for

tools, form

cutting

the

chief

soapery.

have

works,
been

following

demonstrate

however,

many

introduced,

pages.

the

dimensions,

For

the

which

present

requirements
in

of

advaniage
labour-saving appliances,
steam, in place of fire,in the

useful

application of
soap-boiling.

of

wooden

leys; a few
for
preparing
for
conveying

machine

extensive

more

tanks

wooden

usual

soap

spent

of

series

iron

trowels;
or

steam-pipes

or

coppers,

or

pans

finished

waste

improvements

referred

been

also

and

"

stirrers

of

pan

thermometers

with

iron

the

wheelbarrows

and

requirements
In

shovels

swimmers

"

each

receive

to

and

alkali;

caustic

of

removing

hydrometers

of

firegrate below,

interior

buckets,

or

series

with

brickwork,

passing

soap-works.

ordinary

which

APPARATUS

The

Soap-Fans

flangeround
the

at

in

and

APPLIANCES.

made
generally

were

the upper

bottom,

terminate

AND

surface.

of

These

fitted with

are

perforatedcoil

17

with
cast-iron,

pans

are

concave

steam-pipes which

which

the bottom
of each pan.
The pans are set in brickwork,and an iron
for removing the finished soap and leys is fixed
pump
between
each
This pump
is worked
pair of pans.
by

steam, and
iron

is connected

tubing,one
raised

are

of which

lowered

or

that

they may be
required depth,or
the

empty

can

rests in each

by

of

means

allowed
of

or

of broad

arms

These

pan.

tubes

chain and pulley,

so
into the soap to any

dip
ley beneath

one

on

to

into the

contents

movable

two

to

rests

both

it.
pans

The
at

pump

the

same

time.

The

pans
enables the
them

with

lid,or
lids

about three feet above the floor,

which
project
and his assistants to manipulate
soap-boiler
Each
iron
perfectease.
pan is fitted with an

with

lowered

are

lid covered

wooden

The soap-pan

or

raised

or

copper

by a chain
(or as the

is sometimes
it, kettle),

term

imited
several divisions,

portion,or

upon
made

The
termed

more

steam

round

pulley.

French

made

The

of

and

cans
Ameri-

cast-iron,in

is

lower

the

so

constructed

part of

the

pan,

that the
and

not

Soap-pansof largedimensions are generally

riveted together.
of wrought-ironplates
extended
is sometimes
by placingwhat is
soap-pan

its sides.

curb above

its upper

rim, which

bound with iron.

is to prevent the overflow of the

is made

of stout

The

objectof the
soap during the
(when
vigorousoperation of boiling. Sometimes
heat is employed) stout blocks of wood
are
placed
instead of employing the
the flangeof the pan

sheet- iron,or
curb

and

sheet-iron.

togetherby iron cement, the lower

form, the whole
being of a concave

pan proper,
being sfet in brickwork, which

fire plays only upon

with

of wood

curb.
The

accompanyingengraving
a'steam series designedby Mr. Morfit.
(Fig.1) represents"
described,
Although not so simple as the arrangement previously
it is an ingenious
system,and might be adoptedwith
Morfit's

Steam

Series.

"

t8

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

THE

be employed,
may
advantage.The three pans represented
of soap
if preferred,
for boilingthree different kinds
namely,one for white or curd soaps, another for yellow
is the
w
third for superior
resin soaps, and
or
a
soaps,
boiler,to which the main pipe or feeder g is connected.
of iron, are each fitted with a
which
The boiling-pans,
are
The
wooden
curb
A
by iron bands.
A, hooped round
"

Fig.
lower

part of

pan
of the pans is

bottom
off the

spent leys,

the steam
of
are

each

to the

is of cast-iron.

b
a
h

1.

pipe and
is

coU, which

downward
terminates

for the escape of waste

for turningthe steam
on

is connected

terminates
holes.

The

heat,when

pipe for conveying

in a vertical length

steam.

off.

or

maia

The
A

"

taps

h
"

blowpipe
blowpipe

This
pipe g.
ia a single
coil perforatedwith
of
a number
object of the blowpipe is to give additional
to

necessary,

of the pan.
pressure

the

to the

stop-cocki, for drawing

pipingX
used

Connected

of steam

The
from

and

to assist in

tap

is used

the boiler

tents
stirring
up the confor regulatingthe

w.

for
Steam-jacket
pans, especially
and are
very useftil in a soap factorj-,

small

are
operations,
admirablysuited for

APPARATUS

in
remelting,
are

the

used

much

soda, and

other

bolts and

screws

AND

APPLIANCES.

19

preparationof fancy soaps. Such pans

in dissolving
silicate of soda, sulphateof

materials

employed in cheapeningsoaps.
The
Ley Tanks,
containingcaustic alkali of Tarious
ascertained
sometimes
are
placedat one end of
strengths,
the series of soap-pans,
and
at a suitable height above
be conveniently
oflfby iron
run
them, so that the lej'^s
may
shoots into each pan, by turning the tap connected
to
These tanks are commonly made
of wrought
either tank.
iron platesriveted together.
for casting the finished soap
The
Frames
now
are
of cast-iron
plates,united by movable
generallymade
the ends

"

frames

These

iron base.

and' sides of which

generallyhold

about

fit into
11 cwt.

an

of

used
for all
formerly were
used for mottled soaps,
varieties of soap, are
now
chiefly
which are
requiredto cool slowlyin order to acquirethe
for which
they are famed.
agreeablemarbled appearance
Wooden

so

it

frames

wooden

These

which

Frames,

are

furnished

they may be piledone

one
deep
were,

that

frame

well,

or

pegs

and

another, and

holes,

form, as

pable
ca-

holding

of

above

with

considerable

quantity
deed,
Insoap.

of
sometimes
frames

these

built

up,

are

through

several floors,to

ing
great height,forma

for
receptacle

entire

an

m.any

tons

boil

of soap.
the

Sometimes
frames

are

bound

iron screwed

FiS.

2.

long

together by
Iron

of

rods which

Frames."

The

pass down

through

them.

engraving (Fig.2) representsan

iron frame

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

THE

partlyscrewed

is

Fig. 3

up ;

singlewooden

m
frame, and
Fig. \^4 several

frames

woode%
slio%n

are

nected
con-

"sY
Fig.

3.

Degs

t^pchother.

"^"^

nterior
A

widtf
frai

corre-

lengt
of

is equa_
thickness

bar

and

the

frame

the

to
-

about

jof

twenty

of

loars

so^.
"When

length

4.

the

Vj

sponi

Kg.

their

it is desirable

to adM

to

oth^r substances,abr
the purpose
of cheapening oT
modifyingit for various special
true

soap

the d^ditional matter

purposes,
is frequently
introduced

by

being

"

termed.

crutched' in," as it is
For this purpose certain

tools

employed.

are
*

of wood
a

called

of these
and

These

handle.
are

Crutch

example)
of the

means

crutchmg-pot,by

in

A
of

^substances(as
for

Two

given

effective way
6.

made
forms

Figs.

6.

Steam

Fis.

are

iron,or of iron with

or

wooden

"

crutches

"

aid of which

far

more

mixing other

silicate of soda

with
steam

soap

is

by

crutch and

of
perfectincorporation

APPARATUS

the materials is

AND

'witHout
effected,

manual

thus treated

the soap

minutes, and

APPLIANCES.

labour, in

is much

few

uniform

more

if hand-crutched
in the
possibleto become
The
frame.
arrangement for steam crutchingmay be
described :
thus briefly
A wooden
platformis erected about ten feet above the
the soap-pans
floor of the boilingroom
near
; in this a
small pan is set for containingthe liquidmaterials to be
added to the soap, and which receives the requiredcharge
of liquidfor a frame of soap. By the side of this platform,
it is

than

"

and

connected

to

above, is

shaft

revolving spindle,furnished
with several flat steel blades (Fig.7)
in an
and
fixed alternately
angular
This
direction.
revolvingspindleor
vertical

is raised

crutch"

"steam

or

lowered

rope and pulley. When

requiredfor use, the crutchingpot is-

by

of

means

immediatelybeneath
of
the wheels
the crutchingspindle,
the
pot being placedin grooves or
in the floor. The pot having
hollows
received a supply of soap, the quantity
of which has been duly gauged by
up to and

wheeled

"

"

notched

stick,the

lowered, and
with

sinks

contents

of

into

the

and

been

crutched

crutch

raised

to make
away
up close to a

by raising an

the

into

soon

of

soap,

volving
re-

Fig. 7.

are

now

allowed

to

flow

has
requiredqtiantity
and the
shaft is stopped,
revolving

after the

the

for

room

is

little pan

the

in, the
out

crutch

rapidity.

considerable

The

pot,

steam

wheeled
is then
pot, which
second pot, and is then drawn

frame, and its contents allowed to

its base.
iron gate situated near

representsthe crutchingpot with

its

gate A

pour

raised

out

Fig. 8
by the

of the steam crutch,

The. bevel wheels
in which its several blades are shown.
above indicate its connection with the usual shafting.
lever B

In

; and

small

at

Fig. 7

works,

is

where

drawing

steam

is

not

extensively

ART

THE

22

employed,waste leysare
iron hand-pumps, which
of

means

chain

or

OF

SOAP-MAKING.

from

pumped

lowered

are

the soap-pans
into

the

pans

by
by

rope.

Fig. 8.

employed in the soapboilingdepartment ; these are the trowel (Fig.10), the

swimmer
ladles (Figs.11 and 12), the
(Fig.13), and
shoots
shovels and
iron
various broad
(Fig. 9), the
Various

other

Implements

are

"

"

"

/L

"I^Z.
Fig.

latter
the

beingused

pans.

for

Besides

are

9.

conveyingleysand soap to and

these, however, wheelbarrows

from
and

Fig. 11.

Fig. 10.

troUies

"

used

fattymatters,

for

conveyingmaterials,such
resin,and other goods.

as

casks

of

THE

24

ART

evenly

downwards,

cutting

wire.

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

marks

Each

slab

each

takes

now

man

wire,

the

of

end

one

the

for

guide

as

VWW\AAAAAAAAAAAA/W\AA/v\/WWWW\/
Kg.

and

passes

in

placed

then

drawn

steadily
beneath.

the

batch

usually
2"-

cut

in

into

14^

bars

wires

delay

are

while

machine,
order.

machines

cutting

of

inches

slabs
fresh

soap

are

thick,

and

fittings,

and

series

liable
the

however,

of

this

to

break,

broken

is

bars

wires
very

slabs

wooden

strong

Although
number

of

of

and
are

at

will
time.

one

framework
steel

machine

by

which

used

are

number

of

great
very

Bars

2\

same

of
and

removed,

by

groove

the

number

machine.

long

consists

distances.
a

the

from

the

mate,

entire

then

are

upon

his

groove

handle

through

to

the

considerable

wrought-iron
cutting

until

soap

his

wire

Tifire

the

into

width.

machine

equal

the

inches

factories

some

This

of

placed

about

inches

In

bars

slabs

of

sinks

is

is then

and

gauge,

removes

the

draws

repeated

The

of

now

men

end

being

cut.

the

it

wire

The

loop.

the

by

until

other

the

operation
are

of
the

and

returns

made

notches

downward

One

loop,

and

the

the

through

handle

wooden

15.

wires
is

with
fixed

at

capable

of

single movement,
this

frequently

being

time-saving

the

one

causes

replaced.
when

in

The

good

CHAPTER
MATERIALB

The

Fats
Oil.

and

Oleine

Oils."

IN

Fish-oils.

"

Soda.

Lard."

Eesin.

Oils.

^From

"

the

of

at

the

their

in

up

Olive-oil,

some

and

This

obtained

into

boiling water,
with

When

it

and

margarine,

are

of

(about)

72

Olive-oil
and
at

other

the

same

oils.

and

is

These

from

the

in

is
in

latter

tinental
con-

into

olive-

different

ditions
con-

kind

inferior

an

with

the

aid

as

of

by boiling the
is
variety which

soap-making.
the

to

or

of

temperature

separates into
is fluid,
oleine, which
at

20"

it

The

palmitine.
and

28

per

frequently adulterated
are
distinguished by

temperature

is

of the

fruit

berries

the

of

introduced

three

quality obtained

elaine,

cent,

per

until,

Margarine
pearly substance.
but
is
however,
compound,

solid

stearine

ciples
prin-

soap

basis

the

being

congeal, and

to

form

will

formed

of the

lowered

chemical

true

mixture

that

art

substances, elaine,

distinct

It

is

the

understood

virgin salad-oil;

employed

begins

two

not

"

by soapthan
the ordinary soap
aided
vestigati
by the in; and,
manufacturers
gradually

market

the

pressure
third

olive-oil

Fahr.

the

expressed

water.

commonly

more

38"

and

shown,

to

finest, or

by greater

residuum

Clay.

other.

or

have

oil is

Gomes

the

any

prior

be

material

way

we

soaps

England.

"

Tlie

"

matters,
saponifiable,

fatty, or

time,

as

the

chemists,

list of

present

worked

tree,

attention

commanded

to

China

"

when

period

saponificationbegan, to
of other
makers, the employment

added

Grease.

Silicate of Soda.

"

of

'

Kitchen-stuff.

"

Recovered

"

Cocoa-nut

Soda.

and

materials

Palm-oil"

Horse-grease.

"

"

Potash.

"

SOAP-MAKING.

Tallow."

"

Bone-grease.
Oil.

Caustic

"

Sulphate of
Fats

Olive-oil.
"

Tallow

or

Alkalies.

The

USJED

Castor-oil.

"

III.

olive-oil,and

also

proportions
cent,

with
not

is

garine.
mar-

poppy

congealing
by retaining

THE

26

OF

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

readilythan pure olive-oil. I"

up, more
5 per cent, of any other oil be present,the consolidation is
slower and
less firm, but if 12 per cent, of foreignoil be
mixed
with
it,this floats on the surface for several days.
air,when

shaken

Oils of poppy,

rapeseed,or

sesame,

cocoa-nut

recognisedwhen mixed with olive-oil.

Tallow
is chiefly
obtained from the fat
the taUow being first rendered,as it
oxen,
that is,separated
from the membranous
called

may

be

thus

of
is

"

sheep and
technically

matter

with

rendering
of tallow is accomplished in various ways : by first reducing
the suet to small pieces,
and then passinga current
of steam
of perforatedpiping,or by
through it by means
the method
patented by the late Mr. Charles Watt, in
1836, which consists in adding to the fat, while in the
steaming tub, dilute sulphuricacid,to which a littlenitric
of potacid is added, and a small quantityof bichromate
ash.
When
the lumps of fat are
nearlydissolved,about
one
pound of nitric acid,diluted with one quart of water,
is poured into the tub, followed, shortlyafter,by about
of alcohol,the whole
two ounces
being brisklystirred in.
When
this process was
first introduced,for the operations
of the taUow-melter, it was
found that candles made
from
the tallow,
thus treated,requiredno storing,
termed.
as it was
In those days candles were
frequentlystored for several
months
before being considered
fit for lighting
purposes.
The objectof the
the
tissues
to
was
rounding
surdestroy
process
the fat,which
alone did not accomplish.
steam
the.
London, or
town," tallow is generallyconsidered
best material
of its kind, but E.ussian,South American,
which

it is associated

in the form

of suet.

The

"

and, in later years, Australian

in

taUows

enter

the

market

largequantities.
Fats

also

or

greases

of various

largelyemployed

in

kinds, other

than

tallow,are

soap-making.
Lard, or the fat of hogs,is extensively
used, especially
the
in
the
manufacture
of
French,
by
According
soaps.
is
TJre
it
of
62 parts of oleine and 38 parts of
to
composed
stearine in 100 parts,and its fasingpoint is 81" Fahr.
is stated to be used more
Palm-oil, which
extensively

MATERIALS

USED

IN

by English soap-makers than

SOAP-MAKING.

27

other

fattymaterial,is
obtained from the fruit of Elais guineaensis,
and E. melanoof palm-trees growing on the west coast of Africa.
cocca, species
The oU. as it comes
into this country is of a deep orangecolour,due

red
fruit

from

"

the

to

which

no

any

mode

doubt

of its extraction

the

butter
solid

than

it would

be

It

is solid

fuses,or melts,at

it turns

rancid

70

30

parts of a
parts of a fluid,

ordinary temperatures,
By exposure to the aii-

at

117-5

Fahr.

loses

its characteristic

and

The

process of bleachingpalm-oilby chromic

fullydescribed in a future chapter.
Cocoa-nut

nudfera.

Oil

Like

and

It is

is

is derived

palm-oil,it

pure
used
extensively

from

the

red

colour.

acid will be

fruit

of

Cocos

is solid at
of

white, and

inferior kinds

able
vegetto term

correct

about

an

oleine.

or

valuable

more

oil,is composed of
substance called palmitine,and

elaiim
but

which

the

is derived,

matter
colouring

since the oil itself is nearlycolourless. This

fattymatter,

from

ordinarytemperatures,
consistence.
buttery

for
soap-making especially
and will bear a large admixture

in

"

the

of
of soap,
with silicate of soda and other substances,
water, in combiaation
All soaps made
with
and yet form:- a hard soap.
ofl.impart an
small
even
a
percentage of cocoa-nut
offensive

smeU.

to the skin

after

washing

with

oil is very extensively

used in the manufacture
mottled soaps, but more
in the north
especially
where

of
quantities

enormous

Castor-oil,from

EuropcBa,is

also used

largelyfrom
North

the

America.

the

East

it

are

consumed

seeds of Ricinus
a

as

soap

and

This

of artificial
of

England,
annually.
and

communis

material.

West

it.

R.

It is obtained

Indies, and

Castor-oil is supposedto contain

also from
three

fatty

acids, namely, ricin-oleic,

margaritic,and elaiodic acids.
is
treated with hyponitrousacid, a solid fattymass
When
produced,which is caAeA.palmine. Although not soluble
alone in alcohol it will,according to Dr. Pereira,dissolve
when
mixed
spirit
capableof forming

in this
oil is

always used
this purpose.

with

other

fixed

oils.

Castor-

but is
soap with caustic alkalies,
for
with other fattymatters
in combination

28

THE

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

Among the other vegetablefixed oils used in soaprapeseed,

making may be mentioned the oils of heinpseed,
colza,beech- nut, etc.
cotton-seed,
sesamum,
poppy, linseed,
certain fattymatters
Besides the ordinary fats and oils,
called greases

by soap-makers.
suppliedby bone-boilers,and

much

are

is

Bone-grease

used

useful soap material for mottled

available

as

soaps.

although not

Horse-grease,

forms

article,is

abundant

an

soap material.

is a
Kitchen-stuff, as preparedby the " stuff-melterSj"
and is largelyused
very useful material for mottled soaps,
by the London soap-makersfor this purpose. Being the
produce of kitchen waste it contains many di"Ferent kinds

fattymatter, but after its separationfrom the more

solid particles,
rind,bones, fibrin,etc., by pressure,
as
gristle,
it forms an uniform
fattymass of good consistency,
and contains a considerable proportionof stearine,which
of

it well

such

the London

as

to the manufacture

suited

renders

mottled

of

curd soap

soap.

Tallow-oil, which has been separatedfrom

be used
stearine by pressure, in order that the latter may
tion
is a useful material,in combinaalone for candle-making,
Oleine,

or

with strongerfats.
Fish-oils

potashsoaps,

in the manufacture

used
chiefly

are

of soft,or

with tallow.

in combination

first employed as
Besin,
or
Colopliony, was
used in the
material in England. It is extensively
of

yellow soaps,

soap

facture
manu-

pale,or yellowresin being preferred

the

Yellow resin generally

contains a
for this purpose.
does not exist in the darker varieties.
little water, which
Recovered

grease,

the suds and

a

brown

or

mills.
fulling
disagreeable
odour, and of

washing

colour, of

consistence.

When

fat, is obtained

Yorkshire

waters

It is of

of the

melted,

and

from

sticky

strong solution

of

of soda added to it, efiervescence takes place,

the disengagementof carbonic acid,the grease consisting
of several fatty acids,which act powerfullyupon

carbonate
from

the

carbonated
*

This grease

alkali.*

"When

and
neutralised,

often contains oils which

cannot

he

mixed

saponified.

MATERIALS

witli other
manufacture
scented

USED

IN

SOAP-MAKING.

29

is useful in the
soaps, the recovered
grease
of the cheaper kinds of Windsor
and other

soaps.
Alkalies

The

used

in the

of the
saponification

various

soda
are
fattysubstances employed in soap manufacture
the
and potash,
former being used, in a caustic state,in
of hard soaps, and the latter,
the preparation
also being
is used
for |making soft soaps.
The
soda
caiisticised,
suppliedto soap-makers is an impure carbonate of that
alkali. As we
have said,soap was
formerlymade from
carbonate of soda obtained by the calcination
barilla,
a crude
of certain plants
which
fovmd on the coasts of France,
were
from kelp,
also made
Spain,and other countries ; it was
obtained
by burning a great varietyof seaweeds on the
shores
of Scotland, Ireland, Brittanyand Iformandy in
When
France.
able
Leblanc, however, introduced his invalufirst into sulphate of
process for converting sea-salt,
soda
by treatingit with sulphuricacid, and afterwards
into carbonate
of soda by calcining
with fine coal and
chalk, the employment of barillas and kelps gradually,
And
after enjoying
and eventually
ceased.
entirely,
now,
a long period of unbounded
success, other improved processes
fast takingthe place of Leblanc's process.
are
For a lengthenedperiod,and indeed up to the present
accustomed
to purchase their
time, soap-makers were
of soda ask,which
alkali under the name
usuallycontains
a/bout 50 to 52 per cent, of soda, the exact percentage
by processes to be explainedhereafter.
being determined
Soda ash, besides other impurities,
usuallycontains from
.

2 to 3 per
Caustic

cent,

of

common

salt.

suppliedto soap-makers at a
reasonable
they preferpurchasingthis
price,consequently
caustic soda, which
important article to making their own
trouble and delay in its
involves
not only considerable
of lime-waste,
accumulation
preparation,but also an
which
is not always easy to get rid of in large cities
and

Soda

is

now

towns.

The

with Mr. J. Berger Spence,

author, in conjunction

obtained

patent,in April,1882, for making

caustic soda

THE

30

SOAr-MAKlNG.

OF

ART

and
salt by electricity,
of common
by the decomposition
that the cost of making this
by this process it is expected
will be greatlyreduced,
important article of commerce
even
beyond the present extremelylow prices.
caustic by boilingwith
Potash, previouslyrendered
of soft
quicklune and water, is used in the manufacture

for this

used
potashis,however, chiefly

American

soaps.
purpose.

Silicate

of

Soda,

Soluble

or

trade,is in the form

of

Glass,

thick,viscid,translucent
the casks in which

which

flows very slowlyfrom

after the heads or bungs have

by boilingground
of caustic soda.

solution

When

which

unites

readily,
forming
; and

with

boast.
this

Sheridan, who

far back

as

patents

have

1838.

Sheridan's

of

it forms
soap

very

possesses considerable
with genuine or pure

the

The

consumer

introduction

article
interesting
obtained
Since that

silicate of

invention.

which

few

and

method

into soap

soap

period,however, many
for

the

soda, all more

to
as

other

manufacture
or

of

is due

patent for his invention

obtained

been

employment of

kinds

certain

admixture

advantage to

preparationof

in hot water

since the silicate of soda

soap givesan
adulterants can

It is pared
presolution
strong

able
cheapened compound readilymarket-

its
detergentproperties,

Mr.

in
(silica)

dissolved

mass,

it is stored

removed.

been

flints

the

suppliedto

as

and

less based

Silicate of soda (or soluble

upon
glass)is

in a revercommonly made by calciningtogether,

beratoryfurnace,9 parts of soda ash of 50 per cent, with
11 parts of clean sand or powdered quartz, for hard
soaps ;
of
or
equal parts
pearlash(previously
dried)and sand for
soft soaps, the latter mixture
forming silicate of potash.
After perfectcombination
of the alkali with the silicious
matter, it is cast into moulds, and afterwards quenched
with water.
It is next ground in a mill,and then boiled in
water
containingalkali potash or soda, as the case may
now

"

be.

The
59

condition

glassis

solution

by

thus

Baum^'s

obtained

is

areometer,

evaporated until

or

it indicates

hydrometer. In

this

but the soluble

mixing with so'aps,
generallysuppliedto soap-makers in the form of a
it is

readyfor

IV.

CHAPTER

LETS.

CAUSTIC

The

The

large
false

the

which

for

in

The

arrangement
follows

as

No.

being
weaker

liquor,

receives
exhausted

in

or

the

ley

thus

3,

which

has

No.

and

into

be

clear

ley,
the

vessels

into

its

with

pump

near

between

Marseilles

soapworks

four
4

taken
is

obtained
been
and

1.

from

poured
2

compartments
the

fourth

ley,

small

No.

containing
vat, because

water

the

From

No.

3,

upon

from
once.

; into

which

and

in

lime

the

lime

No.

2.

is

so

the
weak

in

poured
paste

No.

receiver
1

like

paste

is

water

No.

it

moderately
3. the ley

No

The

it

avanqaire,

therefore
the

alkali

fresh

avanqaire,

strengthened,
the
Upon

removed
No.

the

is the

and

be

No.

to

been

has

is called

to

the

is termed

No.

which

into

directly. Into
leys are thrown.

No.
has

No.

in

advance,

No.

lixiviated,

twice

the

water.

No.

No.

and

spent

from

4, which

fitted

off

drawn

should

fresh vat,

in

into

No.

it

durable

be

vessel

the
be

can

vat

advance

water

pumped

manner

the

steps

the

should

perforated

"

step

two

most

cock

of

supply of
of ley tanks

introduced

are

one

being

is called

lime

No.

for

the

the

through

part

Near

be

and

bottom,

lead,

mends
recom-

with

would
A

tun,

the

arranged

spout

believes

lower

beneath.

placed

is

the

and

diaphragm

and

each

Dussauce

cement.

sheet

purpose.

wrought-iron
structed
conthey are

factories

with

with

he

this

of

bottom

collecting

is

tuns

bottom,

apparatus

lined

Leys.

of

made

some

lined

of brickwork

the

Preparing

of

vessels

are

riveted

plates

Method

"

large
together ; in

Tanks

Ley

Tanks.

Ley

of

is

under

third
as

ley,
to

be

CAUSTIC

LEYS.

33

for lixiviation instead of water.

The lime vat No. 4,
when
exhausted, is emptiedout of the window near which it
stands,in which case the water is poured upon the contents

used

of No.

3, and

the

weakest

leyupon

No.

2.

No.

1 is

now

avangaireto No. 4, because this has become in its turn the

freshvat, into which the fresh soda and quicklimeare put.
The
No.

in this case
ley dischargedfrom No. 3 comes
2, and after being run
through it, is thrown

No.

1.

In

largefactories

the

ley

upon
upon

tanks

are
placedin a
the
buildingapart
soapery, and from thence the ley
is pumped into tanks situated near
the soap-pans,
a
very
and
convenient
cleanly
arrangement.
some

from

is thus
operation
directed by Messrs. Charles
and Co., the extensive
alkali manufacturers
of St. RoUox, Glasgow: A layer
of fresh burnt
of 112 lbs. each,
lime, say five measures
the bottom
is to be laid equally over
of the vat, and a
of water to be thrown upon
the lime, until it
few gallons
begins to slake or fall. This layeris then to be covered
immediatelywith 6 cwt. of soda ash, the next layerwith
four measures
of lime slaked as before,the fourth layer
with the same
quantity of soda ash, the fifth layerwith
lime as before,and the last layerwith the same
quantity
Method

of

Preparing

the

leys
Tennant
"

This

"

of alkali.

standingtwo hours, the vat is to be stanched by

it with water or weak leyof a former vat ; this is to
filling
teen
be done
gradually. After standing about fifteen or sixhours,the plug is to be gentlyloosened,so as to allow
and caustic after infiltration
the ley to run
ofi"or trickle clear,
through the beds of lime. This is called the first
runnings. As soon as the ley ceases to run, the plug is to
be tightened,
and the vat againfilled with water, and after
standinga sufficient time, to be run down as before. This
is the second runnings,and worked
togetherwith the first
runningsin the soap-pan is an excellent ley,and works
After the vat is
freer and better than if used separately.
run
dry,it is to be turned over into another vat, covered
This leyis very weak,
down.
with water, and againrun
"

After

-THE

34

ART

and is seldom worked

water, to stanch

in the soap-pan,
fillup the strong

beingused instead of
or

As

first set vats.

sometimes

is

equally soluble, it

all

is not

ash

soda

or

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

of the vat over

the contents
to turn
necessary
time in order to obtain all the free alkali ; but

second

experience

only sure guides. The receivers for the

to
much
smaller vats, but it is preferable
ley are generally
of the same
have them
size,it being at all times desirable
to have a sufficient supplyof strong caustic ley.
of the process of boiling
Should the ley in the course
and

care

the

are

"

it is termed, with
as
close,'
separate,a small quantityof common

the soap
not

into the

care

is

'

alwaysto

out

materials,and

the

with

salt thrown

separation
; but this
be taken
avoided if possible.The leymay
with a pump
or
syphon. A third running
will effect

boilingsoap
be

of the vat

be taken from the first vat to stanch with."

may
In order to ascertain whether the soda has been
and

'

added

(muriaticacid)are

if efi'ervescence takes

and

uncausticised

the

leymust

of soda

is

be returned

to the

lime

ash
of

is

there

of

the

of soda

ley

assumes

carbonate

is

into

case

caustic

that it is

than

ascertainingif

remainingin the
clear

and

doubt

no

rendering alkalies

process.
A
simple method
carbonate

In this

present.

again
again,if
is perfectly
caustic.
Boilingthe lime
method
if not generally,
frequently,

indeed

adopted,and
method

carbonate

until it

necessary,
and soda

of

properly
drops
hydrochloricacid
to a small quantityof the ley,
placeit is a sure indication that
of

few
a
fully causticised,

lime-water,

there

ley is to
when

by

pour
if the

be
a

surer

cold

any

little

mixture

of
milky appearance
(from the formation
of Hme) it is proofthat uncausticised carbonate

of soda is present.
In

making

of fresh

caustic -soda

slaked

lime

pounds of soda,and

are

by steam boiling,fiftypounds
requiredfor each one hundred

about ten to twelve parts of water to

It is usual to slake the lime with hot
each part of soda.
water, and when the soda and lime with the water have
been put into the tank or vat, the steam
is turned on and

CAUSTIC

allowed

mixture

the

agitation

and

soda
the
time

time

to

The

subside.

ley

times

several

Caustic
soft

of

is

that

except
be

is

used.

for

drawn

fresh

water,
future

parts

in

the

of

by

lime

each

is

vat

which

off

and

the

last

the

the
"When

ascertained

of
lime

aids

other.

to,

the

The

keeping

referred

from

the

is

steam

allowed
is

the

formed
lime

to

may

washed

runnings

being

operations.
in

employment

prepared

eighty

of

then

in

water

potash,

soaps,

carbonate

with

instead

used

the

contents

hours.

greatly

which

before

tests

several

with

contact

the

and

that

so

repose,

the

for

process-

sufficient,

been

by

off,

turned

must

has

boiling

close

35

boiling

causticising

in

lime

the

by

the

of

boil

to

produced

rapidity

LEYS.

same

to

the
way

each

manufacture
as

hundred

caustic
of

of

soda,

potash

CHAPTER

Y.

MANUFACTURE

Castile

Olive-oil

or

French
"

Castile

Curd

entirely free
known

been

from

marbled

The

from

It

that

in

with

Soap.

alkali,

is

is almost

the
best
unquestionably
is also called
article, which

city,

has

and

France

in

having

pleasing mottled
or
veins
permeating
grey
a

which

and

all

materials

pure

soften), and

to

of

type

is

red

throughout,
the

the

manufacture

its

appearance

in

mottled

London

"

"

for

Formulae

French

"

from

commercial

practised

its substance

Soap.

"

considered

emollier,

odour.

soap,

first

is
made

(from

soap.

Marseilles

Olive-oil

when

emollient

white,

Pure

Soap.

Marseilles

Soap.

Mottling.

on

Soap

and

soaps,

Olive-oil

Notes

"

SOAPS.

SARD

Soap.

Olive-oil

or

Pare

"

Soap.
of
Composition

White

hard

Soap.

marbled

Soaps.
"

OF

due

are

certain

to

purities
im-

produced

duction
artificially
by the introof a little sulphate of iron
(green copperas) in the
of manufacture,
which
becomes
decomposed and
process
converted
into
red
oxide
As
(peroxide) of iron.
formerly
this
hard
and
made,
was
brittle, but the
exceedingly
soap
introduction
of other
ingredients, as the oils of hempseed,
for
the
linseed, and
less
example, render
poppy,
soap

disagreeably
cost

pharmacy

in

cerates,

and

caustic

for

Soap,

or

time

same

White

the

preparation
also in pills. It

soda

Marseilles

the

the

at

reducing

the

of manufacture.
Olive-oil

soap

while

hard,

Pnre

and

or

free

Soap.

commercial
of

the

strength
applied to a given

from
"

La

Castile

of

liniments,

is made

coloured
the

leys,
quantity

from

and
of

is used

plasters

in
and

olive

pure

oil

impurities.

manufacture

purposes,

Soap,

of

Marseilles

great

care

is exercised

as

to

also

the

proportions

to

be

olive

oil.

After

series

of

MANUFACTURE

OF

HARD

SOAPS.

37

careful

made at Marseilles,
it was
found that
experiments,
the following
the proper proportionsof caustic soda
were
and
oil for making this kind
of soap.
Each
100 lbs.
of olive oil requirefifty-four
pounds of caustic soda ley
of 36" Baum^
for perfectsaponification,
and this amount
of ley represents about
15-50
of solid caustic soda
the utmost
that must
be appliedto each
amount
100
"

lbs. of

the

oil used.

Since

this

oil,however,

varies

in

the

proportionof solid matter (margarine)which it contains,

the strengthof the leyemployed in the first
tion
operaof boiling
be regulated
must
accordingly.For a thin
oil (orone
containinga low percentage of solid matter)the
ing
ley is reduced by water until a Baume's hydrometer floatin it marks
10" to 11" (degrees).For an oil containing
a much
largerpercentage of solid matter (aslard oil,lard,
other solid fat)the strengthof ley should be about
or
8"

or

9" B.

First

operation. The

requisite
quantityof ley (in the
into the pan,
proportionsabove given)is to be first run
it to the extent
of about one-third of its capacity.
filling
Heat
is then appliedby fire or steam, as the case
be,
may
and when
the liquorcomes
to a boil,1,600 lbs. of oil are
added
time with constant
at one
stirring.In a very short
time
of a pasty consistence is formed
mass
a thick
by the
"

reaction

of the

hot caustic
other

or
miscalculation,

been
when

On

added, this
the other

hand,

circumstance,an

the

oil.

will

show

if,instead

of

forming

If from
of oil has

excess

itself upon
quantityof ley must be at

excess

additional

an

alkali upon

the surface,

applied.

once

into

thickish

of
paste the mixture is very thin, this indicates an excess
oil must
be added by degrees. This addition
ley,and more

will,of

somewhat

course,

soon

cool the mixture, but the temperature

siderable
again boils with conagain,and the mass
be kept up for
frothing. The boiling must

rises

eighteenor twenty hours.

takes place,
considerable evaporation
During the boiling,
whereby the ley becomes stronger; it is therefore necessary,
when
the pasty condition becomes
thick,to add weak ley
from

time

to

time,

since the

paste is

not

soluble

in

strong

38

ART

THE

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ley. PreTious to the addition of weak leys,however, the

spent,"or exhausted,leysare pumped or drawn off. The
addition of fresh leysis kept up until the whole of the
it is termed
is lulled,
matter
as
(thatis,neutralised),
fatty,
it is found that the ley has lost its causticity,
or whenever
which is ascertained by dippingthe tipof the fingerin the
ley and applyingit to the tongue. Every addition of fresh
leyis accompaniedby constant stirring.After four or five
the
changes of ley,with continued boilingand stirring,
"

becomes

mass

of

uniform

an

portionpressed between
hard and flaky.

consistence,and

soapy

the

small

immediately

becomes
fingers

leys are made

contains common
of soda,and other impurities,
salt,
sulphate
which
have the effect of retardingthe process of saponification
in
a more
by keepingthe alkali and fattymatters
mately
less separatedstate, whereas
or
they requireto be intiWhen
associated to effect a perfectchemical union.
it is found, therefore,
that the process is progressing
slowly
Frequentlythe

which

alkali from

the

this cause, it is customary to throw

into the pan a
quantityof soap scraps to aid the operation.
the soap-pans
When
heated by fire,
it is necessary to
are

from

use

every

precautionto prevent

the

burning of the

soap

at

the sides of the pan.

Should this occur, however, the fire
be slackened, and
small quantityof strong ley
must
a
which
will partially
added, with brisk stirring,
separatethe
from the ley, bringing the latter ia contact
pasty mass
with the metal of the pan, and thus prevent the burning
of the

matter.
saponifying

Second
neutralised

oil being
operation. The
with
alkali,the combination
"

state also contains

completely

now

in

its present'

largequantityof water in the shape

of exhausted
or
this, many
stances
subspent ley. To remove
be
employed, but common
salt,which
may
the
answers
admirably,is from its cheapness
purpose
which
generallyemployed. The process ^f separation,
is
termed
generally
ing
"cuttingthe pail,"is effected by throwinto the
or

few

pan

concentrated

shovelfuls

of

the

solution of
same,

each

common

salt,

portion being

THE

40

ART

OF

SOAP-MAKING.

although soap is
soluble in very weak
leys,it is absolutelyinsoluble in
strong solutions of caustic alkali. All the spent leys
gentlyboiled
having been drawn off the soap, it is now
with a ley of the strengthmarking 18" or 20" B., to
The
which
8 or 10 per cent, of salt is added.
quantity
of this saline ley must
be just sufficient to coagulateor
close the soap, and to prevent it from adheringto the sides
of the pan.
"While the boilinggentlyproceeds the soap
is constantly
allowed
stirred. The ley is now
to subside,
when
it is drawn
off as before and fresh ley added, until,
after again boiling,
the leysretain their causticity when
is known
this period
to be complete. At
saponification
the boilingbecomes
violent and
more
frothy,and the
keeps the pan from boUing over by constantly
soap-boiler
using his shovel,with which he scoops up the soap and
the boiling
throws it over
mass.
As soon
the soap yieldsan odour
as
resemblingviolets,
and is scalywhen
the
between
without
hering
adpressed
fingers
to them, the finishing
process is complete. The
time occupiedin this operationis from eightto ten hours
soap.

It may

be

here

mentioned

that

"

in winter, and

from

ten

to fifteen hours

in

summer

the

the
length of time, however, depends greatlyupon
of
material
When
the operation
operatedupon.
quantity
is complete the fire is withdrawn,
and
the soap is allowed
to
rest for a few
the ley is again
hours, after which
drawn

finished soap is white and firm,and contains

from
16 to 25 per cent, of water.
When
the leys
are
impure, containingsalts of iron and sulphur,it
dark shade owing to particles
of metallic
assumes
a
soap
When
this is the case, it must
permeatingthe mass.
be
again treated with weak ley,and very gently heated,
when

off.

the

The

dark-coloured

dense
nigre,being more
in weak
ley,subsides.

is called niger or
soap, which
than the fine soap, and not soluble

To facilitatethis the cover

the soap again suffered to

is lowered, and
pan
when
the white soap, which
be ladled

The

forms

the upper

of the
repose,

stratum,

may

into the frames.

fourth operation,which

is termed

mottling,or

OF

MANUFACTURE

marbling,is

the

result

HARD

of certain

SOAPS.

41

reactions

wliicli

occur

the

iron,sulphur,
impuritiesof the ley (chiefly
and
the
and
"When
these
matter.
alumina)
saponaceous
exist in considerable
quantity,theygivea slateimpurities
coloured
tint to the soap.
it has been
By examination
that the fatty acids of the soap exchange bases
found
with
the saline impurities,
dark-coloured
insoluble
an
is diffused
(ilumino-ferruginous
soap being formed, which
throughout the mass, with, also,black sulphuretof iron.
These being held in suspensionby the thick soapy mass
form bluish veins in the white ground, thus giving the
By exposure to the air,howsoap a marbled
appearance.
oxidised,and acquirea reddish
erer, the iron salts become
When
the
hue from the formation
of peroxideof iron.
from which
the leys have
been
made, contains a
alkali,
the soap
large quantityof iron and sulphur impurities,
This being
becomes
mottled without any artificial means.
between

seldom

the

with

case

the alkali

at the present

mq,nufactured

day (exceptingthe black ash) the desired effect is

produced by adding to the soap, after it is finished or
and without separatingit from the nigeror nigre,
clarified,
of iron)for each
four ounces
of green
(sulphate
copperas
100

The
soap.
ley,which is added

lbs. of oil in
in weak

the

thinnish, and
that

the

coloured

through the

mass.

added, otherwise

the

mixture
soap
Too

may
much

the darker

become

rapid or the coloured veins

strike
of the
thus spoil
the
too

soap
after which
with

that
run

while

soap

off.

is allowed
it is ladled

After
to make

water,
the

the
soap

account

be

will sink

to

the soap must

not

be

much, and

will close too

soap.
in the pan to cool
In France
into the frames.

to remain

that

perforatedbottoms are employed, so

remain
mechanicallymixed w'ith
may

crutched
add

no

on

"

"

The

so
gradually,
thoroughlydifi'used

heavier

Again, the coolingof

the bottom.

paste

cooled

ley must
and

the

to render

be

must

solved
salt is first dis-

iron

the

little,
ladles

any
soap

ley
may

is filled the soap is well

each frame
it homogeneous,and, if it be desired to

requisitequantityis
is still hot.

The

well

frames

are

crutched
sometimes

in

cool
"

in cold

witli sacks

covered

"

strike
It has

will

yieldfive pounds of

the

same

four

ounces

retains

of

beauty

may
the

pounds of

bhree

olive-oil

Marseilles soap, whereas

only produce four pounds

that the former

proves
soap, which
in its composition
than the latter.

water

Soap.
Dussauce, in his admirable
of Soap,"givesan elaborate
the Manufacture

Marbled

Frencli

"Treatise

on

of
description

"

of marbled

the manufacture

France, from

.in

which

ducted
soaps, as conthe
following

give

we

'

"

the earth-nut,sesame,
olive-oil,

"Besides

garden poppy-oils,
greases,

black

also used

are

the

of white

more

and

marbled

of oil will

amount

extracts

that

ascertained

been

of

the soap

depends.

mottle

or

weather, so that
much

which

slowlyjupon

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

THE

42

in the fabrication

seed,
linseed,coletallows,etc.,

soaps ; but the

combinatioiis of oily

of marbled

resultingfrom these difierent

be
cannot
fattymatters, while being of good quality,
compared to those obtained by the direct saponification
of olive-oil. The
latter are
always denser,firmer, and
soap
and

finer.
"

However,

oils with
the

best,at
also

are

other

we

that

remark

the mixture

of olive-

containingless stearine,gives,if not

the finest kinds of marbled
They
soap.

oils

least

more

may

unctuous,

and

their

is softer

cut

smoother, as they contain less stearate of

prepared from olive-oil,they are more

soda

than

detersive

"

and

those
and

advantageousfor use.
The sodas employed for these soaps are of two kinds ;
called soft soda, is the most
alkaline ; the other,
one,
called salted soda, is composed of soft soda and common
salt. Well-preparedsoft soda ought to be free from common
salt ; it is employed to produce the pastingin the
first operation. The
salted sodas are
of soft
mixture
a
soda and
salt. The
of
salt
from 30 to
proportions
are
40 per cent, of the weight of soda.
Th.eir alkalimetric
degree is from 18 to 22 per cent, of pure alkali.
more

"

"

by

In certain circumstances
common

salted soda

salt ; nevertheless,
it ought

can

to

be substituted

be

remarked

OF

MANUFACTURE

that

of salt is

excess

an

salted soda must

to obtain it.
Soda

is not

ash

SOAPS.

be used

the

fabrication of

suitable for the

so

43

marbling of the
whenever
it is possible

to
injurious

soap, and
"

HARD

marbled

soda.

crude

Being entirelydeprived
of colouring
and of sulphurets,
it enters in
when
matter
it
into the preparation
of the lyes,
too large a proportion
lessens the beauty and intensity
of the marbling.
tinct
several disThe fabrication of marbled
soaps requires
which
be
thus
summed
operations,
up :
may
1. Preparation
of the lyes. 2. Pasting,or saponification
of' the oils and
3. Separationof the
fattysubstances.
saponified
paste from the weak lyesit contains. 4. Coction
(boiling).5. Mottlingor marbling."
ing
In preparing the ley for the first operationthe followof soda and lime are given:
proportions
soaps

as

"

"

"

"

2,250 lbs.

Crude soft soda (black ash) at 34" to 38'

Recently calcined lime

.The
and
warm

soda

(ifin

the lime

slaked

water,"

lumps) is

hard

says

by immersion
Dussauce,

first broken
in

"

or

or

"

crushed,
"With

water.

warm

the

complete. After one

the lime is quicklytaken
hard, smooth, and dry floor ; if the

liquidis more

4S0

penetrationof

of immersion

minutes

two

the

and

spread on a
lime is of good quality
and falls into powder, this poyder is
it soon
warm
grows
of large
with the soda by means
then thoroughlymixed
of
is conveyed to filters made
The mixture
iron shovels.
125 to 150 gallons,
sheet iron,holding from
or
masonry
false bottom
each filter being provided with
a
pierced
of
four
little
with holgs and
wood,
pieces
supportedby
A
the
bottom.
which
keep it about two inches from
the false bottom
to prevent
layerof straw is placedover
and to
the mixture
from passingthrough the perforations
the
aid the filtration. A plug or cork is placed between
of drawing
tVo bottoms of the vessel for the convenience
covered
of soda and lime is now
off the ley. The mixture
with
warm.

water, when, after

After

about

out

while, it swells

twenty-fourhours

the

and'

becomes

ley is

drawn

its

when
ofiF,

added, and,

is then

off

before, the

after

Fresh

22" to 25" B.

strengthis usuallyfrom

water
as

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

THE

44

hours, is drawn

many

washing being continued

long

so

as

present."
of salted ley is in all respectssimilar
preparation
preceding,except as regards its formula, which is

caustic alkali be
The
to the

follows

as

"

3,376 lbs.
1,025 "

soft-soda ash at 33' to 38"

Crude

salted Boda

at 18" to 20"

"

900

Frestlime

Take

is thus given:
pastingoperation

The

"

Black

lbs.

1,125

Olive-oil
Earth-nut

"

900

oil

"

225

garden poppy-oil

"

2,265

"

ing
is effected in a sheet-iron kettle holdsaponification
125
into which
from
about
to 150
1,000 gallons,
gallonsof "soft ley," at 10" or 12" B., are poured.
the oils
Heat
is applied,
and, when
boning commences,
added
are
by degrees,with constant stirring.Soon after
the oils have been added, and
the boiling
again started,a
violent agitation
takes placewith considerable foaming.
At this time the mixture
swells up greatly,
when
the heat
would
boil over.
be lowered, or the mass
must
inevitably
the foaming ceases, and
After awhile
geneous
a
perfectlyhomoThe

of

mass

boilingis

continued

the mixture
intimate

by

the

25 to

for four

or

; it also

acquiresmore
evaporationof the water
30 gallons
of ley at 15" or

has

pound
the

white

Boil

acquired a

of green
in a few

paste,which
a

colour

.a

is formed.

five hours.

of the materials

about ten minutes.

ture

dull

becomes

By
more

and
consistency
from
18"

The

the ebullition
and

more

strength

the

ley; then add

for
B., with stirring

few hours, and, when

the mix-~

thicker

add to it one
consistency,
of iron),
vitriol (sulphate
dissolved
previously
quarts of boilingwater.
By this addition
was

of

reddish

white, assumes

greenish colour, the

intensityof

taneously
instan-

which

MANUFACTURE

depends upon
combine

the

sodium, which

produces
soaps.
In order

the

to

SOAPS.

45

of the ley. To
degreeof sulphuration
sulphateof iron with the paste the mixture

soda, the iron

chemical

HARD

the

is well stirred for

The

OF

is

few minutes

; under

decomposed,farming

union

of this oxide

with

the action
an

oxide

of the

of iron.

the

sulphuretof
in the leysof crude
always
soda,
of the marbling of the
colouringprinciple
exists

intimate

combination

of the

fatty
with the ley,and also to give a good consistency
matters
25 to 30 gallons
of soft ley at 25" B.
to the paste,from
with constant
added
and
the boiling
are
gradually,
stirring,
for
hours.
The
several
continued
pasting operation,
it.is termed, generally
as
occupies about fifteen hours,
neutral soap is obtained.
when
a perfectly
The separationof the soap is thus
In
conducted.
to produce separation,
they throw on the
soap factories,
generated
by small quantitiesat a time, limpid remass,
soapy
B.
30"
When
25"
these
at
to
leys
leyscannot
salted
20"
be used, or a
to 25", can
be had, new
leys,at
To obtain 25 gallonsof salt
solution of salt at 20" B.
solution at 20", 14| lbs. of salt are employed. When
the
is complete,and the paste has the required
saponification
consistence,it is watered with a sufficient quantityof old
To render
the action of the
and salted ley at 25" to 30".
thoroughupon all the molecules of soap, a large
leysmore
the kettle,on which
board is placedover
a man,
provided
with a beater or crutch,stands to stir the mass
continually,
that the leybrought
from bottom
to top, in such a manner
The'
to the surface penetratesevery portionof the soap.
paste now
separatesinto clots or curds,and, if the ley
that
off freelyfrom the shovel or trowel,it is known
runs
the separation
is complete. The
to
soap is then allowed
rest, when the ley slowly subsides. After a few hours the
consists of from
175
to 188
off,which
ley is drawn
This
ley,after being
gallons of ley at 17" or 18" B.
ing
by washpassedover an old residuum of soda exhausted
of mottling.
with water, is used in the operation
The next operationis called coetion (boiling),
by which
ensure

an

THE

46

of the oils

completecombination

the
the

It is this

is ensured.

alkali

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

or

with

fattymatters

also,which
operation,

gives hardness and consistencyto the soap, increases

its density,and deprivesit of all disagreeable
odours,
besides renderingit more
detergent.
salted leys,
The 'leysused in this operationare termed
soda and
artificial,
being a mixture of soft (not caustic)
salted sodas,causticised by lime, as before described ; but
before
the
applicationof this ley the soap is treated
88 gallonsof cold soft ley at 20" to 25" B., which
with
in.
This has the effect of
is thoroughlywell crutched
separatingthe soap into flakes which float on the ley.
is lowered
to
hour
the cover
After stirringfor half an
keep in the heat, and, in about four hours after,the ley
off.

is drawn

Dussauce

"

says
salted

Some

manufacturers

for

lyes,but, in our judgment,

soft leys are
to be preferred. Indeed, there is already
of salt,due to the lyes employed
in the paste an
excess
for the separation,
and, as too large a quantityof salt
the useful action of new
interferes
with
lyes on the
the

first service

molecules
it from

use

of soap, it is proper
and rational to
much
the paste as
as
possible. The

contribute

this

to

result.

This

advantage

eliminate
soft
is not

lyes
the

lyes of coction,used in considerable quantities

in the separation,
have set free some
matters
fatty
combined
then
the
while
soft
imperfectly
leys,
ing
purify;
the

only one,

paste from

the

had

if salted
The

been

lyeshad

above
as

into

not

been

of salt it

excess

of
incorporation

the

which

the

the

combined

mine
contains,deter-

oilyor fattysubstances
before,and

could

not

be

used."

observations

they guard

are

the

of considerable

asmuch
value, in-

soap-maker against falling

^that of

applyingsalt before
is known to be complete.
saponification
The
first application
of the salted ley is given after
the ley of the last operationhas been
drawn
off. From
115
of
loo to
gallons salted ley,at 25" B., are put into
the pan and heat applied,
with stirring
ing
boilso
soon
as
The
commences.
boiling is to be continued until
a

very

common

error

"

48

THE

ART

OF

soap

must

SOAP-MAKING.

the

first case

the

leyis sufficiently
warm,

the

fresh pure

add

and
gently,

when

stir well until the proper

off the
In the second
case, run

is obtained.
and

heated

be

leyat

10" to 12" B., with

sistence
con-

leys,
gentleboiling

stirring.
it is usual
Before puttingthe marbled
soap into frames,
to first placea littlewarm
leyat the bottom of each frame,
to prevent the soap from adheringto it ; sometimes, also,a
is laid over
the bottom
of the frame with
pieceof canvas
the same
object. When
properlyboiled,the soap is in
the form
of hard
and separate grains,the entire mass
colour, the intensityof which
having a bluish-black
depends upon the quantity of metallic soaps present in
and

the

and

mass,

iron

which

contained

the

in the

coolingof the

(which forms
varied

the

colour, and

the

to

run

for

ley.

ground
thus

the

"

on

then
1. The

or

mottling.
the

been
"

medium,

soaps, during
the white
soap
is

appearance

of

obtained,

and

of weak

when

the proper

condition

attained.

The

principalpoints to
introduction

metallic

base)in irregularveins

marbled

and

depends greatly upon the skilful

who superinmottler,"or workman
tends
It
is
an
operation.
important point

good mottlinghas

The

These

this part of the

the soap into the frames

Notes

to the salts of alumina

separate from

mass,

of which

beauty
manipulationof

due

are

strongestley is
the
lastly

be observed

first introduced,

weakest.
in

mottling

are

leys into the paste ; 2. The

in a fluid
applicationof gentle heat to keep the mass
state ; and, 3. Continual stirring.
The precautions
to be observed are : 1. Not to add more
leysthan are necessary, so that the heavier metallic soaps
of the mottling)
(which are the colouring
principles
may
be thoroughly disseminated
of white
through the mass
and
ultimately
produce the marbled veins which are
soap,
characteristic of the soap.
2. The
temperature of the
not be too high. 3. If too much
weak
soap must
ley has
been applied,
this,by thinning the mixture, wiU cause
the heavier metallic soaps to sink into the
leys,and the
4. If the
soap will be white instead of being marbled.

MANUFACTURE

OF

HARD

SOAPS.

49

leys be too strong,the metallic soaps will not separate

will contain less than its
properly,and the entire mass
full proportionof water, therebyentailing
loss to the
a
manufacturer.
All circumstances

racterist
being favourable,the followingcha-

win

present themselves : the flakes of soap

are
separatedfrom each other, and float on the ley ; they
soft and bulky,of a fine green colour,and of a viscid
are
consistence.
When
ready for the frames, the graiasare
and
pliantand elastic,
appearance." The soap
"

until it has cooled

being between
Frencli

down

158" and

have
must
a

tremulous

and

be put into
the proper
little,

gelatinous
frames

the

not

temperature

166".

The
Soaps.
followingformulae
of the fattycombinations
used in difierent

Formnlse

represent some

localitiesin France

for

"

in the manufacture

of soap

"

I.
675 lbs.

Olive-oil
Earth-nut
Lard

oil

675
900

2,250

producesa white, odourless

This

"
"

,,

soap.

II.
Bleached
Oil of

1,675 lbs.

palm-oil

450

sesame

White

tallow

"

2,250

as

"

of good quality,
but not so
very hard soap,
It turns slightly
the above.
yellowby keeping.

Produces
white

,,

225

III.
450 lbs.

Olive-oil

1,350

WhitetaUow
Earth-nut

450

oil

2,250

This is considered to form

a
E

very

good soap,

and

"

"

"

superior

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

THE

so

it has a faint
that of MarseilleSjbut " unfortunately
in domestic
smell of tallow, whicli restricts its use
to

economy." (!)
IV.
675 lbs.

Olive-oil
Lard
Tallow

22S

oil

Couoa-nut

"

675
675

....;

"
,,

2,260

This formula

makes

good white

soap, but

"

the presence

disagreeableodour,
properties.
althoughit improvesits lathering
Olive-oil
of Pure
The
to
Composition
Soap, according
is :
Tire's analysis,
oil

of cocoa-nut

gives

the

soap

"

Fordgn,
Soda

9-0

Fatty

and margaric)
(oleic

acids

"Water and

76 -S

colouring matter

14'6

100-0

English imitation.
Soda

10-5

Fatty matters
Water, mth

75-2
a

little colouringmatter

14-3
100-0

The
62 to

ordinarycommercial Marseilles
65 per cent, of fattyacids.

Loudon

kitchen

Mottled

stuff,bone
that

fattymatter
made

from

crude

is

grease,
will prove

soda

materials

contains

made
generally
cheap tallow,and

serviceable.

from

from

melted

any

inferior

The

leys are

ash, termed

givethe mottled or
varietyof soap is famed.

in which
this

Soap

soap

black ash, the impurities

"
marbled
strike,"for which
The

called,are first put

"

goods," as

into the

the

fatty

the
pan, when
first dose of ley,at sp. gr. 1-050, is run
in, after which
the fire is made
beneath
the pan, and
the materials
up
brought to a steadyboil. To assist the combination of
the fattysubstances with the ley,a workman
constantly
are

MANUFACTURE

OF

with
stirs tlie ingredients

HARD

SOAPS.

longiron

rake.

s'

After

while

fattymatters, which at first float on the surface of the

ley,combine with it,forming a thin creamy emulsion of a
and from which
uniform
no
perfectly
liquid
appearance,
the
Should
not
mass
present these
separateson cooling.
adds either water
the soap-boiler
or
characteristics,
some
weaker
leys than were at first employed,and the boiling
is continued, with occasional stirring,
until a perfect
emulsion
the

is obtained.

At
taste

to
stage of the operationthe compound ceases
the tongue being the usual test employed
alkaline

this

"

tion
soap-boilerand it is thus known that the combinawith the caustic ley is complete.
of the fattymatters
the boiling
Strongerleysare now added repeatedly,
being
alkali.
continued
until the leys taste of free caustic
When
this is the case, more
oily or fattymatters are
added, as also, from time" to time, stronger leys. Great
that there is no excess
is taken, in this operation,
care

by

the

of

alkali in

"

the

filled
sufficiently
ingredients.
The

mixture

is thrown

into

when

mixture

with

the

alkaline

the

treated with common

pan by shovelfuls at

is next
the

has

soap-pan

and

come
be-

fatty

salt,which
time, each

portionbeing allowed to dissolve in the leybefore adding

sufficient salt has been added, the sapothe next.
When
nified
with
separateinto grainsof soap combined
of water, but as yet not containingits
a definite quantity
called
full percentage of alkali. The
are
leys,which
spent leys,"consist of salt and glycerinein solution,
matters

"

and

should

The

fire

quitefree from
being withdrawn

be

alkali.

(or steam

turned

off),the

imperfectsoap is allowed to rest for a few hours, so that

the ley may
subside,and this is then drawn or pumped off.
consists in adding weak ley,with
The second operation
which .the soap is again boiled,until the soap (at first
closed,"as the soapbecomes
homogeneous, or
granular)
maker terms it. If the full quantityof fattymatters had
the soap-boiler
not been introduced in the first operation,
now
completesthe addition of them, with also the addition
"

THE

52

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

the compound
strongley,until,after longboiling,
salt is
Common
has acquired a strong alkaline taste.
now
again added to separatethe soap as before from the
in contact
hours
ley,and the boiUng continued for some
the perfect
saponiiiwith the caustic ley,so as to ensure
cation of every atom of fattymaterial.
Soda which
contains sulphurets(asthe so-called blackash) is preferredfor making mottled soaps, for reasons
monly
which
have been
already explained. Mottling is comLondon
in some
soap-worksbyintroducing
practised
into the nearlyfinished soap a certain quantityof strong
crude soda leythrough the rose
spout of a watering-can.
The
dense
sulphuretted,
liquor,in passing through the
times
Someand ley,givesit a marbled
pasty mass
appearance.
blue is
small quantityof a solution of Prussian
a

of

more

for this purpose.

used

When

crude

sodas, however,

used

are

in the manufacture

mottlingis efiected,towards
mixture
mechanical
close of the operation,by a mere
It is effected in
the dark-coloured leywith the soap.
of mottled

soap, the

the
of
this

breaks the paste in all directions with

way : the workman
he holds it perpendicularly
till it
his rake, after which
he raises it vertically
the ley,when
with
reaches
a
jerk,

pistonof a pump, by doing which

lifts some
of the ley and spreads it over
the surface
the paste. In its subsequentdescent
through the

making
he
of

it act. like the

fissures and

channels

of the soap, on its way to

of the pan, the dark-coloured
the bottom
leyimpregnates
in various forms and degrees,
the soapy particles
thereby
the soap is
producing veins or markings which, when
numerous

cooled, give it the desired marble-like

afterwards
This
the

put

in

soap
into the

operationhas
some

degree,which

frames, or

be

the

perfect,
owing to
which form the
particles
not

mottled

When
form
and

of

also the

soap

the

"

is necessary

ance.
appear-

cooling

before

it is

strike,"or

would
mottling,
superiordensityof the dark

coloured

veins

of the soap.
is ready for framing,it is in the

thick,gelatinous
mass,

in this condition

advantageof

it is ladled

with leys,
interspersed
out into largepailsand

MANUFACTURE

OF

put into frames, which

this material
the

by

more

is obtained.

coolingat

SOAPS.

53

made
of wood, since
preferably
retains the heat longerthan iron frames, and
gradualcoolinga finer marbled appearance
When

frames, the

HARD

ends

are

mottled
of the

soap

bars

are

is moulded

in cast-iron

liable

(from rapidityof
have a plainwhitish

the sides of the

frames)to
instead of being marbled.
appearance,
White
Curd
The
finest quality
of this soap is
Soap
made from pure tallow,rendered,as before stated,from the
and sheep. English,
town
suet of oxen
or
tallow,"as the
"

"

tallow melters

call it, in contradistinction

to the
countries,
productsimportedfrom Russia and other foreign
London

until
generally
preferred

was

the introduction of American

Australian tallows,which, being of

equally serviceable in the manufacture
and

Besides tallow,however, other

mixtures
olive-oil,
or
palm-oil,
are

To

used

in

produceone

tallow

or

olive-oil

is the

removal

same

of all

making
ton
are
as

are
good quality,

of

materials,as
of these in

curd

this

soap.
lard,bleached

varyingproportions,

soap.

soap, from 10 to 14 cwt. of

required. The process of saponification

of curd

for mottled

colouringmatter
the
effected by boiling

that the
soap, excepting
and impurities
of. the ley

with fresh
repeatedly
leysafter the removal of each previousdose of ley,or by
thinning the soap with a small quantityof ley with gentle
and then coveringthe pan and allowingthe soap
boiling,
for several hours, to allow the leys to subside.
to repose
By thus washing (aswe may say)the soap with ley,all the
dark-coloured
are
removed, and subside with
impurities
the leys,leaving the soap clean,and, when
cold,white.
must

be

soap

finished,the curd is ladled out of

should be covered
into the frames, which
clean empty sacks, so that the soap may
"When

the pan

and

put

with canvas,
or
retain its heat,

thereby enable it to close properly.

The
followingis the French system of making tallow
curd or grained soap : to transform
1,000 lbs. of tallow
into grainor curd soap, 400 lbs. of potash have to be taken.
about 400 lbs. of
The tallow is placed in the kettle (pan),
ley of 10" B. added, and the firekindled. In a short time
and

THE

Si

of tlie

tlie commencement

from

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

the
boiling,

fire is

kept

After the
"well up, but afterwards it should be moderated.
the fat
usual frothing,it should be ascertained whether
with the ley. This is known
has combined
by the yellow-

which, under gradualupheaving,continues

mass,
when
adheres to the spatula,
dipped
to boil. What
quietly

brown

into the

greyishgelatinous,
the
of ley. When
separation

withdrawn, has

and

mass

without
appearance,
ley and fat are not combined,
white

the

mixture

in

moves

and

kettle to and fro without risingupward, except now

When
then, in isolated spots,with a booming noise.
and

in four

to 17" B.

and
the

the

or

The
mass

the

added, at short intervals,

about 1,000 lbs. of ley at 16"
five portions,

there
is complete,

combination

the

are

of

appears

dense

becomes

boilingnow

and

languid,

and
yellowish-brown,

runs

off

and the
strings,
soap be dropped on

spatulain cohesive,long,translucent

of the
soap boils to a paste. If some
while still hot, does not
and the sample,
glass,

clear,leyis stillwanting.
should

be

now

small

appear

fectly
per-

quantityof

ley

added, until the

soap, while hot, appears

this periodis reached,the "cutting

When
clear.
perfectly
of the pan" begins.
The

salt has

here

double

to fulfil. It must
purpose
soda soap, and also separate

potash into a
its glycerine,
sulphurousliquor,ley,and impurities.The
full quantity of salt required for this purpose
is not
appliedat once, but a repeated"saltingout" should be
given. After each
saltingout," the under ley is separated
from
the soap, and the latter brought in contact
with water and salt. By boiling
tallow and potash,when
the materials
not very
is
are
pure, the "salting out"
usuallyperformed in three operations. The ley is now
transform

the

"

removed

from

the

soap

in

the

usual

way.

The

salt is

either thrown

into the soap in the dry state,or in solution

of about 20" B.
the mass
When
turns white, and ebullition
occurs

with
has

all

over

considerable
been

the pan

in

patches,the

vigour,it is known

added.

boilingis continued

The
for

soap

rising

that sufficient salt

frothingnow
disappears.The
hour longer,
and then stopped
an

S6

THE

ART

OF

SOAP-MAKING.

brisklykept up, and the

The
entire kettle covered with planks and cloths.
soap
and
to prevent
boils up with considerable frothing,
now
it from running over, one
of the planksis removed, and
the foam is beaten with a long iron rod until it subsides.
The
kettle is again closely
sumed,
covered, and the boiling rethe preventionof overflow being againregulated
heat is now

as

The

needed.

fire is

before.
The

violence of the ebullition

in its stead

One
soap

graduallydiminishes,but
is perceivedin the kettle.

whistlingnoise
from
time to time, and the
of the planks is removed
translucent
examined
; when, if largeand perfectly

bubbles

and
rise up, the soap is finished,

extinguished.The
to

allow,the

are

poured

put into

the

frames, and

enters
possible
Boilingwith

soap may

planksare

wooden

soap to cool,and
into the kettle.
The
care

the fire is therefore

few

next

buckets

soap is now
is taken that as

removed

of soap

ley

ready to be
little ley as

the frames.
soda

be finished

ley presentsthis advantage,that the

in one
The firstleyis applied
water.

the

strengthof 10" to 12" B. The whole of the fat is

placed in the kettle,with one-fourth of the leyrequisite
for saponification,
and
the boilingcarried on
usual.
as
After boilingup, the mixture
is examined
if
to ascertain
the proper
combination
has taken
place,in which case
further addition of ley,at 16" to 18" B., is added.
The
addition of this ley is continued until a sample placed on
clear. The cuttingof
a
pieceof glass appears perfectly
the pan follows,which removes
the glycerine
formed,and
the surpluswater.
In this case
much
less salt is required
than when
with
boiling
potashley. For each 100 lbs. of
fat 10 lbs. to 12 lbs. of salt are
required. The salt may
be appliedin the dry state or in solution,
as
preferred.
The
remaining operationsare conducted as before described.
at

Soda

soaps made

this process have some

advantages,
it is impossibleto remove
all the

by

because
principally
potash; besides which, they
and plastic.Dussauce.
"

are

generallyvery

neutral

MANUFACTURE

It
soap

with
thus

system

salt

the

salt.

reduction

in

be

abandoned

to

HARD

in

the

SOAPS.

England

above
converted

soda
The
cost

in

high
of
this

soda,

of
of

soft

by

soap
furnish

to

however,

country.

the

hard

reaction

price

tallow

and

into

the

make

to

quantity
by

57

described,

sufficient
of

neutral

as

was

in

proportions

proper

great

produced
of

practice

leys,

potash

additions

with

the

formerly

was

soap

OF

the

potash,
caused

the

potash
and

this

CHAPTER

MANUFACTURE

Yellow

OF

Eesin

or

VI.

Soaps.

HARD

SOAPS"

Continental

"

Method.

Meinicke's

Yellow

in

Besin

or

alkaline

soap

it is

leys,

When

resin

of

is

being

mixed

"with

it

however,

proportions,

possessing

capable

not

Dunn's

"

Process.

"

Process.

Althougli

"

itself.

by

proper

various

Soaps.

converted

fatty

forms

soluble

freely

in

matters

series

into

of

soaps

high

and
lient
emolexceedingly
detergent power,
and
A
resin
well-made
is no
agreeable in use.
soap
doubt
the
for washing
the
skin.
most
pleasant of all soaps
of itself, the
smallest
of
Possessing no
"body
proportion
"

tallow

sound

which

equal part.

It

of
is

resin

fat

gives

is

seldom,

is

used

resin

and

odour

of

it has

of

odour

an

to

but
the

evaporated,

rank

and

combination

than

time,

frowsy

other

might

of

fatty

disguises
description
add,

when

smell

portion
pro-

which

powerful

most

and

of

an

odour
with

tallow

any

the

even

large

so

rancid

is

soap

peculiar

oil, we

that
for

The

that

more

hard

that

its

by

cocoa-nut

soap

make

soap.

stated

soap

oil, except

or

to

however,

in

been
in

resin

overcome

oil

requires

greatly disguised

matters,
the

it

fumes
per-

they
the

have

cocoa-nut

remains.
"

Since
with

caustic

when

the

into

the

ley

would

ley

will

make

not

leys, it

other

of

process

the

resin

is

usually

of

soap

introduced

itself, when
into

fatty matters, have

or
saponification. Indeed, if the

goods,

with

pan

seize

from

the

the
it at

first
once

performing

charge
and

of

dissolve
its

proper

treated
soap-pans

undergone
resin

materials,
it, and

put

were

the

thus

function
"

the

caustic

prevent
that

of

MANUFACTURE

OF

HARD

SOAPS.

59

saponifyingthe fatty materials. It is commonly the

practiceto first make the hard soap in the usual way, and
when
the last charge of leys has been
given,and when,
the ley ceases
after the usual boiling,
to be absorbed
by
the soap, the desired quantityof resin is added gradually,
and it is an
broken
advantage to have it previously
up
into small pieces. The proportionof resin varies from
the weight of tallow,but of course
one-third
to one-fourth
weaker goods will take less.
While
the resin is being shovelled in,the boiling
must
be kept up, with also the addition of caustic ley. The soap
who freely
from time to time by the soap-boiler,
is examined
uses

his shovel when

he considers

the

resin

soap

sample

with

of the

the

paste,after

solid,and exhibits

is

that the combination

completion.

near

beingallowed

to

"

soap is finished.
ofi"the steam, the soap
drawn
or
leys are
the

is allowed

to

"

when

the

cut,

by turning

rest,after which

out, and

pumped

cool,is firm and

feather
good grain or
The heat being checked

When

of

process

the
of

whereby all
other materials are deposited
and
Por this purpose
below the surface of the soap.
a quantity
of ley at 8" B. is run
into the pan, and the steam
again
time
with
turned on, the soap being well stirred for some
the rake and
the boiling
kept up for awhile, after which
the soap is again allowed to rest, and the ley againpumped
the paste is
"purifying
impuritiesof the resin

resorted

next

to,

out.

second

leysat

service of

4" B. is

and stirring
renewed, after
boiling
allowed

to

and
settle,

are

then

of very weak
leysat 2" B. is
and boiling
being resumed as
finished.

forms
before

over

After
the

up with
small works

given,and the
the leysare again

ofi". A

final service

introduced, the stirring

is
before,when the operation
skin
the leyssubside,and
a

surface of the soap,

running the

be worked

long rest

which

drawn
now

now

soap into the

future batches.

whicVi

is skimmed

frames, and put

off

aside to

into
soap is ladled out of the pans
of a ladle having a very long
largeiron pailsby means
wooden
handle
(Fig. 11). This ladle is of considerable
In

the

6o

THE

size,and

in order

it is raised
second

by

to diminish

of

means

while

man,

OF

ART

the

SOAP-MAKING.

full of soap,

when
its weight,

rope
first holds

running

pulleyby a
of the ladle,
pailwhich is

in

the handle

it into the soap, and

guides it to the
full
is carried when
rested upon the edge of the pan, and
the
of filling
To hasten the operation
to the soap frames.

dips

frames,

several

men,

each

carrying

usuallyoccupied when a "cleanse,"

In larger factories,where
going on.

his
as

pail,are

own

it is termed, is

of
application
is extensive, the finished soap is pumped out of the
steam
into wrought-iron"pots" (Fig.8) running on
coppers
and which are also used for crutchingin
wheels,
liquor of
various kinds ; these pots, being wheeled
up to the frames,
are
emptied into them, or the soap is pumped into iron or
wooden
shoots,one end of which is slung on to the pump,
while
the other rests on
the upper
edge of the soap
the

"

"

frame,

and

when

to the next, and

the
so

frame

is

full,the

shoot

is shifted

on.

Cleansing. When
"

is necessary
to
dark-coloured
between

stratum

cleansing yellow soaps, great care

avoid removing, with the finer soap, the
forms
a
compound called niger, which
dark
the leys and the pale soap.
This

brown

soap derives its colour from the resin and impurities

in the ley,and althoughit possesses all the characteristics
of

good

soap, is unsalable
article,and should therefore
a

lightergoods in
Another

the

formula

by
be

itself
worked

as

commercial
other

with

up

making of cheaper soaps.

for yellow soap is the following
:
"

TaUow

2,000 lbs.

Eesin, about

600
"

These

of soda

being put into

ley at 10" to 20"

When

on.

the pan, from

150 to 175
B. are run
in,and the steam

the materials

boil,constant

are

melted, the

pan

is

gallons
turned

brought

stirringbeing applied to prevent the

adhering to the bottom and sides of the pan.
the mass
When
swells up excessively,
the heat must
be
checked.
The boilingis continued
for only about two
or
three hours, owing to the rapidity
with which the combinato

resin from

MANUFACTURE

OF

tion of the materials and

turned

being now

six hours, when

then

and

added,

HARD

SOAPS.

61

the alkali is effected.

The

steam

is allowed to rest for about

off,the mass
the spent ley is drawn
off and fresh leyis
the

about

three hours.

again

drawn

boilingresumed
After

off,and

and

continued

for six hours, the

ley run into the pan.

repose

fresh

for

ley is
The

with fresh leys are continued dailyuntil

boilings
the soap has acquired
the proper consistence,
which is ascertained
by the soap-boilerpressinga sample previously
cooled between
his fingerand thumb.
If the soap divides
into hard flakes,
it is finished,
"fgreasy,
or nearlyso ; but
and soft,it requiresfurther boilingwith fresh ley.
sticky,
If the soap sample is satisfactory,
boil briskly
for a short
various

time,

then

and

tiirn

off the

steam, and

throw

in

few

After about
cold water.
two
hours, the ley is to
off as before.
This beingdone, six or eightpails
be drawn

pailsof

of water

and

added

are

If from

well

stirred

samples

in, and

taken

the

from

boiling

brisklypursued.
paste
off
is
be
to
and
water
the
more
clear,
added,
ley runs
If it does not separatefrom the ley,an
boilingcontinued.
of water is present,and a small quantity about
excess
half a pailful of strong brine must
be added.
Finishing.One of the most important and delicate
the soap.
is that ciifinishing
When
parts of the operation
as above, it will cKng to
the.soap has been properly
7?^fe^,
have a gelatinous
the shovel or trowel and
This
texture.
being the case, the soap is properlyfinished. Sometimes,
in order to give the soap a bright yellow colour,a little
is added.
This oil,
while
raw
(thatis,unbleached)palm-oil
impartingan agreeableodour to the soap, is believed to
in some
degreethe natural odour of the resin.
disguise
A
quicker process for making yellow soaps than the
fornier is performed in the apparatus known
as
Papin's
digester.The followinggivesthe proportionof goods and
leyemployed in this process :
the

the

"

"

"

"

"White tallow
Palm-oil
...-.
Kesin

(.powdered)

Caustic soda ley at 25" B

800 lbs.
200
"

400

175

"

gallons.

62

THE

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

and
put into the Papin digester,
hour
under
at the temperature of
boiled for an
pressure
At the end of this time the soap is finished,
252" Fahr.
into
and is,after being allowed to cool down
run
a little,

materials

These

are

the frames.

of

method

^The French

Metliod

Contmental

making

respects differs from our

yellow or resin soap in many
features
own
system,but since it presents many interesting
in his Treatise.

process described by Dussauce

that by this method
It will be observed

givethe

we

into

the hard

soap

by

soap, so
which it is to be combined.

with

^Into

"

1,000

pan
lbs. of
a

When

the aid of heat.

verted
con-

called,before it is added

resinous

First process.
introduce
gallons

the resin is

holding from
taUow, which

melted, it is

625

to

to

750

is to be melted
be

saponified
(soda)ley at 7" or
to

gallonsof fresh caustic

While
8" B.
running in the ley,the mixture is to be well
All the ley being added, the heat
stirred.
is to be augmented,
and the stirring
continued
for twenty-five
or
thirty
white
A
emidsion
is thus formed, the ley and
minutes.
tallow having perfectly
combined, and a homogeneous
paste is the result. An hour after the last ley has been
manifested by a tumultuous
added, the boilingbecomes
with

about

75

in the mass,
The
white scum.

movement

the

paste stirred.

few

pailsof cold water

pan.
When

the

diminishes, and
now

to boil

the formation

heat must

If these
or

soon

and

of

be

now

precautionsare
weak
ley are

effervescence

homogeneous

Continue

and

has

very

dant
abun-

moderated, and
not sufficient,
a
thrown

into

the

ceased, the

foaming

disappearsentirely.The

paste is

white,or

of

yellowishtint.

the mixture
becomes
gently; by boiling,
intimate
and perfect,
and acquiresmore
more
consistency
by the evaporationof the ley. Continue the saponification
with leysat 15" to 18" B., which are added
in portionsof
6 gallonsat a time every
fifteen minutes
for one
and a
half hour.
the
After
last addition of ley,continue to boil
gentlyfor a few hours without adding new
doses of ley.
the paste is saturated
By continuingthe boiling,
slowly

THE

64

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

separation.After

effect the

repose

for five

six

or

hours,

ley is drawn off.

off,pour into the kettle
Boiling. The ley being drawn
caustic ley at 24" or 25" B. and apply
75 gallonsof new
the boiling begins, considerable
When
heat.
foaming
the soap, which
disperses
only
appears upon the surface of
If after five or six
the soap is entirelyboiled.
when
it must
be
hours' continuous
boilingthe ley is stillcaustic,
kept up imtil all the foam disappears. If, on the other
75 gallons
of new
hand, the leyhas lost all its causticity,
ley at 30" B. are to be added, and the boil kept up for four
or five hours
longer.
The operationbeing finished,the soap is in the form of
which, when pressedbetween the
very hard white grains,
is now
reduced
steam
to be
to scales. The
are
fingers,
the

"

turned

off,and

the

the

hours, after which

which

will be

equalto 27"

about

ley

50

or

to

or

five

off,the quantityof

is drawn
60

four

for

rest

gallons,and

of

strength

28" B.

or

effected

Fittingis

allowed

mass

by running

into the pan

58

gallonsof

with
constant
heating,to the boiling-point,
of
the
well
When
melted, and
stirring.
grains
soap are
of flat particles
have the appearance
separatedfrom the ley,
It
the operationis finished.
is known
that the soap is
separatedfrom the ley when
by taking it up with the
off in a colourless stream.
shovel the ley runs
The
steam

water, and

is

turned

now

off,or the

covered, after which

eight hours.

fire

drawn,

the whole

At

the

and

is allowed

end

the

is well
to rest for seven
pan

of this

period the pan is

the
and
drawn
off.
The soap is then ready
uncovered,
ley
of resinous soap, which is
to receive its admixture
prepared
or

as

follows

"

Preparationof

holdingabout
30' B.

fine

mixture

Soap.

Put

into

a pan,
capableof
of
fresh
soda ley at
gallons
and when
the ley
to
"

75
gallons,

Apply gentleheat,

begins
(about 16 to
a time),
1,200 lbs. of resin,previously
reduced
powder and pa ssed through a coarse
sieve. The
be well stirred during the whole
must
time to

boil throw
20 lbs. at
to

375

Resin

in,

every

five

or

six

minutes

MANUFACTURE

OF

HARD

SOAPS.

65

"

clogging and adheringto the

It is importantto moderate the heat,as
sides of the pan.
the resin soap has a great tendencyto expand, and
an
of heat

excess

however,
the

must

clear,and

would
be

"

it to

cause

kept up

to

will become

mass

kept at

When

near,

overflow,the heat

desired

the

near

The

over.

heat,

wise
otherboiling-point,
of

very dark colour.

the boiling-point
it is alwaysperfectly

its colour of

cold water

boil

thick and

must

resin soap rises and threatens

be. checked, and
few pailsof
a

into the

thrown

reddish-yeUow.

duringthe boilingthe

If
to

resin from

the

prevent

pan,

which

at

once

has

th"

It is

effect.

absolutely
necessary to stir the massotherwise the resin wiU agglomeratein massescontinually,
and thus prevent the ley from actingfreely
upon it. The
of 1,200 lbs. of resin occupiesabout twosaponification
hours, and the resulting
fluid,and
compound is perfecijy
The soap beingnow
free from solid particles.
ready,it is
into the tallow soap, and thoroughlyincorporated
introduced
with it by constant
stirring.Before doing so,,
however, it is necessary to pass the resin soap through a
sieve,so as to free it from pieces of straw, wood,,
coarse
it is frequently
with which
and other like impurities
contaminated.
It is considered

bad

in
barrels,especially
and
agglutinate
better to have

form

plan to keep powdered resin

warm
a

more

Since
situation,
less compact
or

the resin reduced

to

in

it is liable toIt is

mass.

powder only a

short

usingit.
and run
into frames it is someAfter being well mixed
times
each frame until ^ pellicle
the practice
to "crutch"
(or skin)forms on the surface,after which the soap is left
to cool.
Soap thus made is said to be firm and slightly
The
alkaline,producinga good lather even in sea-water.
of materials given,should
produce,from the proportions
The colour,however, is of a
be 2,250 lbs. of good soap.
yellow,and, by modifyingthe process, a
very dark-brown
lighter-coloured
soap is obtained,but the produce is less.
time before

The

second

Put

process

into the pan

is

as

250

follows

"

gallonsof

soda

leyat

8"

or

10" B.

66

THE

ART

OF

SOAP-MAKING.

ley is 'warm, add

1,000 lbs. of white tallow. Boil gently for iive or six
nation
hours, with occasional stirring.When
perfect combiis effected,and
a
homogeneous paste formed,
the
add 50 gallonsof ley at 16" B., and boil to secure
finish the saponification
thickening of the paste. Now
stir well for
with 30 or 40 gallonsof ley at 20" B., and
Apply

half

an

heat

usual, and, when

as

Turn

hour.

the

off the steam

with leysof coction

separatethe

and

(oldleys)at 20" to 25" B. in the

as before.
way
After
few hours'
a

same

ley and continue

the boilingwith 175 to 200 gallonsof soda ley at 25" B.
the ley is still
If,after boilingfor eight or ten hours,"
caustic,and the soap forms thin hard scales when pressed
the fingers,
from 600 to 800 lbs. of yellowresin
between
be added, which
must
gives the soap a fine yellow colour,
and the grainof the soap
is more
homogeneous. The
boiling must be continued,and 75 to 100 gallonsof ley
will completethe saponification
at 25" to 28" added, which
of the resin. After
four or five hours' boilingthe ley
should

stiU be

finished.
should
usual

caustic,when

small

set hard

repose

rest

the

draw

soap

off the

it is known

that

sample,dropped upon

and

firm

leyis

run

in

the soap is
cold surface,

few minutes.

After the

off.

into the pan from 100 to 125 gallons

of leyat
4",and againboil,with constant
until the mixture
stirring,
becomes
When
all the grainsare melted,
liquefied.
Now

run

forming a nearlyhomogeneous paste, from which the ley,

the operationis finished ; if the
however, separates,
ley
does not separate,an
addition of clear old leys must
be
made
to aid the separation. The
is now
steam
to be
turned

off and

the lid of the

pan lowered upon it. After
of twenty-fourhours the leys,
a repose
togetherwith aU
will
have
impurities,
subsided,leavingthe pure, finished
then be cleansed
that is,put into
soap above, which may
the frames"
in the usual
When
all the
way.
soap is in
the frames it is to be stirred until cool,and if it be desired
"

to

give the

every

soap

slightperfume, an

100 lbs. of soap may

ounce

be crutched

in.

of anise oil for.

To

impart to

MANUFACTURE

the

OF

HARD

SOAPS.

67

agreeableodour, sometimes 15 per cent, of

bleached palm-oilis combined
with the tallow, and the
whole
together. This improves the soap bysaponified
in colour.
making it lighter
Process.
This is recommended
Dunn's
by the inventor
to be performed by steam
Into
heat, thus conducted:
each of the ordinarysoap-pans
coil of l;|^-inch
a circular
with holes,is iixed in the well of the
piping,perforated
the bottom
to allow the .free
pan, just far enough from
soap

an

"

"

movement

of the stirrer beneath

to stir the

contents

it when
The

below.

it becomes

sary
neces-

circular coil of

pipe

with atmospheric
air from
a
supplied
cylinderblast Or
other suitable forcingapparatus,the circular coil being
connected' with such forcingapparatus by means
of a pipe
attached
thereto,and risingup to the top of the pan,
where
it is furnished with a stop-cockand union-joint
for
the purpose
of connecting the parts of the pipe within
For
and without the soap-pan.
clean yellow soap, put
a
into the pan
90
gallonsof leys of the specificgravity
1"14 made
from strong soda ash.
The fire being kindled,
the pan is charged,in the usual way, with, say, 2,050 lbs.
of grease, and as soon
the ley is hot and on the boil,or
as
nearlyso, the blast is set in action,while a good brisk fire
is kept up, so as to bring the materials as near
boilingas
the leys are
exhausted
more
possible. "When
ley is
graduallyadded until the grease, oil,or fattymatter is
killed."
Then
add 550 lbs. of fresh resin,a pailful
at
until 300 gallonsof
a time, with
more
ley occasionally,
the above strengthhave
been used, keeping the blast in
is

"

action the whole

is advisable to
the

time if the fires draw

stop the

resin,to allow

ebullition.

When

completelymixed
of the leystaken
to the contents

the

blast for
contents

the whole

with
up,

short

well,but if not, it
time,before adding

of the

of the

the soapy

to approach
pan
resin is melted and

mass,

and

the

stop the blast,and give a

of the pan, and

strength

brisk boiling

let it rest, so that

settle. The leys being
then

the spent leysmay

separate and
drawn
now
off,the soap is then brought to strengthon
fresh leysas in the ordinaryprocess of soap-boiling.

68

THE

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

OP

During the operationof the blast

termed
an
kept in what is technically
for

statej"and

this

salt

purpose

but if

ley is

weaker

be made,

as

is weU

should

the soap

the

ley of

the

be

kept at

of the

materials,otherwise

the soap
grain,and

apt

used,

desirable that

"

weak

of air

streams

is

is

changes may

more

is called

not

the blast

mentioned

It is found

what

the movement

during

it is better

operationof

strengthbefore
employed,one or

understood.

"

that

when

where

be

must

soap

open or grained
brine is to be added

or

Experience proves
necessary.
make
to
a change of leyduring the

the

through

to swell up

"

state

from

the
the

this is found troublesome

to
hanging in the
get rid of, requiring long boiling. If dark-coloured
materials
are
used, it is well to keep the blast in operation
three or four hours after the resin is melted, provided the
is kept weak
and
mass
a
open-grained. When
soapy
charge is to be worked upon the nigxe,such nigre shoidd
the spent ley pumped
be grained,and
drawn
off as
or
before
usual, and the fresh charge added in the manner
mentioned, using less ley in proportion to the quantity
and strengthof the nigre,takmg care
not to turn on
the
air

blast until

there

is 8u"B.cient grease

to make

present

the

nigreweak.
Meinicke's

be furnished
resin

requiresthat

Process

with

is added

still-head and

in

form

the

during the boiling,givesoff

which

is condensed
the

decreases
are

of tallow
108"

cost

or

Fahr.
of

prompt

of the

it

dry
at the

must

as

by

as

steam

when

distillate,

by-product,and

1,000 lbs.

soap.

in the pan
inferior fat,and

should

since the
coolingworm,
white
turpentine,which,

its volatile oil

saved

melted

800
stirring,
cent,

and

of

the soap-pan

the

of white

heat with
mixture

800

thus
pentine
tur-

lbs.

reaches

gradually receive, with

constant
soda ley containing30
per

lbs. of caustic

soda.
above

The

imion

of the

materials

is very
of the resin

temperature, the

acids
grease being completelyneutralised and
into liquidmelted
The
essential oil of
soap.
and

is set free at the

same

time,and

in

order

to

converted

turpentine
promote

its

MANUFACTURE

salt
vaporisation

brine

mixture

brought

become
spirit

the

the

and

to

united

SOAPS.

The

all

69

head

adjusted to

boil,the

and

When

condensed.

are

HARD

is added.*

the pan

luted upon
the

OF

steam

being

fully
care-

the worm,
and
and vapour
of

into the worm,

and
pass over
the
essential oil is distilled

is finished in the usual way.

Practice shows that the greatestexcellence in resin soap
is not obtained
to the oil or
by adding the resin directly
over,

remaining soap

The

paste.

best

plan

and
separately

soaps

is to

then

the grease
resin
and
them
in proper proportions.

make

to mix

The

resin soap is first prepared by stirring

80 lbs.
of powdered resin,a little at a time, into 100 lbs. of soda

ley at 25" B., and

acid properties
of

boilinginto
resin

when

prompt,

even

alkali.

The

the

135"

ley

resino-alkaline

stirred into the finished

is stm

render

perfectsolution.

the

combination

is made

from

solution

paste, made

is then

The

easy and
carbonated
to

be

well

tallow,while

from

it

in the pan ; but its temperature should not be above

to 140" Fahr., otherwise
perfecthomogeneity of the

mixture

In this way

be obtained.

cannot

16 per

of

cent,

resin may
be introduced
without materially
darkening the
colour
of the tallow soap.
Moreover, the qualityof the
several per cent, of starch
product is good. Sometimes
bran

or

soaps.
instead

are

used
the

When
of steam

until the

to

paste is

assist

soap

the

of the

combination

materials

worked

are

by

two

fire

boilingshould be continued gently

uniform
throughout,and then the salt is
the

to be added.

resin soap, may

be prepared from curd soap
by adding to it about 25 per cent, of resin, and then
adding from 2 to 4 per cent, of carbonate of soda, and 1

Yellow,

or

more

whole
takes

sulphateof alumina, the

being boiled with water until a perfectcombination
pitated,
place. To prevent the resin from becoming preciof
acid
dilute
2
about
(1 part
sulphuric
per cent,
per

acid to 9
*

or

cent,

parts water)

It is well known

to attain

of alum

are

or

stirred into the mixture.

ttat the addition

higher temperature than

of salt to water

212"

enatles

that

liquid

F., the hoiling-pointof water.

THE

70

According
the

saponify
two

takes

finished

in

The

parts

usual

of

the

the

and

Salt

it
and

is

then

mix

to

boil

until

added,

and

to

better

is

to

the

perfect

the

soap

way.

proportions
to

Watt

separately,
then

and

ordinary

former

and

tallow

pan,

place.
the

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

Eicliardson

resin
in

soaps

union

to

ART

of

part

palm-oil
of

the

latter.

and

resin

are

3^

THE

72

Anderson's

ART

Process.

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

I find that when

"
"

curd

soap

boiled to strengthand subjected

to a fitting
process,
in
used
similar to the fitting
making
process
soap, there
to the

separatesfrom

it

what
some-

yellow
gous
analo-

peculiarsubstance

is

that

by removing
this
of the goods into,
curd soap, I obtain a curd soap of better qualitythan the
charge of goods would yieldwithout this operaoriginal
tion.
I also find the niger,which
I remove,
eminently
I
adapted for making mottled soap, to which purpose
apply it accordingly.
In carryingout my process, I proceedin all respects
ia the manner
practisedcommonly by soap-makers up
the
to a certain point; that is, I place in the copper
dinary
ordiaary materials for making curd soap, with the orleys,and boil them togetheruntil the goods are to
and
ribbon out
well on the finger
strength,'
; but at
this stage, instead of boiling
out the head and
finishing
heretofore
I
the
as
practised, commence
performanceof
I pump
out the strong ley,on
which
the
my
process.
goods have been boiled,and treat the goodswith successive
portionsof weak ley or water, and boil them together
until they assume
the appearance
of a fitting
yellow
This
condition
being arrived at, I stop the
copper.
and allow time for the niger to deposit,
which
operation,
hours.
I now
inay requirefrom twenty-fourto thirty-six
out
proceed to separate the niger,which I either pump
from under the purifiedgoods to an adjacent
copper, or I
the purifiedgoods from
above
the niger to an
remove
adjacentcopper, as I find most convenient ; but in either
I add to
case, the ^oods being thus deprived of the niger,
them
the proper finishing
leyfor curd soap, and boU to a
niger of yellowsoap, and
niger and boilingthe remainder

"

'

'

'

suitable curd,
for

"When

or

until the

into
cleansing
I

operate

materials,or when

advantage,I

soap is found

to

be in

tion
condi-

the frames.
upon

from

any
the

charge

of

circumstance

impure
very
I consider it

repeat
purifyingor fittingprocess
in
which
one
or
more
times,
case, after separatingthe
niger,as before,I add to the residual partially
purified
an

MANUFACTURE

ley of
finishing
leyfor
goods

OF

HARD

SOAPS.

73

strengtli
only (insteadof tlie
curd soap)and boil,taking care
that no
head
is formed.
I then pump
out this ley,and again
treat the goods with weak
ley or water until sufficiently
diluted,so as to performthe fitting
process, after which I
aUow
time for subsidence,separate the niger,add the
finishing
ley,and boil to a curd as before."
He next describes his method
of treating
the niger,and
a

moderate

'

'

the way

in which

he converts

the purified
separating
soap
adds

mottled soap,
or

After

soap.

niger,as before,he
latter the ordinary ley used for finishing
and boils until the soap is fit for cleansing,

the

to

it into mottled

framing.

The

bpil,however,

from

the

from

quantityof niger obtained

one

boil by itself;
sufficient to make
a
therefore Mr. Anderson
from
takes the niger resulting
in one
boils of soap, and finishes them
four,six,or more
is not

above.
he adds
Sometimes
as
operation,
certain quantityof tallow,fat,
bone grease,

other suitable materials,and

with an ordinary
mottled soap.

then

or

Cocoa-uiit

Oil Soaps.

One

"

to

the

melted

nigersa
"

stuff,"

proceedsto finish,as
tions
importantaddi-

of the most

fattymatters suitable for soap-making

the vegetablesubstance
oil or cocoa
called cocoa-nut
was
whiteness
and capability
butter,which, from its extreme
stitute
subbecame
of forming a hard soap, soon
an
acceptable
in some
costlytallow. Soap
degree for the more
from this oil,
made
butter,is capableof taking
or
vegetable
still form a hard
and
a
largerpercentage of water
up
than any other known
fatty material. The soap
soap
hard
from it,moreover,
is more
soluble in saline or
made
to the list of

"

"

"

"

waters

even

"

been

made

board

ship.

water

sea^

into

Cocoa-nut

soap

and

"

for this

called Marine

oil,however,

to

the

skin

and

even

Soap,

it has
for

long

use

on

has the great

saponified,
exceedinglydisagreeable

when

disadvantageof imparting an
odour

reason

to

articles

cleansed

by

its

when
but a small percentage of this
and
even
agency;
substance is blended
with other soap materials,its peculiarly
skin
of
the
offensive odour will rest upon the surface

after

hours

for many

OF

ART

THE

74

SOAP-MAKING.

washing

Soap

it.

with

from

made

into toilet
he introduced
this oil,therefore,should never
in small quantity,
except for the very
or
fancy soaps, even

low-pricedqualities.
Cocoa-nut

so

it forms

Stnrtevant's

Frocess.

"

One

making soap with cocoa-nut

patentedby Sturtevant,in 1841.
oil in

sulphuricand

12

oil,to

as

and

employed

when

fatty materials

for

After

saponifiedby

itself

iu

the

of soap.

manufacture

the

tallow, or palm-oil,

to

hardness, and for this

ciated
odour, it is always assoits objectionable

other

with

caustic soda

unusable

of almost

soap

besides

reason,

readilysaponifywith

not

added
but when
hy itself,
When
without
difficulty.

leys,when
it does

oil does

remove

of

earliest processes

the

oil

an

as

ingredientwas

ing
It consists in first steam-

adding to it 6 lbs. of
of
acid to each ton
lbs. of hydrochloric
odour.
far as practicable
its objectionable
wooden

vat, and

allowingthe oil to
is then ready for the

rest

for

while, it

is drawn

ofi",

soap-pan.

Soap. The materials are

taken in the following
proportions: 2,072 lbs. of cocoa-nut
oil,either as it is imported or refined as above ; 168 lbs.
of olive or other sweet
oil,or tallow ; 325 gallonsof soda
The
ley at 24" B., and 60 gaUons of potashley at 20" B.
To

make

cocoa-nut

White

Cocoa-oil

oil,tallow, or

oil,as

"

the

case

may
About

be,

10
into the pan, and
heat applied.
the whole
the soda ley is then added, and when

put

are

gallonsof
materials

united, the same

quantity of soda ley is added
time to time, with continued
boiling,care being taken
are

each

first

from
that

with the fattymatters

portionof ley is well combined
before the next is applied As soon
the whole of the soda
as
ley has been used, the boilingis kept up for about half an
hour.
The potash ley is then added, graduallv,as before,
and when
the whole
quantityhas been used, the boiling
is kept up for about
fifteen minutes, after which
about
84 lbs. of common
salt are sprinkled
slowlyover the mass,
this operation occupying about
hour.
a
quarter of an
for about half an hour, after
The boilingis then continued
.

MANUFACTURE

whicli
case

the

off,or

manufacture

the

consistence
It

glue.

is turned

steam

HARD

SOAPS.

the

fire

75

drawiijas

the

be.

may
When

the

OF

cleansed

is

and

of the

tenacity,or

allowed

now

to cool

soap is complete,it has

"
closeness " of melted

down,

framed

in the usual way.

The
the soda ley onlyfor the finer

or

with

is afterwards

and

ployed
potash leyis em-

of soap.
qualities
To make
Yellow
Soap with Cocoa-oil,by the above
given: 1,072 lbs. of cocoaprocess, these proportionsare
oil ; 112 lbs. of raw
nut
palm-oil; 336 lbs. of bleached
palm-oil: 448 lbs. of tallow; 224 lbs. of resin; 112 lbs.
of common
salt,and 450 gallonsof soda ley at 23" B.
All the fattymatters
and
the resin are
first put into the
applied as usual, and the whole operation
copper, heat
in the same
conducted
way as alreadydescribed.
There

have

been

modifications

numerous

of Sturtevant's

oil as an
manufacturing soaps with cocoa-nut
ingredient
; and, indeed, this useful vegetableproduct is
used by most
soap-makers both at home
very extensively
in this country, where it
and abroad, but more
especially
is employed in enormous
quantities.As we have said,
process

for

however,

cocoa-nut

oil,unless

with

blended

some

other

a
good soap. Tallow or
fatty material, does not make
palm-oil,therefore,are employed,in variable proportions,

in

combination

with

it, in

the

of

manufacture

certain

it is also the practiceto use potashas well as

soaps, and
oil. Soap
cocoa-nut
soda leys in making soaps containing
made
from this oil being soluble in weak
leysand saline

solutions,
requiresa much
process of separation.

proportionsof
successfully
employed
The

60

tallow
with

is,not a reduced, or
oil and
parts cocoa-nut

that

salt in the

largerproportionof
or

palm-oil which
oil for

cocoa-nut
"

40

"

liquored

soap

parts tallow

or

"

may

be

genuine
"

should

be

equalparts

the latter combination, an

oils. For
palm and cocoa-nut
of caustic soda ley at 27" B. and a third of
equalvolume
used with the
of caustic potashley at 10" B. are
a volume
small
takes place. A
boilinguntil perfectcombination

THE

76

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

leyis then added, the temperature

of the mass
not
being allowed to exceed from 180" to
for about
The boilingshould be continued
190" Fahr.
have
time the ley wiU
two
hours, at the end of which
A little weak
become
exhausted.
ley is then added, and
mitil a sample,allowed to
salt thrown
in, with stirring,
cool,appears clean,dry, and free from greasiness.If it

quantityof

does

weak

very

and there
characteristics,
possess these
be
dose of leymust
of causticity,
a further

not

evidence

if necessary more
If too much
heat

is

no

added,

salt.

and

too
the soap will become
applied,
thin,causinga separationof the tallow or palm-oilfrom
result will be
the cocoa
objectionable
soap, and the same
of salt or ley. In the latter
obtained if there be an excess

be

is turned
off,and
case, the steam
oil must be added, with constant

little fresh

cocoa-nut

until the proper

stirring,
The
heat is to be kept up for five
condition is obtained.
and
that a perfect
six hours, with frequentstirring,
so
or
the operauniform
take place. When
combination
tion
may
is

lowing
soap is allowed to rest until the folthe pan is to be again heated, whereby

finished,the

day, when
the union

of the

alkali and

becomes

fattymatters

the soap turns

out harder and
the completion of the
at once
on

and
perfect,
framed

also considered
pan

until

better than

if

boiling. It

is

the soap to cool in the

temperature of 155" Fahr. before

advisable

it indicates

more

to

allow

it to the frames, and to well crutch it,when' in

frames, until it begins to stiffen,
whereby a more

removing
the

homogeneous condition
however, must
crutching,
has
the

cooled

down

of

the

not

to 130"

be

is

The

secured.

applied when

Fahr.,or

the

soap
it will separate from

ley.

If, after allowingthe soap

the

soap

night,it should

leymust

be

this not be

added,

and

be

added, until
warm
effectual,
well

to

wanting
it tastes

stirred

repose in the pan during

in strength,
a little more
caustic.
slightly

strong brine
in

until

the

must

be

desired

Should

gradually
result is

obtained.

Soap containinga large percentage of

cocoa-nut

oil is

MANUFACTURE

OF

HARD

SOAPS.

capableof holdingin its constitution a

quantityof water, and yet form a hard
some

chief

have

we

soaps

almost the

but
ingredient,

French

white
method
in this

Cocoa-nut

and

tinted

Oil

soaps

of manufacture

has

water

seen,

Soaps.

from

In

"

considerable

very

indeed,in

soap ;

been

only one

7;

not

only

the

France

they make

oil ; and since their

differs from that adopted

cocoa-nut

somewhat

country, the following

process, givenby Dussauce,

will be read with interest.

White

"

and

Rose

Soaps.
"

For

be

and

be

highlyesteemed.
500 to 600
preparedyielding

very white
and the most

of oil into
375 to 400

concrete

sheet- iron

gallons.

these

; that

of

soaps

Cochin

is the best

soap is to
per cent.,introduce 2001bs.
kettle (pan)of a capacity
of from

Melt

Suppose that

the oil must

the oil

by a gentleheat, and as
melted pour in it 50 gallons
of new
soon
as
ley of soda
ash at 15",and boil the mixture, adding from time to time
small portionsof ley at 18" to 20", until the paste has
in this state it 'is a sign
acquireda caustic taste. When
that it is entirelysaturated.
The
first operationlasts
four hours.
"

To' harden

named

the soap and make

above, add to it salt water

it produce the

quantity

at 18" to 20" in
(brine)

the

proportionof 5 gallonsevery fifteen minutes, and at

the same
time continuingthe ebullition.
It is in this
second stage of the operation
that the degree of coction
of the soap must
be ascertained,and
for this
(boiling)
from time to time and
a certain quantityis taken
purpose
When
the sample becomes
allowed to cool on a dish.
is finished.
the operation
solid by cooling,
Generallythe
that of
as
quantityof salt-water used is about the same
the ley,and at about
the same
degree. For the above
lasts about seven
or
proportionsthe operation
eighthours,
kisptin a state of
during which the mixture is constantly
is
the operationis finished the steam
ebullition. When
into the frames,
turned off,
and the soap, before being run
is suffered to cool and rest for twelve or fifteen hours.
"
If the soap is to be. rose, it is coloured as soon
as
run
into the frames, and while yet fluid,
with 4 lbs. or 6 lbs. of

78

THE

which,

vermilion,
To

have
be

OF

is well

uniform

an

should

ART

distrihuted

colour

it

for

fluid,

very

SOAP-MAKING.

if

is

that

part

by

mass

important
cold,

too

the

in

stirring.
the

would

paste
remain

white."
We
nut

shall
oil

which

industry,

soaps

form

have
when
an

especially

again

to

treating
important
in

the

refer
of

to

the

reduced

branch
northern

subject
or

of

parts

of

cheapened
the
of

cocoa-

soaps,

soap-making
England.

8o

THE

ART

OF

SOAP-MAKING.

absorptionor combination of
the tallow or fattymatter
with the ley,care
having been
sufficient quantity
a
taken, in the first instance,to use
thereof,or about 20 gallonsof ley of 17" B. to every
be

may

ascertained

by

the

It is necessary to state that the

of alkali varies with the different fats and

100 lbs. of tallow.

The
of

an

machine

minute

oils.

be
fattymatter and ley may
ordinaryboilingcaldron,with the addition
intimate admixture, and the
to produce an

combination

effected in

portion
pro-

of

the

division of the

tallow.

The

whole

apparatus

is

HHHHH^HHHH

Kg. 17.
in the drawingsia Pig. 17.
It consists of an
represented
uprightshaft,from which arms, aaaa, radiate to the sides
of the caldron b b. This shaft,either permanentlyor temporarily
mode

will

of

fixed ia the copper,

The

fixingthe

first

depend upon

iron.
or
may be of wood
and
the
materials used
apparatus

the

nature

of the manufacturer.

rotarymotion, may

be

of the caldron an^ the convenience

An
oscillating
motion, or

givento the shaft and connected

arms
by any of the ordinarymethods of communicating
mechanical
be employed with
power ; or a cylinder
may
shaft c, passing through it horizontally,
a
and
from
a

MAKING

which

arms,

SOAP

c c

BY

THE

COLD

radiate,when

c, may

PROCESS.

8r

rotarymotion

will

thoroughlyincorporatethe fattymatter and the ley.

for about 2^ tons of tallow,
The size of the cylinder,
will be about 6 feet in diameter
and
12 feet in length.
It must be providedwith convenient doors, d d, for chargto the
ing and emptying. Motion
being communicated
machine, and the caldron having been previously
charged
with the tallow,the ley is to be gradually
added
thereto,
and in a short time every particle
of the fattymatter
wiU.
be brought into intimate
with the alkaline ley,
contact
will take place. The
and by such means
saponification
is continued
three hours, or until the
for about
stirring
taUow
is indicated by
as
completelysaponifi.ed,
appears
after which it is allowed to stand from
the mass
thickening,
of the paste.
to four days,accordingto the quantity
one
be used, then immediatelyupon its
Should a cyiiider
being charged with tallow, at a temperature just high
the ley is run
municated
in, and motion comenough to keep it fluid,
and continued
from 3 to 4 hours,
to thelshaft,
"

"

"

As
the
less time, if tne mass
becomes
thick sooner.
benefit of this pricess arises mainly from the saponification
or

of the

cold state,it
in a comparatively
ordinary |naterials

sbon as the mass

thickens,and the ley is
as
desirable,
absorbed, that tVe cylindershould be emptied,and the
turned
contents
intoan ordinarycaldron, preparatory to
is

being

finished

addition

and

of resin ;

converted
into

or

into

mottled

yellow soap, by
soap

or

white

soap,

the

by

of finishing
by
leys,as at present practised
operation
generally.By this transfer from the cylinder
soap-boilers
tion
for the combinato the ordinarycaldron,time is allowed
of the tallow and alkali to become
perfect."
The
adoptionof th^ cold process in this country has
much
beyond the limits of very
not, we believe,extended
small operations,
such as toilet-soap
making, for example.
of obtainingleys sufficiently
centrated,
conIndeed, the difficulty
without
extent,
would, to some
evaporation,
of its extended
stand
in the way
application.At the
soap-makers are supplied
present time, however, when

the

with

caustic

soda

in

solid

state, which

renders

it

82

OF

ART

THE

SOAP-MAKING.

leysin the ordinarywa)^,

that they should once
more
it may
be advisable,perhaps,
Although soaps
take the cold process into consideration.
alkali than those made
made
by this process retain more
by the ordinarymethods of boiling,and would, therefore,
be less suitable for toilet purposes, it is certain that good
prepared,could
household, or laundry soaps, if carefully
made
be advantageously
by this system.
small
For making
quantities of Soap by the cold process,
36"
B.
of
This
the ley should have a density about
caustic
be obtained either by evaporatingstrong new
may
mercial
ley prepared in the ordinaryway, or by dissolvingcomcaustic soda in water until the requiredstrength
for them

unnecessary

to make

their

is reached.

capableof
tallow,lard,or bleached palmholdingabout 100 gallons,
oil,40 lbs. ; apply gentle heat,
oil,120 lbs. ; cocoa-nut
is melted.
until all the fatty
with occasional stirring,
matter
the
When
liquid grease has attained the heat of
80 lbs. of ley at 36" B.,
about 120" Fahr., add, gradually,
and stir well until a complete union of the fattymatters
and alkali is effected.
The temperature of the ingredients,
not be higher than
at the time of adding the alkaH, must
of
122"
there
wUl
be a separation
Fahr., otherwise
If the stirring
the ley from
the fattymaterials.
has been
will be complete in
diligently
pursued, the saponification
about two hours, and the soap is then readyfor the frame. If
it is desired to perfume the soap, this should be done while
To

prepare

it is in the pan,

White

and

Soap.

before

"

Put

it has

into

had. time

pan,

to cool.

It is

of soap, to
good plan,when making small quantities
add the perfume after the soap is in the frame, since it is
difficult to effect a perfectincorporation
then more
of the
materials.
respective
not

When

soap made
for about five

by the cold process has been in the

frame
hours,a considerable augmentation of
its temperature takes place,
owing to the chemical reaction
of its constituents,
is
whereby a more
perfectcombination
effected.

should be

In

order

to

covered
closely

favour
so

soon

this
as

reaction, the frames,

it has been

filled with

'

MAKING

the

SOAP

The

soap.
about
236

soap

before

the

Lard

112

of

lbs.

given

is

83

should

yield

white, and, owing

the

ley

by

freely.

very

the

to the

cold

it is

process,
to the

colouring matter
poured in, by which

fatty

it becomes

mixed.
the

by

Soap

PROCESS.

materials

soaps

add

to

COLD

pure
it
oil, lathers

coloured

thoroughly

more

of

cocoa-nut

recommended
materials

THE

quantities of

lbs. of

proportion of
In
making

BY

Cold

is made

Process

by taking, say,
a
gentle heat ;

lard,and

melting as before, at
28
lbs. of caustic
soda
added
ley, at 36" B., are then
well
these are
gradually,with constant
stirring,and when
caustic
ley of the same
incorporated, 28 lbs. more
strength
added, and

are

paste
a

stirred

in

be

allowed

not

must

of the

sample

is

soap

as

before.

The

exceed

to

temperature
Fahr.

149"

it should

examined,

of the

When

feel somewhat

the fingers,but exhibit no

pressed between
greasiness. It is then ready for the frame, and after
cold for cutting.
about
two
days will be sufficiently
The
has been applied to making soap from
same
process
when

unctuous

beef
Oleic

acid, or
:

way

into

almonds,

oil of sweet

marrow,

red

oil,has

1,300 lbs. of

"

toilet purposes.
in the following

been

employed
caustic soda ley,at 18" B.,
Then

boiled.

and

pan,

also

"c., for

lbs. of

1,000

oleic

are

acid

run
are

stirring. The oil,being a

by the ley,with strong
fatty acid, is quickly absorbed
considerable
of chemical
evidence
action, and
foaming,
which
by continuallybreaking the
requires to be subdued
suitable
shovel, or other
foam
with
implement. If the
a
added, gradually, with

paste
rest,
other
must

has

strong
oil

more

hand,
be

frames

in the

be

must

if it has

about

usual

taste

after

added,

little

caustic

given, until

reposing for

constant

no

the

allcaline
soap

is

by

or

three

little ; or,

taste, additions

slightlyalkaline.

twenty-four hours,
way.

two

the

soap

is

hours'
on

of

the

ley

After

put

into

IX.

CHAPTER
OLEIC
Oleic

ACID."
Acid.

making.
Oleic

Soap from

"

"

Oleic Acid

Acid.

In

"

ordinary tallow
steam, with
soap

Morfit's
Grease."
System
Eeoovered
Kottula's Soaps. Instantaneous
Soaps.
"

"

the

This

Soap-

Soap.

by high-pressure
several hours, by which
a lime

in wooden

lime, for

of

stearine 'for candles,

of

manufacture

is boiled

slaked

is formed.

GREASE.

OVJSREI)

REG

FROM

SOAP

vats

to another

is transferred

vessel and

sulphuricacid, which, combining with

while the
the lime, forms sulphateof lime, which
deposits,
ture
rise to the surface. The mixfattyacids {stearicand oleic)
of fattyacids, thus formed, is next
placed in vessels
is afterwards
to cool,and
subjectedto pressure, whereby
treated

the

with

dilute

olieic acid

receive

At

it.

separates and
the

extensive

into

flows
candle

vessels

works

ready

of Price

to

and

vegetable fats are decomposed into their

constituents,fattyacids and glycerine,by the action of
fication.
superheated steam alone, that is,without previoussaponioils are
By another process, palm and cocoa-nut
Company

the

decomposed by strong sulphuric acid at a temperature of

about 350" Fahr., produced by superheated steam, and the

restdtingmass
heated

to

about

is afterwards

550"

Fahr.

distilled
This

by

the

is called

aid

of steam

sulphuricacid

saponification.
It will readilybe seen, therefore,
that as a by-product
of the candle factory,
oleic acid must
be an abundant
soapand
indeed
it
is : and, theoretically,
making material,
so
it should be convertible into
of soda) by means
soap (oleate
of a carbonated
(notcaustic)alkali. Taking advantage of
this fact, Mr. Morfit, many
since,pursued a long
years

OLEIC

ACID"

SOAP

FROM

RECOVERED

GREAS.

85

series of
a
as

practical
experimentswith a view to developing
oleic acid,commonly known^
process by which commercial
brown oil,
and red oil resulting
from the processes
oleine,
"

above referred to
could be converted into soap without the
quently
employment of caustic leys. The processes which he subseintroduced included the manufacture
of soaps from
"

the

fattyacids generally,
including recovered
"

or
grease,"

"sudoil."

Since the treatment

of

lies,
fattyacids with carbonated alkainstead of employingthem in the caustic state,as in
involves the escape of carbonic acid,
ordinary
soap-making,
and a consequentswelling
up of the materials when brought
in contact, even
without boiling,
be left
must
ample room
in the pan to allow for the great increase in bulk which
after repeatedadditions of alkali.
occurs
Recovered
Before giving a brief
Grease.
Soap from
of Mr. Morfit's process, it may
be well to refer
description
to a series of experimentsconducted
by the author some
recovered grease
years ago, with the objectof converting
"

into

marketable

soap.

The

grease

was

firstmelted

it,when
high to liquefy
temperature sufficiently
of

at

small doses

solution of soda

added from time

were
crystals
until efliervescence no longer
to time,with constant
stirring,
occurred on the addition of the soda solution.
The
fatty
the saponaceous
acids being now
next
mass
was
neutralised,
treated with a solution of chloride of soda,with the object
its colour.
The powerfulbleaching
of lightening
ties
propera

warm

of this solution

soon

afiected the

colour

of the soap,
portionof the

but some
renderingit many degreespaler,
remained
unacted upon by the bleaching
matter
colouring
which became
evident when the chloride ceased to
liquor,
produce anj''further effect.
The soap was
afterwards boiled over a strong salted ley,
and the resulting
paste mixed, in varying proportions,
with other spaps ; but althoughthe chloride of soda had
the peculiar
diminished
odour of the grease to some
extent,
acid
it was
found that onlya small percentage of the fatty
and
soap could be worked
up with soaps of better quality,
When
its presence.
then a keen nose
would recognise
even

THE

86

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ally
j)erfumedwitli nitro-benzol or cassia its odour was effecturate
be employed in modeand it could,therefore,
disguised,
As a rule,
kinds of fancy soaps.
in some
proportions
soap-makershave a great dislike to recovered grease, or
to its odour, but which, after all,
Wakefield fat,
owing chiefly
the skin or linen
on
is neither so disagreeable
nor
so lasting
oil soaps.,
washed with it as that impartedby cocoa-nut
This has foritsobject
of Soap-mating.
Morfit's
System
into soap by
of the fattyacids of commerce
the conversion
of carbonate of soda, instead of employing caustic
means
nite
leys,whereby the inventor producessoap containingdefiof fattymaterials,soda, and water, these
proportions
the manufacture
mences.
combefore
beingdetermined
proportions
The time occupied in making a batch of soap is
stated to be two-and-a-half
hours, and in two days after
four boils may
be
the soap is ready for cutting. Thus
made
in one
necessary
day in each pan, thereby rendering it unto keep largestocks of soap on hand.
Although soap made by this system can be "run," that
of water
is,cheapenedby the addition of largequantities
and "other adulterations, it does not, in its integrity,
template
consuch degradation. On
the contrary, it is
any
designedto furnish soap of the greatestpossibleexcellence
at the lowest possible
cost, so that the manufacturer
may
of securingboth profit
have a creditable means
and success
inferior
against the dishonest competitionof very much
by the older methods."
soaps as made
The fat acids,being alreadydeprivedof their glycerine,
"

"

do not

suffer loss in the

do in the process
whole of the material
of soda
proportions

the form

and

same

of

way

that neutral

fats

sarily
neces-

the
saponification,
consequently

used, in combination
water,

are

with

specific

obtained
ultimately

in

of soap.
the

advantageswhich are claimed for the oleic

cleanse better in cold and
: they
soaps is the following
than the highestgrade of
hard waters
be
soap that can
made
from neutral fats. Indeed, for most
purposes, it is
not necessary to use
hot, or even warm
water
to bring out
Amongst

"

their best effects."

88

THE

soda

portionto form
say, 1 gallonof

soda

210

"

for every

water

mark

must

material
time

ia the pan,
allowed
to run

stirrer is then

This quantity

soap ; for

soaps,
solution of

The

being

added

in

set in motion

of the

whole

the

to

six to twelve

only from

and

stronger

used.

are

F. before

212"

per cent., or,

5 lbs. of ash.

neutral

lbs. of ash

226

to

62-80

crystals,
namely

of alkali forms

from

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

minute

the

hot

minutes'
The

liquor.

less after the alkali

or

beginsto flow,and is kept up, with the heating,until

action which
brisk chemical
process is complete. The
set up causes
a
great swellingof the mass, to allow
which

curb

portionof

is fixed

alkali has been

the pan.
run
in,the

changes from its spongy

clear,soft,homogeneous paste, which
and

in

an

alkali commenced

stifi"and

so

of the

pan

dry that

and

the

to

it

blades

beginsto

mass

state
soon

Later it becomes
more
appearance.
hour and fifteen to thirtyminutes

that the
is

"

fall into

into

of the

that

assumes

consistent
from

for

the

stirrer."

side,
subof

liant
bril; and

the moment

oil,the paste

cuts,'or peelsfrom

'

is

after the last

Soon

above

the

The

the walls

paste is

with eight or ten gallonsof boiling

sprinkledover
and heating being contiaued,until the
water, the stirring
paste, at first quite soft,regainsits stiffness. Soap thus
made
consists of in 100 parts : oleic acid,65"00 ; soda, 6'7
now

to 7-50 ;

water, 27-50.

Instead

employing a solution of soda ash, Mr. Morfit

sometimes
soda crystals,
fused in their own
of
uses
water
has attaiaed a
crystallisation
; and since this salt of soda
in this country
remarkablylow price,it would, doubtless,
at

of

least,
prove

form

facile,
as

the most

of soda to

apply to this

also the most

economical,

system of

saponification.
by soap-makers in the
ordinaryprocesses of soap-making ; but it is generally
associated with a considerable portionof tallow or other
fat containing
stearine,by which a firmer and harder soap
Oleic

acid is

is obtained
per cent,

To

used
extensively

with

than

of tallow is

make

soap
be
may

oleic acid
fair

from
"

oleic

alone.

From

30

to 40

proportion.

oleic acid

and

tallow, the
acid,1,350 lbs. ; tallow,900

portions
pro-

lbs.

OLEIC

The

ACID

SOAPS.

89

oleic acid is first run

which,

100

about

introduced.
condition.

into tlie pan and heated, after

gallonsof old ley,at 22" to 25" B., are

In
If

short

time

oil

assumes

spongy
hastened

operationmay be
by adding a few gallonsof fresh ley at about 28" B. The
heat is to bo kept up moderatelyfor five or six hours,
until the grainsof soap formed
with occasional stirring,
become
dissolved.
this is effected,
the whole
As soon
as
is to be brought to a gentleboil until a thick foam appears
the surface ; tuis foam
be kept under
must
on
tinual
by conand
if there is a disposition
of the mass
agitation,
of
to rise above the edge of the pan, from 12 to 15 gallons
ever,
ley at 20" or 25" B. may be dashed in. It is better,howthe leys
the heat at times, and
to add
to check
rather than
to be compelled to resort to the
cautiously,
of the mass.
of fresh leysto subdue
the rising
application
must take place,
a perfect
separation
During the boiling,
and
the soap appear in the form of small grains. When
this condition is arrived at the boilingis to be continued
and
then turned ofi",
for about a coupleof hours, the steam
for about
the soap allowed
to stand
eight or ten hours.
and the
At the end of this period the leysare drawn
ofi",
This
operationof saponifyingthe tallow commenced.
of fresh
tallow is first put into the pan, when
75 gallons
leyat 20" to 28" B. are run in, and the whole well stirred,
of the leyswith the tallow.
to ensure
perfectcombination
sufiered to rest until the following
The mixture
is then
After a
day, when the steam is to be again turned on.
of the
while- the grainsformed
during the saponification
oil gradually
disappear,and the tallow begins to assume
this is complete,
As soon
the usual pasty condition.
as
of small
is determined
which
by frequentexamination
the steam
during the boiling,
samples taken from the mass
is turned aS, and the process oiseparationcommenced.
of
To separatethe saponified
materials,small quantities
at a
old leysat 22" to 25" are added (about 3 or 4 gallons
Similar
effervescence
considerable
occurs.
time),when
time to time, with continual
doses of ley must be added from
portionof ley must be allowed
stirring
; but each
necessary,

the

the

THE

90

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

introducingthe next, otherwise the uprisingof the mass

will be so great as to render
be made
it liable to overflow.
The additions of ley must
be ascertained by
until separationis effected,
which may
in the usual way, when,
dippingthe shovel into the mass
the ley
if the soap appears
in small grains,
from which
runs
freely,the operation is nearly finished; but to
its perfect
ensure
completion,40 or 50 gallonsof the same
for about half an
ley are introduced, with brisk stirring
to

have

its full effect before

hour.
The

soap, which

is allowed
drawn

to repose

off

as

in the form'of very small grains,

the leyis
for eightor ten hours, when

is

now

usual,and

boilingwith

the

of
saponification

the

soap

leys. In
completedby
the first service about 90 gallonsof fresh caustic ley at
24" or 25" are run
into the pan, followed by gentleboiling
for eightor ten hours.
At the end of this time the leys
will be free from causticity.During the boiling,
ever,
howtakes place,
to make
up for the evaporationwhich
2 or
3 gallonsof ley should
be added about every hour
or

two

fresh services

of

so.

After

the

leysof

the last

operationhave been removed,

service of strong caustic leyis given. This ley
a second
should be of 27" or 28" B.
From
60 to 75 gallons
of this
ley are now run into the pan, steam turned on, and gentle
boUing applied for four or five hours, during which the
and by the evaporationof
consistency,
soap acquiresmore
from the ley the mass
decreases in bulk.
water
As in the
former operation,
repeatedsmall doses of strong leyjnust
be added
from
time to time, and the thick skin which
forms
mass

on

by

the surface of the soap should be driven into the

At the completion
of the operation
a stirrer.
the

leysshould
or

ten

stillbe caustic to the taste after a boil of

eight
The
hours.
if
granularsoap,
properlyfinished,

should,when

form hard and

pressed between the fingers,
scales
flakes,and readily
or
rubbed
in
dry
powder when
the palm of the hand.
The steam
is now
turned off,the
of the pan lowered upon it,and the
cover
soap allowed to
day, when the ley is drawn off.
repose until the following

OLEIC

the Soap.
Fitting

ACID

SOAPS.

91

This is

by running into
accomplished
the pan from 100 to 125 gallonsof the leyused in the separation,
The
is again heated,and
marking 6" or 7" B.
pan
when
the soap begins to boil, the grains expand, and
viscid and elastic. The boilingis allowed
become
more
few
to
a
pails of
proceed gently, and occasionally
After four
water
are
spread over the surface of the mass.
the soap assumes
or five hours' boiling
a more
homogeneous
lost
its
condition,having
granularform, and is in clots or
lumps,interspersedwith ley. The strengthof the ley is
is done by drawing ofi' a littleof the
tested,which
now
ley,and placingit aside to eool. If the ley marks from
the
16" to 18" B., the operation is complete. If below
until the ley
former mark, the boiling must be continued
indicates the above density,
otherwise the soap will be too
soft. On the other hand, if the ley has a densityof more
"

than

18"

or

In the
soap will be too hard.
be added to reduce the strengthof

B., the

12"

latter case, water

the ley.

must

The

soap being now

to retain the heat as

finished,the

pan

is covered

up, so
the leys,

by which
long as possible,
side,
suband efiectually
togetherwith all impurities,
gradually
The soap is allowed
leavingthe purified
soap above.
as

to rest in the pan

raised,and
It is then
uniform

an

the

for at least twelve

scum

ready for
condition

until it has become

hours, when

from
removed
carefully
in the usual way.
cleansing,

the lid is

the surface.
To insure

of the soap, it is crutched in the frames

cool and stiff.

gredient
Sometimes, in making soaps with oleic acid as an inthe tallow,or other fattymatters
are
saponified
mixed
with the oleic soap by
and afterwards
separately,
crutchingin the frames, and if it is desired to give a
slightperfume to the soap to disguisethe characteristic
odour of the oleic acid,a small quantityof nitro-benzol
'

be crutched in with the soap, which

may
it the odour of oil of bitter almonds.

A
the

communicates

to

by
above process, or, indeed,for other systems of saponification,
is that designedby Mr. Morfit (Fig.18). A is the
very

convenient

steam-jacket
pan

for making soap

THE

92

interior of

ART

set in brickwork

cast-iron pan

jacketinto whicli the

steam-tightby proper

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

fits

pan

and
closely,

luting, d

Fig.

; b

is the

cast-iron

is rendered

steam

supply-

IS.

for condensed
At E is a
steam.
pipe, c is an exit-pipe
for emptying the pan.
discharge-pipe
"Red
oil" is a very useful fattymaterial for soap-making.
Formerly,stearine was obtained only from tallow,but the
are
now
vegetablebutters,or oils ^palm and cocoa-nut
When
stearine
extensively
employed in its manufacture.
is made
and
by sulphuricadd saponification
subsequent
"

the
distillation,

"

oleic acid

known, commercially,
as

is of
"

brown

brown
oil."

colour, and is
It has a strong

empyreumatic odour, which may be partiallyremoved

by
of
current
passinga
superheatedsteam through it, and
be considerably
its colour may
improved by treatingit
with a small quantityof solution of bichromate
of potash
and muriatic acid,as in bleaching
palm-oil.
These fatty matters
do not
require caustic alkali for
their conversion
into soap, since they have
alreadybeen
converted
into fat acids,by the various processes
employed
in the m.anufacture of stearine for candle-making. It is
to treat these oils with carbonated
usual, therefore,
alkali,
before shown.
There are, however, several methods
as
of
neutraKsingthese fat acids with carbonate of soda, from
which

the

manufacturer

select that which

has his
may
should
be
preference. It is necessary that the soap-pan
that only a moderate
or
capacious,
chargeof oil should be

OLEIC

ACID

SOAPS.

93

operatedupon at a time, since a profuseeffervescence takes

in
place immediatelyafter the alkali and fat acids come
of the materials is greatly
contact, whereby the volume

Again, the alkali must be introduced (with

until the fuU proportion
brisk stirring)
has
very gradually,
been given.
In making these soaps it is the
Oleic
Acid
Soaps,
to estimate the exact quantityof soda that will be
practice
required to render a given weight of oleic acid neutral,
althougha slight
excess, and for some
soaps a largerexcess,
in
Morfit's
should be given. Sometimes, as
system, soda ash
of water
is dissolved in the proper equivalent
to form soda
soda crystals
melted in their [own water of
or
are
crystals,
in a jacket-pan,
by steam heat. Barilla,
crystallisation
kelp,bicarbonate of soda have also been used to neutralise
be no doubt
that the ordinary
oleic acid, but there can
in their fused or melted
soda crystals
of commerce,
state,
from
their
and
convenience,to be
comparativepurity
are,
to all other varieties of carbonate of soda.
preferred
The desired
quantityof oleic acid being run into the
(which should be a jacketedpan heated by steam),a
pan
allowed to
and the fused crystals
m.oderate heat is applied,
with brisk stirring ^which is more
flow in gradually,
performed by the steam twirl of Morfit. The
effectually
heat and stirring
be kept up until the effervescence
must
the condition of a homogeneous
assumes
ceases, and the mass
dried or
paste. If a soap of greater firmness is required,
be used in placeof a portionof the
effloresced soda may
fused crystals.The dried sal-soda is produced by passing
until they fall into
of hot air through the crystals
currents
be
and sifted soda ash may
Or finely-powdered
a powder.
increased.

"

"

used

oleic soaps, instead

using the dry carbonate

for inferior

crystals.In

of the

dried

soda

of soda, however,

fattyacid has been brought to

the portionof fused crystals
employed.
a paste with
is
If resin is to be introduced,the requisite
proportion
heated fat acid,and the
into the previously
to be thrown
continued until the whole of the resin has melted,
stirring
it must

be added

after which

after the

the fused sal-soda is to be

run

in

as

described.

ART

THE

91

When

the soap
to be shoTelled
be blended

SOAP-MAKING.

into the frames

of other soaps.
proportions
departurefrom the ordinarysystem
introduced by Dr. Kottula about

various

Soaps.

it is
consistence,
proper
in the usual way, or may

acquiredits

has

with

Kottula's

OF

"

of

soap-makingwas
attracted
much
at the time
twenty-five
years ago, and
Kottula
adds to
In conducting his process,
attention.
ordinarycurd,mottled,yellow,or other soaps, made in the
ordinary way, fattymatters, lime liquor,concentrated
soda leysand alum, with the objectof producinga cheaper
hitherto produced. The
neutral soap than he believes was
fattymatters he employs are such as are commonly used
by soap-makers. He first boils soda leysuntil they have
acquiredthe strength of about 30" B., and then adds
to them
alum, in the proportionof about 3 J lbs. to each
then
of ley. He
"lime
cwt.
a
liquor" by
prepares
lime
quantityof water as much
adding to any requisite
as

it will absorb

or

adds sal ammoniac

to

each

of

cwt.

take up, and to this lime solution he

in the proportionof about half a pound

the

solution.

Sometimes

sal ammoniac.
The fattymatters, concentrated

liquorare

added

now

that

to

fattymatters will
soap producedmay be
are

then

omits

leys,and

the
lime

the melted

the

and that the

The whole

soda

he

boiled

soap in such proportions

become
duly saponified,
of the

requireddescription.

in the usual

way.
leys,and

The

lime
proportionsof fattymatter, concentrated
liquormay be varied accordingto the character of soap
required. The following
proportions
mended
are, however, recom:
Ordinary fitted soap, or curd soap, 10 tons ;
fattymatters, 4 tons ; soda leys,
prepared as above, 4 J tons;
lime liquor,
To produce a mottled
6J tons.
soap he adds
of
certain
oxide of manganese,
a
quantity ultramarine,
or
other suitable pigment,previously
mixed with water, and
the whole are then boiled together
for half an hour, when
the soap is ready for cleansing
in the usual
way.
Instantaneous
Soap.
By a modification of the above
be termed
taneous
instanan
process Kottula produceswhat may
matters
with concentrated
soap, by combiningfatty
"

"

X.

CHAPTER

SOAPS.

CSEAPENEB
Process.

Normandy's
Processes.

Preparation
Mixing Silicate

"

to the

Previous

with

officer

excise

of Soda.

of Soda

"with

abolition of the

wondrous

was

ever

Process.

the

of Silicate

Preparation
Soaps.

duty on

soap, with
Excise
Board
to

view

hour

law

was

not

premises, like

patented

or

At

easilymanaged.
otherwise, which

duty) was

high,pricesof
soaps

offence.

materials

rendered

and

cheapening

period,any

involved

other
into soap of any substance
salt (on which
latter substance
criminal

this

than
there

the

its

since

the
in

man

regularlylocked up each copper

closing the factory arrived, evasion

for

to

and

possession,and
the

the

soap,

pertinacity; and

on

Gossage's

"

"

excise

the

resisted by

cheapen it, was

myrmidons

Sheridan's

foreignsubstance

of any

addition

Soaps

of Silicate

"

of Potassa.

Silicated

"

when
of the
process,

introduction

fats,oils,leys,and
was

also

high

During this period, the

the increasingdemand
for

processes

necessary

for

the

public convenience
; but, until the duty was
subsequently
abolished, improvements in this direction could not be
taken
advantage of by the more
enterprisingfirms, who

willingand
nature.
satisfactory

were
a

Dr.

both

Normandy's

addition
from

the

for

adopt improvements

cheapening soap by

of

the

sulphate of soda, met with strong opposition

excise authorities,
and, instead of reaping the
of his

irritation and
has

Process,

to

of

advantage
which

desirous

ingenuity,he

was

official interference.

since been

subjectedto

constant

Normandy's process,
subjectedto modifications,
according

CHEAPENED

SOAPS.

97

as
requirementsof tie manufacturer, is briefly
follows : The soap being made in the ordinaryway, and
transferred to the cleansingcopper, sulphateof soda, in
of 20 lbs. for every 80 lbs. of soap, and 4 lbs.
the proportion
of soda or of potash,or 2 lbs. of each, are
of carbonate

the

to

"

into the hot soap, and the whole

is perfectly
homogeneous,when

thrown
the

mass

well stirred until

the soap is ready

framingin the usual way.

of soda, and carbonate
The sulphate
of soda or potash,
in the liquidstate (that is,fused in
may be introduced
their water of crystallisation).
Supposingthe quantityof
and carbonate
of
soap to be treated is 3 tons, the sulphate
lower part of the
soda are to be put into the
or
pot,''
in the proportion
of 28 lbs. of the former
cleansing-copper,
for

"

4 lbs. of the latter for every 80 lbs. of soap, and then

The
allowed to fuse into a liquidstate.
soap is then to
with constant
be run
into the cleansing-copper
stirring,
and

while

the soap

is

until
being transferred,

the mixture

is

complete.
Sometimes

it is desirable

to

dissolve the

sulphateand

of soda in water, in which

case, 3 cwt. of water,
1 cwt.
of carbonate
of
of sulphateof soda, and

carbonate
2 cwt.

are
potash (or^ cwt. of each of the two latter)
put into
and dissolved by heat, as before;
the cleansing-copper
the soap is transferred from
the boilingafter which
of sulphate
of soda and 3 cwt.
21 cwt. more
copper, when
of soda or potash are
to be added
of carbonate
(orhalf
continued as before until
and the stirring
this quantity),
a perfectly
homogeneous mass results.
It is now
of
to melt the crystals
commonly the practice
carbonate
of soda in
or
Salt),
sulphateof soda (Glauber's
as
a steam-jacketed
required
pan, and to ladle the liquid
after
has
been
melted
it
into
the
into the
frames,
put
soap,
when the union of the materials is completedby crutching
salts are introduced by
in the ordinaryway ; or the liquid
means

of the steam-crutch.

One
process

of the
"

"

most

which, as we
the
is t^iat

important advantagesof the

have said,is subject
to many
sulphateof soda,when mixed
H

above
fications
modi-

with

THE

gS

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

of the materials
soap deficient in hardness, through poorness
of which
it is composed, crystallises
throughoutthe
artificialhardness, which

thereby gives it an
prevents it from washing away
and

mass,

freelyin

too

be
may
of -this
large quantities

Indeed, soap

the laundress.

employing
strongestpressure
in

of

hard

by

rendered

salt,as

When

so

resist the

to

it is

employed
the
on
however, it is very liable to effloresce
the soap, renderingit not onlyunsightlybut,to

excess,

surface

the hands

of

of the

thumb.

extent, unsalable.

some

Silicated

Sheridan's

Soaps:

Process.

cheapening substances

numerous

into pure
be deemed

may
favours

which

Of

"

have

all

duced
intro-

been

soaps, the silicateof soda, or soluble

the most
important, since it not

the introduction

of

large percentage of

the

glass
only

water

in

of soap, but it also possesses in itself a high

detergent property. The merit of applying silicate of

certain kinds

soda to soap is due to Mr. Sheridan,who obtained a patent

for his process as far back as the year 1835, at which
excise laws,
period,however, owing to the then existing
it could

not

fallen to

the

receive

that

extensive

adoption which

lot of

subsequent processes
ingeniousinvention.

based

has
his

upon

and most
original
is now
Although the silicate of soda, or soluble glass,
article of commerce,
and
an
extensively-manufactured
item
in
the
forms a necessary
long list of soap materials,
if we
it may
be interesting
dan's
give a brief outline of Sheriorigiualprocess. He first formed a "detergent
mixture," by boilingcalcined quartz or flint (previously
ground to an almost impalpablepowder) or sand, with
strong caustic soda, or caUgtic potash leys; the proportions
of
one
being
part by measure
ground calcined
flint

or

quartz to

These

28" B.

parts

"homogeneous
"

mass,

[aviscous

of either caustic

boiled

were

continual

hours, with
matter

two

ing
alkali,mark-

together for

until
stirring,

they

having
appearance
condition].When in
the

about

became
of

"

fied
saponi-

this state it
done by
was

ready to be mixed with soap, which

introducingthe
detergentmixture," as Sheridan
was

eight

called

CHEAPENED

it,a pailfulat
desired
soap.
at the

SOAPS.

time, with

99

until the
stirring,
quantityhad been incorporatedwith the finished
be as nearlyas possible
The silicatesolution must
same

effected

constant

the soap, and the mixture

the ordinarymethod
of crutching.

temperature

as

by
of
Respectingthe proportions

silicateof soda which may

"
be added to soap, Sheridan
I find that in curd soap
says,
best ; in
by weight,of each will answer
equal quantities,

yellowsoap

about

one-tenth

of the

mixture
detergent.
be used."
small sample
He, however, recommends
may
to be
batches,in varyingproportionsof soap and silicate,
made
to guidethe soap-boiler
of
as to the relative quantities
each which may be blended judiciously
to form the quality
of soap he may wish to produce. He recommended
mixing
the soap and silicate of soda in a small pan
capableof
holdingabout half a ton, and from this it was transferred
to an ordinaryframe.
The same
invention
related to the manufacture
of soft
soaps, for which the silicate of potash,before referred to,
and which
will be considered under the head
was
applied,
of Soft,or Potash Soaps.
Processes.
Gossage's
Nearly twenty years after the
of Sheridan's
publication
process, Mr. Gossage,of Widnes,
obtained
a
patent, namely,in 1854, which bears a close
more

"

resemblance

to

Sheridan's,except

in

the

method

of preparing

potash. In the patent

The objectof my
invention is
referred to Gfossage
says,
with true soap,
to providea soluble compound for ..mixing
which compound shall possess in itself chemically
gent
deterand be obtained at a low cost, thereby
properties,
enablingme to produce a compound soap the cost of which
valuable detergentprois greatly
reduced, but possessing
perties,
independentlyof the true soap contained in such
with soda or potash
silica is combined
compound. When
in such proportions
thatjthe alkaline matter
present is
in glass,
about double
the quantityusuallycontained
a
to chemists
as
compound is obtained which is known
and when
soluble glass,'
a solution of this compound is
prepared, by boilingit with water, and this solution
the

silicates of soda
"

'

and

THE

loo

ART

OF

SOAP-MAKING.

of water therefrom),
a thick
(by evaporation
redissolved
"viscous compound is obtained,which is easily
This thick viscous compound
by the addition of water.

concentrated

contains

alkali in

state of weak

combination

with

silica,

soap,*which contains
alkali in a weak combination
with fattyacids,and it is to
in both
this condition of alkali being weakly combined
binations,
compounds, and therefore ready to enter into other comthat the detergentproperties
of true soap and
the soluble compound of silica and alkali are attributable.
When
the thick viscous compound of silica and
alkali
(above mentioned)is added to true soaps, and intimately
mixed
therewith,a compound soap is obtained,at a low
valuable detergentproperties."
cost, possessing
of Silicate
of Soda.
Preparation
Gossage prepares
of
soda
silicateof
silicate
or
potashby fusion,much in the
same
way as that adopted in the productionof ordinary
bonate
glass. He mixes together about equal parts of dry carof soda and clean sand, to which is added one part
by weight of ground coke or charcoal for each nine parts
by weight of carbonate of soda. This mixture is melted
and

is therefore

analogousto

true

"

in the

same

way

as

glass-making.The

mixtures
melted

of sand

and

alkalies

are

in

is afterwards

poured into
cold water, which renders it more
friable. The product is
then ground to a fine powder, and afterwards dissolved by
boilingin three or four times its weight of water. During
the boiling
After
liquidcaustic soda is sometimes added.
reposingfor a few hours the clear liquoris drawn off and
until it assumes
concentrated by evaporation
a viscid condition
suitable for mixing with pure soap.
Preparation of Silicate of Potash."
In making silicate
of potash,twelve
parts of dry carbonate of potash,two
parts of sand, and one part of coke or charcoal are mixed
and the whole melted and treated as above.
In
together,
be used, in which case
place t)f sand, ground felspar
may
three parts of this mineral
substituted for two parts of
are
sand, and only one-half the quantity of alkali is used.
Sulphateof soda or sulphateof potashmay be used instead
*

"

mass

Or, as Sheridan said, Having the appearance^of

saponifiedmatter."

CHEAPENED

of soda

of the carbonates

glass,"in

which

substituted for

case

two

or

SOAPS.

loi

potashin making

the

"

soluble

three parts of either sulphateare

parts of either carbonate, and four

quantityof coke or charcoal above given.

found
that silicated soaps could
Gossage subsequently
be advantageously
produced from pure soaps containinga
much larger
proportionof resin than was usuallyemployed
in the manufacture
of hard soaps, whereby a very economical
and low-pricedsoap could be produced. In preparing
he
used
less
than
not
one
a genuinesoap
part of
times the

resin for each

both ; and

two

parts of tallow

oH, or a mixture of
and was
fitted,
ready

soap had been

for cleansing,
he introduced
the viscous

glassin

when

"When
converted

as

of soluble

the specific
proportions,
gravityof which
about 1"500 (waterbeing 1000).
manufacturinggenuine soap, to be afterwards
into silicated soap, in which a largerproportion

parts for each ten parts of tallow or oil,

mixture
of each, is used, he prefersto finish the soap
stiff curd," in which
state the viscous solution of

of resin than
a

solution

certain

should be

or

th"

or

six

"

glassis

introduced.

mixing the soluble glass

that the firstportionof the
with soap, it is recommended
solution should be of the specific
gravityof about 1"300,
and the remainingportions
at increasing
specific
gravities,
until the whole quantityof the silicate solution averages
the specific
gravityof 1 '500.
witli Soaps.
Silicate
of Soda
For effectually
Mixing
mixing genuine soaps with silicate of soda, Mr. Gossage
employs certain apparatus,the simplerform of which is
in the driawing
(Fig.19). A circular tub, a,
represented
havingthe form of an inverted cone, is fittedwith a series of
b b b,inside th^ vessel. A vertical shaft,b,
blades projecting,
also furnished with a series of blades,ccc, is supportedby
of the vessel,and by a
a- footstep,
d, fixed at the bottom
is
e, which
journal,adapted to a metallic bridge-piece,
secured
fixed over
the tub and
by screw-bolts to its
sides.
A bevelled cog-wheel is adapted to the upright
shaft,and a horizontal shaft,also providedwith a bevelled
is attached
and supportedby suitable bearings,
cog-wheel,
soluble

In

"

ART

THE

102

to the

work

tub, the

way

in gear with each

when

the

being so placedthat they will

other. A drivingpulleyis attached

wheels

two

to the horizontal

shaft,which is set in motion in the

apparatus is requiredto be used.

Fig.

"

diameters

of the

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

pulleysand

usual

The

19.

wheels

are

so

regulated.^that

tions
upright shaft may make from sixtyto eightyrevoluminute.
A
is
spout,j'^ attached to the lower part
per
of the tub, with a stopper,g, through which the contents
the

of the vessel
"

"When

are
am

run

off.

about

to

use

my

improved apparatus,"

THE

104

of

l-300",

and

of

gravity
of

OF:.SOAPrMAS:iNG.

ART

20

the

1'180",
Fahr.

150"

of

cwt.

caustic

mixtiire
whole

The

also

being

the

of

ley

soda

at

ture
tempera-

mixed

are

specific

together

by

agitation.
Into

mixture

same

of

the

as

again
be

to

is
usual.

(sp.
being

The

and

soda,

whole

mass

whole

leys

boiled

added.

reduced

boiled

to

about

when

boiling
ten

to

is

tons,

3
to

be

when

the
cwt.

above,
of

cwt.

of

cwt.

is

silicate
and

ui^til
to

be

the
salt

common

continued
it

40

the

saponification

fatty matters,

added

together,
The

until

of

20

with

of

cwt.

and

matters,

together

then

30

put

mixed

mixture
is

then

resinous

or

1*180)

gr.

former

soda

is

soap-copper

fatty, oily,

soda

complete.

of

are

of

caustic

water,
is

ordinary

an

cleansed

the

CHAPTER
CHEAP
Process.

Dunn's
in

Soap.

Soap.
"

In

"

"

ENEB

XI.
SOAPS"

Thomas's
Process.
Guppy's Process.
Clay. Douglas's Improvements.
"

China

Davis's

"

"

"

Potato-flour
Earth

Fuller's

Process.

silicated soaps, the

of soluble glass is

making

solution

{continued).

strength or densityof the

regulated by soap-makers

qualityof soap they desire to produce,

and the nature
of the
ture
goods employed in the manufacmaterials forming a perfectly
hard soap with
some
be borne
of the silicate. It must
a
very largeadmixture
in mind, however, that whenever
soluble glassis employed,
and
in however
small
a
proportion,the insoluble base,
silica,becomes
separated in washing, leaving a deposit,

according

to

the

"

"

"

the surface of the skin or linen cleansed

less,
upon
by it. Moreover, although silicated soaps possess good
not
they are
agreeable for toilet
detergentproperties,
since they are
purposes,
very apt to impart an unpleasant
more

or

the

skin

after

using them.
The objectbf this process is to comDunn's
Process.
bine
silicates of soda or potash with soap, under pressure,
whereby a more
perfectunion is stated to be effected,and
the same
method
is said to be applicable
to ordinarysoaps.
takes the materials in the usual
For yellow soap Mr. Dunn
proportions, say, tallow 7, palm-oil3, resin 3 parts, and
caustic
soda
leys at 21" B. from 140 to 150 gallons.
is furnished
boiler (Fig.20),which
These are placed in a steam
and all other appendwith a man-hole, safety-valve,
ages
of such an
dipping
apparatus, with a thermometer
At A is a feed-pipe,
and at B a
into a chamber
of mercury.
roughness to

soon

"

"

io6

THE

OF

ART

from
discharge-pipe,
at c.
receiving-pan

SOAP-MAKING.

soap passes to the

kindled, the boiler

the finished

which
The

fire

being

is sufficient
until the pressure at the safety-valve
to enable the temperature in the boiler to rise gradually
point it is allowed to remain
up to 310" Fahr., at which
charged
of the boiler are disthe contents
for about an hour, when

is heated

into

Dunn

the

paii c,

silicate of soda

his

prepares

the

and

is

process
or

complete.

potash also under

flint or quartz
pressure, by placingin the boiler crushed
of 1 cwt. of
and caustic soda or potash,in the proportion

gallonsof ley at

silica to 100

Fig.
then

heated

as

before,under

21"

from

the

whole

is

20.

pressure, until the

of the boiler indicates 310" Fahr.

should be

B., and

The

steam

ture
temperapressure

50 to 70

lbs. to the square inch,

equal
and after about three or four hours the silicate is to be
and is then ready for mixing
dischargedby the exit-pipe,
to

in any

requiredproportions.
An
made
in the
Guppy's Process.
improvement was
above
employed stronger
process by Mr. Guppy, who
which
f
rom
reservoir
into the boiler
were
a
leys,
injected
with

soap

"

CHEAPENED

graduallyby

means

of materials

are

caustic soda

F.

of

Afterwards

force-pump,and

hours at from

300" to 310"

complete. Samples are

of

small

taken from

and

introduced

by

for two

continued

heat

Fahr., when

boiler

pintsof ley at

30
tben

are

tbe

the

is
saponification
to time by means

the

time

fixed for the purpose.

process is said to be more

This modification
and

economical

its results.

Thomas's

described

about

cock

of the former

quicker in

into

put

are

24 lbs. of tallow

B. to every

means

force-pump. Guppy'sproportions
every 24 lbs. of tallow,10 pints of

17" B.

ley at

107

for

"

beated to 300"
25"

of

SOAPS.

Process.

sulphateof

"

In

of the processes
of soda, or
soda, carbonate
some

we

have
both

in

potash have been

employed as cheapening materials for soap.
By this
jointly
process, however, silicate of soda or potash is used conwith
sulphateor carbonate of soda or potashin
combination
with soap, by which a supposedadvantage is
nate
their separate use.
The
silicate and carbogained over
of either alkali may
be either mixed
before adding
them
be introduced
to the soap, or they may
separately,
but the patentee usuallyintroduces
the sulphate or carbonate
of soda in crystals,
and
then adds the silicate in
The sulphates
solution at a specific
gravityof about 1-600.
combination,

and

silicate of

soda

or

however, be uged in solution.

may,
the soap as taken out of the pan at
It is preferable
to use
170" to 200" Fahr., the proportions
a temperature of from
or

carbonates

of soap andthesalts beingregulated

accordingto thequality
of soap to be produced. The followingproportions
are

yieldgood results : I. Soap,15 cwt. ; sulphateof

soda
4 cwt. ; silicate of soda
crystals,
(specific
gravity
soda
1
12
II.
of
cwt.
cwt.
1-600),
crystals,
Soap,
; sulphate
2
6 cwt. ; silicate of soda (specific
gravityI'SOO), cwt.
said to

To

"

combine

the

soap
is employed, surrounded

fitted with

an

by

steam-tight
cover,

charging,and a
box with
stuffing

the

with
a

salts,a

jacket,and
with

man-hole

closed
the

vessel

vessel is

and

lid for

working in a steam-tight
attached,extending to within half

vertical shaft
arms

inch of the sides,and

with vertical blades

attached

to

lo8

THE

the

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

.ART

the manhole
soap is first introduced through
the salts are added,
when
the shaft set in motion
The

arms.

and

until

and

the rotary motion

continued
is effected. If the mass
becomes

too

is raised

combination
perfect

stiffthe temperature
into
to the jacket,
or

by turning on the steam

finished is
the vessel itself,
and the soap when
blown
or
or
cock, at
out, through a passage
"part of the vessel,and is conveyed to the frames
it is crutched

for

drawn

off
the lower
in which

time, as is usual with soaps of this kind.

ingeniousinventor of silithe idea of blending

cated soaps (Mr. Sheridan)conceived
of potato-flour,
which he
with pure soap certain proportions
carried into effect in the followingway :
Equal partsby
and cold water are mixed thoroughly,
weight of potato-flour
To every 12" lbs. of the
so that" no
lumps may remain.
Potato-flour

in

Soap.

The

"

"

flour used

37 lbs. of

added,

are

and

solution
the

alum,

of

whole

well

free from

ment,
sedi-

incorporatedby

is added, in the same

tion
proporfor
of
before,namely,
potato-flour
every ISj lbs.

stirring.To this mixture

as

used,
whole

40 lbs. of soda

mixed

"making hard
The

above

mixture," is

potash leys at 22" B., and the

For
togetherinto a homogeneous mass.
soaps the soda leysare to be used.
is called the "detergent
mixture, which

now

to

or

be

heated

at

temperature of

from

170" to 190? Fahr., but not higher,for from three to five

hours, which is best done by steam in a jacket-pan.During
the

heating the

mixture

is to

be

constantlystirred,to

prevent it from adheringto the sides of

mixture, being now
ready,is to be added
when

the

pan.

The

to melted

soap,
for cleansing.This is

it is in the

proper condition
best done by placingthe soap in a half- ton
pan, when
detergentmixture, while still hot, is to be added, a

the

ful
pail-

time, and

well crutched in, in the same

a
way that
curd soap is crutched.
It is
necessary that the detergent
mixture
and soap should be as nearlythe same
ture
temperaThe
the
of
as
possible.
quantity
detergentmixture
at

which

is to be added

to one-third

to the

soap

may

vary

from

one-fifth

termine
by weight ; but the soap-maker should dethis by making small samples with
different

CHEAPENED

SOAPS.

109

of
proportions

the

mixture land allowing

them
detergent,
After well crutching,
the soap and. detergent
to cool.
mixture, the compound, soap is put. into the ordinaryframes.

...'
-

China

of

6oaps

(Kaolin)in Soap.^rThe introduction into

ingredientswhich possess no detergent

Clay
solid

in themselves, cannot
properties,

be

^commended,, neither

this system of adulteration he encouragedby.soapin the manufacture of soap depends

makers, whose success
should

'for lonesty. If the public rezY^,

reputation.
do in the present age of adulteration)
(as they certainly
and
worthless goods in prefercheap,
ence
encourage
the. most
even
must
genuine articlea,i
scrupnlo,us

their

upon

however
to

yieldto

the demand.

Douglas's
consists in

,:,;..

impro-ffenients

"

.1

in the ;nanufacture of soap

"

combining i.any.Varietyof claywith,

soap ; the
China clay

approvedsubstance, however,is kaolin,or

which abounds
in, some
(a silicate of alumina,)^
extensively
The
districts in Cornwall..
-clayis placed in ,a yessel,
heated
and worked
by steam or otherwise,i.
up into a paste
with water; the claybeing in the proportionof about 25
.Heat being applied,
the mixture ,of
per cent, of the mass.
clay and water is effected by constant stirring.To this is
solution of salt in the proportion
then
added a saturated
of about one-twentieth
The proportion
part of the whole.
most

of the

above

.be.added

mixture.to

to melted

spap is regulated

of the manufacturer-^the-iutmost
by the requirements
extent
being 50 per cent, of the clay. Persons of peculiar
fancyuse these argillace9us
soaps for toilet purposes.
,

Puller's

have

been

substance
best.

Soap..-^Ofall the

Earth

mechanicallycombined
known

as

with
adulterant

soap
than

with

earth
fuller's",

Moreover, being

in itself a

solid matters,

soap, thet mineral

is

undoubtedly the
tion
detergent,its combina-

partakesless of. the character of a mere

other argillaceous
isubstances.
(or,clayey)

known,
soap was
mediuna.
cleansing

Indeed,long before

employed as a
It is nearly twenty
into the market

which

this substance

was

years

combination

since

the

introduced

author
.

of soap

and

fuller's

earth.

THE

no

under

the

OF

SOAP-MAKING.

Soap ; but although it

approbationas an agreeabletoilet"

title of Fuller's Earth

considerable

with

met

ART

The method
extensive sale.
an
soap, it failed to command
of preparingit is givenbelow, but it should be stated that
the utmost
into the soap
the objectwas
to introduce

of the

amount

that could be

earth

detersive

with it,in order that the

should be considered the active

mixed

which
quality,
oven,

the

should

fuller's earth

The

at

occurs

moderate

moisture

with

mechanically
and not the former,
latter,
ingredient.

be

of

the

best

commercial

largelumps,and first dried in an

heat,the objectbeing merely to expel
in

it is associated,so that
again moistened with water.

which

it will

It is a
freelyslaken when
that they are
more
peculiarityin this,and other clays,
then
moistened.
and
When
after
friable,
being dried,
the fuller's earth
is thoroughlybaked, the lumps are
placedon a flat slab,with a ledge round it,and are then
that
to absorb
sprinkledwith water until they cease
of water
an
excess
liquid,which is ascertained when
taken up by the dried earth.
to be absorbed, or
ceases
When
the lumps have
thus become
saturated,the clay
becomes
be

dried

soft and

very
at

pasty

to

the

touch.

gentle heat, until

very
it will assume
the form

It is

all the

now

water

to

is

when
of a fine,but not
expelled,
reduced
impalpablepowder. In this condition it is easily
there may
be any lumps present,
to a powder,but in case
it should be sifted through a fine gauze-wiresieve.
To
mix
the fuller's earth with
(resinsoap by
soap
latter
should
the
be
into
a steam
preference),
put
jacketand
the
earthypowder spreadover the surface,a little
pan,
at a time, with constant
until the full quantity
crutching,
has been
introduced.
Bearing in mind, however, that
the dried clay dried is highly absorbent,after a certain
quantity has been worked in, the mass will become considerably
and therebyrender the crutchingboth
stiffened,
laborious and difficult,
to make
therefore,
up for the water
from
the
expelled
a small
quantity
soap by evaporation,
of hot water
be
if
and
added,
finally,
may
necessary,
any
desired perfume added, if for a toilet
In this way
soap.

XII.

CHAPTER

SOAP.

DISINFECTING

Pearlash
Bleaching Soap in the Pan.
Method.
Soap. Lime Soap, hy Lunge's

Chloridised Sanitary Soap.

to Combined

"

Sanitary

Chloridised

the

for which

added

"

"

Soap.

obtained

author

patent

the

objectof

The

"

in

process,

1865,

to

was

ing,
and toilet soaps, disinfectimpart to ordinaryhousehold
deodorising,and bleaching properties,and at the
time

same

increase

to

material

worked

up

into

of

solution

of

carbonate

soda

either

"

was

(bleachingpowder)
cold

paste with

thin

of lime

soap.

of soda, wbich

chloride

employed was
prepared by mixing chloride
The

of the

action

detersive

the

water,

soda

with,

crystalsor

The double
being used, according to convenience.
decompositionwhich takes place when the two substances
(chlorideof lime and soda) are brought in contact, resiJts
soda

in

asb

of lime
make

To

of chloride

formation

the

as

the

in

soda

solution,and

bonate
car-

insoluble

precipitate.
Take
DisinfectingMixtv/re.
an

of chloride

"

28 lbs. and

of lime

of

mix

into

thin

paste

or

"

"

cream

with

gallonsof cold water, then dissolve 32 lbs. of soda

The
solution
of soda
crystalsin 18 gallonsof bot water.
is to be placed in a clean tub or cask (a steamed
oil cask
will do), and a crutch placedin it for stirring. Two
strips
about

10

of wood

which

upon

chloride
each
be

are

then
a

mixture

laid

fine

across

wire-gauze

is

now

to

ladleful is introduced

briskly stirred.
*

The

Otherwise

rim of the vessel,

upper
sieve is to be rested.
The

the

be ladled into the

the

contents

of the vessel

object of passing
chlorinated

sieve,and

lime.

the

are

as

to

chloride

DISINFECTING

SOAP.

113

keep back unmixed lumps,fragments

of wood, and otlier impurities.When
nearly all the
chloride has been added, with constant
the mass
stirring,
througlia

thickens

sieve is to

the

fluid,when
is

in

and

few

mixture

the

after it becomes

is complete,
and
decomposition

ready for use.

of
The proportion

frame,

moments

more

the mixture

frame being put into the

soap for one
is to be added a pailful
at a time, and

two men,
well crutched by one, or by preference
care
being
the sides and ends of the
taken
to clear the .soap from
frame, otherwise dark patchesof the originalsoap wiU

appear
The
"

soap

when

the

mass

is cold.

into the " sanitary

of soap for converting
which
the leys have been
stiff curd, from

best kind
is

allowed

to

draia

as

much

possible,
by several hours'
is also importantthat the soap

as

It
in the soap-pan.
should not be of a highertemperature than 130" to 150"

repose

F.,

This is,however, readily

occur.
separation
may
avoided
by adopting the precaution suggested. After
the soap is allowed to cool as usual,and is then
crutching,
cut into bars in the ordinary
way.
this soap is prepared from ordinaryLondon
"When
grey
mottled soap, the bleachingproperty ofthe chloride of soda
will manifest itself by the superiorcolour of the soap,
to some
which, while preserving,
extent, the mottle or
if the
strike," will be considerablyimproved
; and
from
rank and coarse
goods,
original
soap has been made
their
odour
the chloride will have diminished
disagreeable
in a great degree. Indeed, the chlorinated soap has an
exceedinglyagreeableodour as compared with ordinary
mottled soaps.
It will be observed that, in adding the
of lime resulting
from,
above mixture to soap, the carbonate
the decompositionalso enters the soap, and this might
It is but fightto mention
naturally
appear objectionable.
is properlyprepared,
and
therefore that when the mixture
its incorporation
with the true soap satisfactorily
plished,
accomof lime are
of carbonate
the impalpable
particles
neither do they present any inconvenience
not perceptible,
when the soap is used for laundryor other purposes, while.
otherwise

"

THE

114

the

on

other
It

user.

whose

women

SOAP-MAKING.

its very
superior cleansing and
economical
render
it infinitely
to
more

hand,

bleachingpowers
the

OF

ART

has

been

hands

had

found

in

laundries

large

suffered much

that

using mottled

from

were
containingcaustic ley in its interstices,
ably
agreefind
hands
their
excoriated
assume
surprised to
the normal
condition after usingthe chloridised soap for a
Indeed
it is a fact that this compound soap
short time.
to the skin, which,
impartsa most agreeablesmoothness
after usingit,becomes remarkablysoft and glossy.
Instead of employing carbonate of soda in preparingthe

soap

chloride of
of soda

soda,as

described,a solution of silicate

be used, for which
suggestion

before

(glass
liquor)may

the author
the Barnes

indebted

was

to his friend

Soap Works.

Mr.

John

In this case, thp

Cowan,

of

followingproportions

be taken.

may
Chloride of lime

worked

up

into

thin

paste or

cream,

before 20 lbs. ; silicateof soda, 20 lbs.,

dissolved in warm
until it marks
about 18" Twaddell.
water
These materials
as

to

are

and

be mixed

the

and

used

proportionsof

in the

the

same

chlorinated

manner

before,

as

mixture

may

regulatedaccordingto the nature of the soap, from

six 60 lb. pailfuls
being a fair proportionfor a

be

four to
half-ton

frame.
When
and

the chloridised soap has been well

floor-boards washed

with it become

with

prepared,linen

remarkably white

comparativelylittle labour, which facts

demonstrated
by repeatedand extensive trials.
It should
of

be mentioned

that the

considerablybardening soaps

have

been

chloride has the effect

free from
resin,and is

available
specially

for soaps containinga large

percentage
"
of cocoa-nut
oil ; and even
after being heavily" run
or
with
silicate
liquored
solution,several 60 lb. pailsof the
chloride mixture may be added
with advantage.
of
this kind
to

An

however
"

Soap
ning
begin-

should be crutched,as usual,until

set."

of the chloride of soda is in

importantapplication
bleachingsoap made from the darkest nigers,which may
be effected by introducing
certain
proportionsof the

DISINFECTING

chloride,until the
improved.
Bleaching

1^5

colour of the soap is

in the

Soap

dark-coloured

SOAP.

Pan.^
"

When

from
soap is made
in which
certain
a

materials

goods,or from

ciently
suffi-

and
evidently

siderable
quantityof dark- coloured fattymatter forms a part,a conimprovement in the colour of the batch may be
made
by adding a moderate quantityof solution of chloride
is comof soda after the first operationof saponification
plete.
The chloride solution is prepared in the same
way
described
in
the
first
but
three
as
formula,
twice,or even
times the quantityof water
should be applied,
in order to
facilitatethe depositof the carbonate
of lime.
After the

materials

have

for each

28

about

for

56

of lime

gallonsof

and

32 lbs. of soda

cold water

gallonsmore

water

are

added

stirred,after which it is allowed to

the clear liquor(which has
few hours, when

the mixture

repose

with, say, 28

lbs. of chloride

crystalsused,
and

mixed

been

well

and
slightlygreenishtint)may be drawn ofi'as required,
much
of it spread over
the boiling
of the pan
contents
as
of a ladle or swimmer
be found necessary
as may
by means
to bleach or decolour the saponified
mass.
all the liquor has been
When
drawn off the residual
carbonate of lime, a quantityof fresh water
should be
a

'

added

in order to wash
out, as far as
stirring,
the remaining chloride,
and the weaker liquor
practicable,
thus obtained
be used
in place of water, in future
may
batches,as in making ordinaryleys. Although the process
has been extensively
adoptedin various parts of the United
Kingdom, with one or two honourable exceptionsit has
been

with

brisk

used without

licence.

Fearlash

neutralise
soaps
Blake

"

added

the

that

to

Combined

Soap.

"

With

contained
spent leys (salts)

is,curd and

and MaxwelPs

in

view
combined

hydrated soaps combined,

process,
certain
a

or

to

in

as

other such combinations

"

quantity of pearlash,the
of spent leys
proportionvarying accordingto the excess
contained
in such combined
s6a,p. About 1 cwt. of pearlash to 3 tons of soap is said to be sufficient,
though a much
largerproportionmay be used for some soaps.
Kottula

introduces

the

m6

Lime

Soap,

any

the

quantity

to

of

cent,

per

boiled

be

when

and

glycerine

bottom

floating

be

flakes

does

employed

of

quantity

latter

pan.

of

lime

of

(the

deposit,

on

contain

not

salt

sea

is

liquid.

suflBcient

salt,

added

be

to

water

added,

"

bonate
car-

soda
If

soap

the

soda

sufficient

to

and

insoluble

hard

the

of

of

soluble

off

drawn

granulated

"

of

.being slightly

the

leaving

surface

the

be

next

are

is

solution

latter

when
and

whole

quantity

used)

to

by preference),

may

certain

soda

decomposed,

will

lime

in

the

the

stirring continued,

will

of

when

added

equal

The
"

and

soap

is

lime

matter.

agitator

"

an

lime

quantity

and

soap

hard

of

the

boiling

lime

(with

fatty

introduced

this

slaked

and

of

weight

is

To

matter.

water,

carbonate

of

excess

the

of

stirred

commercial

in

fatty

produced,

are

the

and

of

whicli

into

soap',

is

pan

"

this

insoluble

an

from

the

flat-bottomed

Method.

making
quantity

soap-makjng.

of

Lunge's

given

double
12

by

for

preferred

art

the

promote

separation.
"

this

In

make

from

soap

oils, without

impure
oil.

good

the

way,"

When

cocoa-nut

of

the

weight

prepared

is

and

used.

therefore

stated
a

of
of

to

lime

the

be

tolerably

"

says,

very
pure

with

matters

extracting

palm-oil

or

quantity

fifth

fatty

previously

the

process,

inventor

is

possible

the

be

equal

soluble,
carbonated

to

The
even

in

alkali

or

fat

pure

saponified

matter.

to

membranes,

is

should

fatty

it

by

this

about

one-

thus

soap
salt

or

water,

should

be

CHAPTER

XIII.

SAPONIFICATION
Bennett

and

Gibts's

UNDER

Process.

Mr.

"

PRESSURE.

Rogers's Process.

Saponification. Gluten

ia

"

Bennett

Cribbs's

and

attempts

including the

before

materials
Messrs.

described,

have

and

for

in

cold

"

several

been

other

the

than
"

of

process

Mr.

agitation of the
preliminarystage of the operation.

performsthe

Bennett

in 1865

There

"

of

Process

Soap.

produce saponification
by

to

ordinary means,
Hawes,

Process.

New

"

which

of New

Gibbs

York

obtained

patent

mechanical

which
is said to possess
process
followingadvantages : 1. Rapidity of manufacture
;

the

Improvement in quality; 3. Increased

quantity;
in labour ; 5. Saving in fuel ; 6. The use
4. Economy
of
of all the grease ;
cheaper materials ; 7. Saponification
which
into the soap.
8. Saving of the glycerine,
enters
The
following descriptionof the process is given in
2.

Dussauce's

Treatise.

consists in agitatingthe
process
with caustic or carbonated
alkalies

"Their,
materials

in

in water
in such

closed vessel,while

manner

the

fats with

alkaline solution.
enclosed

in

water, and
280
"400"
soda

lbs. per

F.,

to

cause

and

pressure,
mixing of the

solution,and

vessel with

heat

heat

in solution

thorough
taneous
producing an instanof the fattyacids with the base of the
We
a
quantity of fattymatter
suppose

as

alkaline

combination

under

saponifiable

of soda

in

pressure

of 220

to

temperature

of 350"

to

solution of carbonate

applied to produce

square

inch,

combination

and

fattyacids and
placeonly at the upper

between

of the solution will take

of the solution when

in contact

the

with

the under

the
face
sur-

surface

grease, the
the vessel,and soap
and alkali unite.

of the

"

If

we

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

THE

ii8

heavy ley occupyingthe lower -partof

will only be producedwhere the fat

agitatein such

now

thoroughlymix the contents

wUl be instantlyconverted into a
qualityof soap. It is advisable to
"

The

in the soap.
inventors
use

the
and

convenient

in any

cylinderis
is about

made

the

so

than

or

One

manner.

to be

as

water

more

no

use

cylindersimilar to a
resting horizontally,and

boiler

steam-boiler

plain cylinder
heated

together

of the vessel,the whole

homogeneous and even

and

is wanted

to stir

as

manner

both

or

heads

of

convenientlyremovable,

full size of the

inner

diameter

of the

Fig. 21.

cylinder,so
shaft, a

as

to

admit

of the insertion of

(Fig.21), which

should

be

as

revolving
long as the
a

cylinderitself. The bearings of this shaft should be in

and either or both ends worked
the centre of the cylinder,
for the convenience
of applying'
c
through a stuffing-box
to revolve the shaft.
On the shaft
to the pulleyh power
fastened arms
are
extending
g g'with floats or stirrers//,
of
the
sides
the
the
to
or
floats,
cylinder
nearly
;
arms,
side of the shaft when
revolved carrying
on
one
agitators
into the alkali,while the agitators
the fat down
the
on
side

other

under heat
and

causing the conversion

vessel
soap.

carry the alkali up into the fat,thus, while

and pressure,
thoroughlymixing the whole,

into
instantly

of the whole

uniform, even,

and

contents

of the

good qualityof

process

OF

ART

THE

120

is 200 lbs. of soap

SOAP-

MAKING.

100 lbs. of grease

for every

employed.
The

kind
the

of

to making any
is stated to be applicable
includingsoft soap, which is preparedwith
the use
other,without requiring
as
rapidity
any

process
of soap,

same

much

so

Mr.

potash as

Rogers's

W.

G.

ordinaryprocesess.
Process.
By another

in the

of Mr.

namely,that

G.

"

W.

process,

of Lancaster, N.

Rogers

Y.,

larc temperature,instead
and similar
of the high temperature adoptedin the above
systems,by which the inventor states there is a savingof
the soap can
be made in from fifteen to
as
time, inasmuch
under

soap is made

pressure

at

By
minutes, with complete saponification:
twenty-five
t
hus
the
materials
become
this plan,moreover,
bleached,
enablinginferior goodsto be employed in the manufacture.
in a tank heated by steam, and
The materials are mixed
thus preparedis run
into an iron cylinder
the mass
capable
and
to a pressure of
of holding one or more
tons,
subjected
of a forceabout 400 lbs. to the square inch by :means
The mass
is kept in this cylinder
driven by steam.
pump
is complete,
when it is run into frames.
until saponification
of fatty
By this system any of the usual combinations
be employed, and the product is said to be
matters
may
It shoiild be observed that in
both processes given carbonate of soda is used instead of
also renders
the employment of
caustic
soda, which
and

both firm

translucent.

salt unnecessary.

common

of

Berghart has
patenteda process by which animal or vegetablefats or
oils are distilled into caustic or carbonated leys of soda or
potash. The fattymatter is placedin a jacketedretort,
heated by high-pressure
steam, or in a retort otherwise
Process

New

heated

without

to

air
volatilise,

or

out

with

When

carbonic

carries

in proper

combination

^M\

"

temperature which will volatilise the

charring it.

retort, which

Sapomficatiou.

the

acid
the

oil
gas

or

fat

is blown

oil

or

fat

begins
into

to

the

densed
fattyacids,which are conreceivers. Atmospheric air alone,or in
in carrysuperheatedsteam, is preferred
ing
over

this part of the process.

,,,^ERGHART'S

The

into tlie space

when

The

current
a

121

air,is sometimes

more

less

or

in the retort,
into the melted fat.

direct

the fatty

finelydivided state,when

series

or

blown

liquidfattymatter

of air has the eflfect,ofcarryingover

chamber,

the

above

advisable it is blown

and

into

and

of,air,or steam

current

acids in

PROCESS.

they pass

of chambers, which

fitted

are

in such a way that the current, in passing

partitions
through them, depositsthe solid fattyacids in the ordinary

with

way.

When

the

fattymatters,
alizarine

instance, contain
the

fatty acids

alizarine

other

or

fat from
other

It is

or

the

from

retort, while
remains

colouring matter

is afterwards

retort, and
recovered.

over

pass

printer'sgrease, for
other
colouringmatters^

as

treated

td

colouring matter,
therefore important, when

colour is present, to avoid

too

in

separate

the

high

the

which

the

maining
reany
is thus

alizarine
a

or

temperature

in the distillation.
In

soap by this process, the vapour

acids is passeddirect into caustic or carbonate
or

of
is

of the

making

potash,the strengthof which

the fattymatter
employed.
the
used,
ordinaryprocess of

leys of

depends upon
If a slightexcess

fatty
soda

the nature
of alkali

"

salting is not required.

The
fatty acids are blown into the leys until the alkali
is nearlyor about neutralised.
The
ley is by preference
contained
in a closed tank, which
communicates
directly
with
the
the
outlet pipe of the retort.
If necessary,
fatty acids may be mashed before being treated with ley,
in

which

case

the vapours

are

"

allowed

to

pass

into

The
inventor
containing water.
prefers to
to
employ hot air and superheatedsteam in combination
the fattyacids into the ley,by which
the soap
carry over
boiled during its formation,and thus time is saved
becomes
in the operation. The
air has an
important effect in
aidingthe chemical reaction, apart from its use as a
The steam
is used
vehicle to carry over
the fattyacids.
in
to prevent the charringof the matters, and
principally
the making of the soap to assist in the boiling
of the same.
By the employment of the high temperature, the fatty
cham.ber

acids

of

sulphuric

Glnteu

in

consists

in

which

making

ten

In

at

any

about

for

digesting
is

mass

sieve

or

in

that

undergo

"

the

This

cloth,

proportion

nitrogenous
decomposition

the

as

is

it

It

given.

matters,
on

ready

such
treatment

be

must

as

from

are

caustic

the

to

in

borne

fine

added

gluten,
with

after

up

homogeneous

be

to

thus

potassa)

through

strained
is

or

take

clear

is

derived

will

alkali

now

when

(soda

of

increased

gluten

gluten

or

when

hours,

some

obtained.
coarse

added

of

alkali

alkali,
extent

impart

to

solution

bran,

the

to

soap

said

caustic

much

is

source,

is
The

of

as

with

Lorberg,

caustic

in

gluten

mixed

soap.

solution
B.

of

It

the

28"

other

be

cent.

to

"

solution
to

per

emoUiency
made-:

by

patented

process,

"

afterwards

is

about

This

saponification.

of

or

without

compounds

glyceryl

the

acid

Soap.

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

from

separated

are

aid

the

soap

ART

THE

122

mind

apt
alkali.

to

CHAPTER

XIV.

VAEIOUS

Kiirten's

Process.

Soap.

Villart'a

mottled

making

oil is boiled

hours,

so

second

when
It

charged

that

appearance,"

yellow

together, and,
mixture
of
stirred

that
the

90

caustic

for five

the

frames,

The

Soap

six

days.

and

of

put into

solution

the
cut

10

of

the

course

remain

to

water,
lbs. to

soap-pan,
into
small

or

20

lbs.

and,

and

when

of

in

for

frames
of

every

so

lbs.

added

to

it and

the

tion
solu-

then

well
thick

ladled

from

potash,
100

of

into

solid.

become

boiling,the

when

pieces) is

lbs.

becomes

day will

solution

melted

are

is

of

parts

lbs. of

40
mass

it

the

usual.

surface.

it ; it is then

from

to

beautifully mottled

The

minutes,

when

as

process,

soda

added.

are

ten

is allowed

Now

this

and

frames

smooth

is added

separate
in

has

by

soap

potash

ley cannot

has

six

sufficientlyhard,

into
"

to

ley composed

soap

until

put

of
resin
part
100
nearly cool, for every

of

or

made

and

when

lbs.

be

The

meantime

added,

former

together

freely,and

palm-oil

or

the

is to

thus

the

oil,and

palm-

soap.
three

from

pan

part potash

soap

formed

soap
lathers

making

hard

is

For

soaps.
bleached

In

cocoa-nut

boiled

thus

the

settle.

and
into

soaps

soap

is said

soda

of

into

"

Cutting

"

potash

caustic

fat, or

in

may

with

turning

two

the

tallow

ley

is

is

remain

Proceaa.

Process.

manufacture
bone

Disinfecting

Bernadet's

process

converted

to

the

the

and

ley

that

the

In

tallow,

caustic

mass

it, and

soap,

allowed

pan

parts

the

in

.Symons's
"

Villacrose's

"

ttis

soda

Mr.

"

Eefuse.

Process.

In

"

with

is then

'Process.
Animal

Crevel's

"

caustic

to

from

Process.

added

of

made

Process.

Knrteu's

soap

Lutntarton's

"

Soaps

"

PROCESSUS.

three

in
of

the

to

portion
pro-

soap,

soap
allowed

is

viously
(preto

THE

124

OF

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

hard
but without boiling.If it is not sufficiently
dissolve,
until it becomes
brine is to be added
when dissolved,
quite
in
the
use
thick.
The noveltyof this process consists
of caustic potash,and
dissolvingand warming up the
it."
soap a second time without boiling
consists
in saponifyingfatt)'
Lnmliartoii's
Process
posed
commatters
by boilingthem with an alkaline mixture
of carbonate
of soda, quicklime,
salt,and
common
alum, the ingredients
being mixed in the followingproportions:
Sub- carbonate of soda, 10 parts; quicklime,
10 parts; alum, 1 part; common
salt,1 part. These,
being mixed with water, are added to the fattymatters,
come
and the whole well boiled,when, it is said,they will beperfectly
saponified.The soap produced by this
and the productwill be
process contains all the glycerine,
hard soap of very fine character ; has no disagreeable
"a
be used for toilet or ordinary
smell,and can consequently
washing purposes."
Mr.
Symons's
Disinfecting Soap consists in adding to
and deodorising
substance
ordinarysoaps the disinfecting
known
as
thymol or thymic acid,which is soluble in water,
in solutions of alkalies,
"c., forming compounds which
Its advantages over
soluble in water.
carbolic acid,
are
creosote, "c., are that it has no unpleasanttaste or odour,
Its solutions are
being very aromatic.
stronglyantiseptic,
i
n
and possess disinfecting
properties a higherdegree
solutions do not act
than carbolic acid, and its weaker
but coolingly."
cauterisingly
"

"

"

Soaps
well

made

that

known

Animal

from

caustic

tissues,membraneous
animals

except

the

alkalies

bone,
much

Continent,however,

some

this

Although it is
saponifyanimal

"

will

matters, and

material has not been

the

Befnse.

indeed

of

source

exploredin this
attention

has

all parts of

soap-making
country. On
been

devoted

and
devised for utilizing
subject,
many
processes
oflFaland
butchers' waste
as
slaughterers'
soap material.
Some of these processes are given in Dussauce's
Treatise,

to this

from
"

which

we

Bernadet's

few extracts :
Frocess.
The intestines

make

"

"

are

depositedin

VARIOUS

PROCESSES.

125

ley to prevent decompositionuntil they are to be

used.
The ley is then heated until entire saponification
which
takes place,
operationis easy, and a very slightlyIf required
to be whitened,
coloured grey soap is obtained.
a solution of chloride of soda (see
page 112) is poured into
salt is added
to produce
the pan, after which
common
separation.
has for its object
the conversion of
Villart's
Process
in generalinto soap, but more
animal matters
especially
of meat, scrapings
of tallows (query,
the residuum
suets),
"c. From
these two kinds of soap are obtained,
intestines,
white colour, not very firm, and
the first of a greenishodour ; the second is similar to the
having a disagreeable
above, but with the addition of resin and tallow,properly
and
mixed with the 'animal soap.' The prosaponified
cess
into
four operations
is divided
:
The substances
1. Maceration.
are
placedin wooden
when
tubs capableof holdingabout 300 or 400 lbs.,
a ley
composed as follows is poured over them : Lime, 10 parts;
caustic

"

"

"

"

ash, 12 parts ; water,

soda

slaked

and

the soda

100

parts.

The

lime

is first

in water, and this is

and
the mixture
stirring,

dissolved

ash

the lime, with

the animal
substances,the whole being
remain
in this condition for some
time, but

poured on
poured over

then
then

allowed to
with occasional

stirring.
the saponification
(by
Washing. When

"2.

has been
in tubs, to

the animal
effected,
the lime

remove

substances

attached

to

are

tion)
macera-

washed

after which

them,

the action of the air.

"
to the air,the
After sufficient exposure
3. Solution.
animal substances are placed in a pan, with a sufficient
add
quantity of water, and for every pound of them

they are

exposedto

follows

Soda

ash,
This leymarks
15",and
1 lb. ; lime, 1 lb. ; water, 6 lbs.
or
has always succeeded ; however, weaker
stronger leys
20" to 30", and givesa good
be used, that is from
may

gallonsof ley at

12

4"

prepared as

"

result.
"

The

animal

solution is to be

matters

being completelydissolved,the

poured off

from

the lime, and

the solu-

126

THE

ART

-OF

SOAP-MAKING.

25 gallons
again boiled,adding,during the boiling,
the second ley for every 2 lbs. of substance,and
tinue
conit has the appearance
of a
to boil until,on cooling,

tlon
of

firm

paste.
The

objectof this operationis to give

which
it salable as a
will render
consistency

Coction.

"4.

the soap a
commercial

for
article,

tallow and resin

purpose
proportionsvarying from 2 to 100 per cent,

in

added

the second
of the

ley above
first

soap

'

which

obtained,take

No. 2, 200 lbs.

50 lbs. ; liquor,
until perfectly
when
saponified,
to
added, little by little,

boilingcontinued
it is

hard, when
two

avoid

until

the

into

run

for

given. Thus,

treating500

are

in

lbs.

resin,100 lbs. ; tallow,

These
the

are

former

too much

paste,

be

soap

boiled
is to be

and the
swelling,
cooling,becomes

on

frames,and

to

may

be cut in about

days after."
Process.

Crevel's

meats,

"

Melt

in

the greases,

boilingwater

parts of animals,press, and keep the

triturate and grind the residuum, macerate
other

or

liquorfor

alkaline

into

place,when

duum
resiit in

several

stance
subdays; put the macerated
boil until perfectliquefaction
takes

pan, and
be allowed
it must

to cool.

The

mass

is then

care
again,and alkali added gradually,
being
When
taken not to employ too strong a ley.
the mixture
alkaline
has acquiredthe proper
strength the heat is

to be heated

slackened

and

the

mass

allowed

to cool.

From

10 to 15

per cent, of resin should be added to the above, and when

is completed the soap is framed as usual.
saponification
Villacrose's
are

Process.

"

In

as follows
saponified

this
:

"

animal
stances
subprocess
Take animal substances,

lbs. ; caustic soda, 10 lbs. ; melted

tallow, 40 lbs.
The pan is first to be heated,and, when
the soda is
warm,
to be thrown
in, the small quantityof water it contains
200

being sufficient
the animal

to

dissolve

substances

it.' Now,
and

introduce
immediately

stir well.

The

heat must
and the temperature gradually
be gentleat first,
raised to
the
the
167" F.
must
be stirred
mass
melting
During
until it thickens,then add the 40 lbs. of tallow (with a
which
little water if necessary),
becomes
soon
saponified.

CHAPTER

XV.

MANUFACTimE
the Potash

Preparationof

Ley.

Soft Soap. lioudon

tinental Methods.

^The

"

"Crown

"

SOAPS.

Fatty Materials employed.

Soap."

Eeain

"

productionof soft soaps

hard
as
commonly known

the

Although

of those

than

SOFT

OF

of the

important branch
in

in

Scotch

"

Soaps.

"

;Con-

is far less extensive

manufacture,

useful

Soft

soaps,
since

still it is

these

for

an

soaps
in the

arts,
employed
example
many
textile
of
woollen
fabrics.
dressing
The alkali employed in the manufacture
of soft soaps is
with
potash,and it is a characteristic of all soaps made
of assuming a hard, solid conthis alkali that, instead
sistence,
is
the
with
from
as
case
soda, they
soaps made
less transparent.
or
are
always soft,tenacious,and more
Moreover, potash soaps always contain a largepercentage
are

of water,

in

more

state

combination

as

of mechanical

than

in

while

3 parts of fattymatter
will generally
yield about 6 parts of soda soap, the same
proportionof fattymatter, treated with caustic potashley,
will yieldfrom 6 to 7 parts of potash soap.

chemical

; and

mixture

be separated
from the soap, as
leys cannot
of purifyingsoda soaps ; therefore
the ordinarymethod
leys employed wholly enter into the compositionof
Potash

Much

soap.
too

or

used

excess

of the

American

necessary
of the alkali.

Fotasli

ley.

to avoid

the

the

ing
introduc-

^The

merce,
pearlashof compotash (causticpotash),are ordinarily

for this purpose,

and

potash,by means
preparingsoda ley^.

caustic
in

care

great an

Freparation

is therefore

in

the

"

former

is converted

into

of fresh lime, in the same

way as
It is usuallythe practice
to pre-

OF

MANUFACTURE

leysof

pare

the weaker

two

SOFT

SOAPS.

129

three different degreesof strength,

is employed in the firstoperationof

or

of which

pasting,or preliminary
stage of saponification.
On

the Continent

potashleysare preparedas follows :

If the potashis in the form of hard lumps,these are first
crushed
stone by means
of an iron
on
a hard
punner,"
and if 300 or 400 gallons
of ley are required,
from 450 to
500 gallons
of water are put into an iron-pan,
and brought
to a boil. The potash is then added, a little at a time,
until the whole quantityis dissolved ; but care
is taken
that each portionis dissolved before addingthe next, and
so
tinual
on, and the solution of the alkali is accelerated by constirring.The boilingis kept up until the solution,
marks
while boiling,
from 20" to 22" B.
To causticise the above
solution of carbonate of potash,
from 60 to 70 per cent, of fresh lime must
be taken,the
weight of lime being determined
by that of the potash
used.
The lime must
firstbe slaked with water, as usual,
and the hydrate of lime thus formed
is to be gradually
added to the hot solution of potash; it is,however, considered
the lime into milk of lime,by
to make
preferable
While the
mixing it with a moderate quantityof water.
lime is being introduced,the mixture
is to be kept well
stirred,and the boilingshould be continued for several
and
the mixturethe, fire is withdrawn
hours, when
"

"

allowed

to

rest,

that

so

the

carbonate

of lime may
is called ^e first,
or

graduallysubside. This ley,which

should
stand at from 20" to 25" B.
The clear
strong ley,
which
leyis next run off into an iron tank or cistern,
be kept closed to prevent the absorption
of carbonicmust
all the clear leyis drawn
acid from the air. When
off,
an
equalquantityof water is pouredon to the lime,and the
pan

well stirred for

to rest until the

ley,called
to be drawn

is then

short

the second

offinto

twelve

about 6" to 8" B.

it is allowed

when
again deposited,
ley(marking from 12" to

lime has

separatetank.

the clear
16"

B.) is

third dose of water

againstirred as before,and
hours' repose, a third leyis obtained at
Further washingsof the lime may then

poured in, and

after about

time, after which

the pan

THE

I30

be

given,until

ART

the lime

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

is

freed
perfectly

from

alkali,

the

washingsmay be used in lieu of water in

instead of using pure water in
or
subsequentoperations,
fresh quantities
of potashwhen preparingother
dissolving
batches of ley.
of soda
Some manufacturers
employ variable proportions
with their potashleys,
by which the soft soaps made with
them
acquirea firmer consistence than when caustic potash
alone is used, besides which
an
advantage is gained by
this is
using a proportionof the cheaper alkali. When
the case the soda may be dissolved with the potashin the
first instance,the proportion of soda to that of potash
being from 12 to 20 per cent. ; but when a largerproportion
than 15 per cent, of soda is used, the resulting
soap will not be so transparentas ordinarysoft soaps.
and

these latter

The

animal

Fatty
and

XCaterials

employed,

vegetableoils.

Of

the

"

These

animal

are

the

oils,those

of the

used ; the vegewhale, seal,and cod are chiefly

table
oils are olive,hempseed, linseed,rapeseed,
coleseed,
Sometimes
oleic acid, palm-oil,and
colza, poppy, "c.

small

of
quantities
but

the

tallow

latter is

employed in the
only used to give the

are

also

facture,
manu-

soap

granularor fig-like
appearance.
In making Soft Soap,the selected oils are firstput into
heat applieduntil the oils have bethe pan, and moderate
come
when
the third ley,marking
thoroughly
liquefied,
from 6" to 8" B., is run
in gradually,
ring,
with continual stiruntil a perfectcombination
of the alkali and fatty
is efi'ected,
is determined
matters
which
by the mass
assuming a perfectly
homogeneous condition,there being
oil on the surface or ley at the bottom
unoombined
of
no
the pan.
is then gentlybrought to a boil,
The mixture
and this is kept up, with stirring,
for several hours.
As
soon
as the pasteassumes
a moderate
degree of consistency,
additions of the second ley,at about 12" to 15" B., are to
be made
that is a few gallonsat a time every
gradually,
quarter of an hour or so, continuingto do this with constant
f
or
boiling a few hours, duringwhich time the added
alkali will become
graduallyabsorbed.

MAN.UFACTURE

During
foam

the

OF

boilinga

SOFT

SOAPS.

considerable

131

of fob

amount

is

formed, but this eventuallysubsides when

operationis gettingnear
completion,and the mass

limpid and
treated

with

the

transparent. The

firstor

added, as before,in

soap

strong ley,at

is

now

22"

to

or

the
comes
beto

25"

be

B.,

small

tervals
at a time at short inquantities
and consequent evaporaBy continued boiling,
tion
of the water
from the leys,
the soap acquires
a greater
of
and
ally
degree stiffness, samplesshould be taken occasionand examined
by pressingbetween the fingerand
thumb, in the usual way adopted by soap-boilers
; and
the proper
when
consistence is nearlyarrived at, small
samples should be set aside to cool,in order that their
actual
tried
be

condition
between

be

may

the

continued, and

ascertained.

If the

soap, when

fingers,is stringy,the boilingmust

if it does

not

possess

sufficiently

addition
of strong ley must
alkaline taste, an
be made,
and the boilingkept up until the proper
consistence is
reached.

Some

manufacturers

introduce

portiononly of

the oils

into the pan in the first instance,and when

this quantity
has attained a temperature about equal to that of boiling

water, the weak

oil

ley is added
is introduced,then more

entire

after which fresh

gradually,
weak
ley,and so on, until the

chargeof fattymatter is introduced into the pan, and

the boiling
is gentlykept up until the mass
has acquired
the proper
pasty consistence of the first operation. The
additions
of stronger leys are
then made, as before described,
the soap being,finished by_adding the necessary
quantityof the strongestley.
Boiling. In boilingsoft soaps, great care is taken that
the ebullition is very gentleat first,
owing to the powerful
action exerted by the chemical
union
of the alkali and
fattymatter, during which a considerable frothingoccurs.
If this caution were
would speedily
not observed,the mass
boil over.
When
ponificatio
examining samples of the soap, if sais completea narrow
fringe appears
opaque
the soap is said
round the outer edge of the sample,when
is not present it
this appearance
to be to strength
; when
"

THE

132

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

fringefirst
appears and then vanishes,it is said to haveya"e strength,
is incomplete.
and indicates that the saponification
of soft soap
A considerable quantity
Scotcli Soft Soap.
is made
in Scotland,and,accordingto Ure,* the following
of whale
273 gallons
adopted :
process is that generally
is said to

if.the

strength
; or

want

opaque

"

"

"

or

cod

into the soap-pan,

American
potash,of such

of tallow,are

4 cwt.

oil,and

put

gallonsof ley from

alkaline strengththat one
galloncontains 6,600 grainsof
real potash. Heat
being appliedto the bottom pan, the
mixture
the boiling
froths up very much
as it approaches
from boilingover
by being
temperature,but is prevented'
with

250

down

which

surmounts

into

surface,within

the

beaten

on

the

Should it

caldron.

doughy-lookingpaste,we

has been

too

strong. Its

the iron

proper

curb

or

crib

subside

soon

infer that the ley

may
consistence
is that of a

gallonsof
a
stronger ley,equivalentto 8,700 grains of potash per
and after a short intervalan additional 42 gallons
gallon,
;
till nearly600 such gallonshave
and thus successively,
After suitable boiling,
been
added
in the whole.
to
saponifythe fats,the proper qualityof soap will be
obtained, amounting in quantityto 100 firkins of 64 lbs.
each from the above quantityof materials.
It is generally
own
supposed, and I believe it to be true, from my
the
is
that
it
numerous
a more
experimentsupon
subject,
difficultand delicate operation
fine soft soap of
to make
a
glassytransparency,interspersedwith the figgedgranulations
thin

glue.

"We

should

now

introduce

42

about

of stearate

of

than
potash,

any kind."
There
can

be

judgment and

caution must

no

doubt

to make

whatever
be

that

exercised

hard

of

considerable

in the

soft soaps, and in determiningthe exact

the steam
fire should be drawn
turned
or

soap

boilingof

time

when

the

off,as the case

arrived,it is important

be ; and when this periodhas

may
that the further evaporationof water

from

the

ley should

onlyby turningoff the steam, but, if convenient,

sufficient
a
by introducinginto the soap-copper

be checked

not

"

Dictionaryof Arts,Manufactures,and Mines."

MANUFACTURE

quantityof

OF

cold soap

SOFT

to reduce

SOAPS.

133

the temperature of the

mass.

London

Crown

"

"

Soap

of the best

qualityis made from

and the caustic potashleysare
tallow,lard,and olive-oil,
generallyemployed in two different degreesof strength,
the weakest

The

from

8",and

the

strongestfrom

25" to 30" B.

of materials employedfor
proportions
are

soap

tallow and

18 barrels

lard 62 lbs. each, and

of

olive-oil 70

gallons. About 400 gallonsof leybeingprepared,a third

of this quantityis first put into the pan, when
the tallow
and

lard

fats

are

added

are

melted
two

about

20

the steam

the olive-oil is

gently,after
about

and
which

hours, when

gallonsmore

the

is allowed

mass

the steam

ley

in,and

on

is

"; when

continued
boiling

to rest for

againturned

added, and

the

the

on,

mass

and

again

of ley are added

quantities
from
time to time until the frothing,
at first excessive,
ing
beginsto moderate, and eventuallysubsides, and the boilis continued until samples taken from the pan exhibit
the proper consistence.
If the sample tried by the trowel
is stringy,
more
ley must be added; but if it appears
of ley,when a
this shows
whitish and clotted,
an
excess
moderate
the
Towards
quantityof oil must be added.
be given,and
end of the operationbrisk boilingshould
moderated
finally
repeatedsamplesshould be taken
; and
until the soap is found to be perfected.
A second
qualityof Crown Soap is made from taUow
286 lbs.,sperm-oil
80 gallons,
and caustic potash ley 135
gallons. 94 gallonsof the ley and the tallow are first put

broughtto

into

the

boil.

the

run

turned

pan,

and

tallow is melted

time

the

to rest

the steam

added, and

the

steam

turned

the oil is to be

is to be turned

the steam

allowed

Additional

for about

off and
two

on;

and

when

the

introduced, after which

the contents

hours.

At

the

of the pan
end of this

again turned on, and 19 gallonsof ley

whole brought to a boil,the heat being
is

half made.
the soap appears
to be about
boiling,
gallonsof ley are then added, with renewed
!9^

continued

until

of ley are introduced,

the remaining 9 gallons
an^dfinally
and, the boilingcontinued until the soap is complete.

Kesiu

in

sometimes

Soft

OF

ART

THE

134

Soaps.

SOAP-MAKING.

In

"

making

to the extent

introduced

of 5

resin

soft soaps

is

10 per cent, of
The
resin is

or

weight of the fattymaterials used.

generallyintroduced into the pan in the form of a fine
whereby it
powder,in the earliest part of the operation,
with the other ingredients
or
saponifies
fattymatters.
Coutiuental
The method
Methods.
ducing
adoptedfor introresin into this soap at Liege is, accordingto
When
the soap is nearlydone,
Dussauce, as follows :
the quantityof resin required
is depositedin
to be added
a
large sbeet-iron caldron, pierced with holes like a
the

"

"

"

skimmer.

This

quarters of
with

the

caldron

is then

immersed

to

heightin the boilingsoap. In contact

of ley contained
in the soap the resin'
the resinous soap passes through the holes
and combines
with
the mass
of
intimately

its

excess

and
saponifies,
of the caldron

the soap in the kettle.

This arrangement deserves
the attention of manufacturers.
the
When
is
the

to attract

fication
saponi-

and
finished,
soap

a well-managed
when, bj"^
evaporation,
is well boiled, its natural
colour is a

brownish-yellow. If this colour

stopped ofi",
and, after restinga
drawn

three-

is

requiredthe

heat

is

few hours, the

soap is
off into barrels open
end.
at one
If,on the contrary,
the soap is to be green, this shade is given to it by

quantityof indigo. To prepare this

for a few hours indigoof good qualityin
colour,macerate
the ley,rub it in a mortar,
boilingley. After separating
and pass it through a fine sieve.
To colour the soap, add
of the paste to the soap, and incorporate
a certain quantity
by good stirring."
In Belgium and
Holland
soft soaps are
made
from
vegetableoils,with,sometimes, the addition of oleic acid,
other animal
fats. The following
tallow,
or
formula is
soft
for
of
a
given
good quality: Linseed-oil,
soap
adding

small

"

600

These

800
lbs.; coleseed-oil,

materials

gently,and, when
potash ley at

are

in

lbs.; oleic
first put into the

6" to 8" B.

stirring.The

pan

liquidstate,75
are

added

is then

acid, 200
and

pan

lbs.

heated

gallonsof

caustic
with congradually,
tinual

brought

to

boil,and

XVI.

CHAPTER
MANUFACTURE

OF

SOAPS"

SOFT

Belgian Soap. Russian Soft Soap. Gentele's

Soap for Silks and Printed Goods.
Soft Soap.
"

"

"

"

Belgian

Soap.
for

produced

the

of

use

cess.
Jacobson's ProFulling Soap. M. Loch's

Process.

cloth

"

"

half-hard

Belgium, a

In

"

{continued).

is

soap

largely
and

manufacturers,

is

scouring -woollen textile fabrics. This soap

essential feature in
contains an excess
of alkali (potash),
an
The caustic leyis used at
soaps employed for this purpose.
three different degreesof strength,
namely, 18", 20", and
30" Baume, and these represent the first,second,and third
The
leys used in the preparationof this soap.
fatty
in

employed

materials

are

into three

I.

No.
Tallow..
Colza-oil

divided

,,

.,

No.
380

lbs.

groups,

Tallow..

"

itTo.
Itl.
225

Tallow-oil
"

follows

II.
..

70

as

225
..

lbs. Tallow
Bleached
,,

..

..

oil
..

Cocoa-nut

oil

Cocoa-nut

ISO
"

600

oil 150

"

Cocoa-nut

lbs.

..

300

"

oil,. 150
"

600

600

"

"

150

palm-

"

The

quantity of ley requisitefor 600 lbs. of fatty

materials,accordingto either formula, will be from 750 to
third of this quantity must
775 lbs. One
mark
18",
another
named

third 24",and

fattymatters

30" B.

The

two

first-

into the

pan with the weakest

boiled together,
after which
the second

ley, and these are

strength of ley is
strongestley. The
the

the remainder
are

put

added

gradually,followed
by the
entire quantityof ley should be introduced
and
within two hours,
the boilingis kept up until
paste separatesfrom the ley when tried by the shovel

MANUFACTURE

in the
when

usual way.

SOAPS.

137

The

melted

state is then

quantityof ley added

to render

the soap allowed

to cool

to shallow

which

contained
impurities
of soap

12 cwt.
Russian

cocoa-

sufficient

the

in

the

result

Soap.

In

"

above

and

it is to be transferred

separationof

the

By

in

should

Soft

repose,

the

Boiling
soap caustic.
is sufficiently
firm,and

down, after which

frames.

place

takes

the

to

the soap
is reached
the fire is withdrawn

this condition

when

introduced,and

until

be continued

must

SOFT

soap is then allowed

the depositedley is to be withdrawn, and

oil in

nut

OF

the

the

process,

ley

saliae

About
potashare removed.
from the proportions
giv6n.
soft soap is made
American
Russian
or

Russia

ley composed of three parts

the
potash,and one part pearlash(a carbonate of potash),
One half of the
solution or ley being broughtto 10" B.
ley is added to the oils or fattymatters in the pan, and
while
these are
undergoing the process of boilingthe
of the ley is allowed to flow slowlyinto the pan
remainder
from

from

cistern

situated

boiling,and.

necessary

that

above

when

the

soap

vessel.

the

After

acquiredthe

has

and the soap left

the fire is withdrawn
proper consistence,
in the pan to cool.
A
Geutele's
Frocess.
suggestedby M.
process was
Gentele for making soft soap with one-fifth part of soda
mixed
with the potash ley. By preference,
crystalsof
"

soda

are

used

chloride

free from

The

it is

; and

of sodium

fattymaterials

red oil,100
Jacobsou's

household

leyin

the

oleine is

ley then

other

or

recommended

soap

"

The

by mixing

leys should

saline

for this

lbs. ; tallow,'40lbs. ;
Process.

the

be

impurities.

process

are

3,750 lbs.
hempseed-oil,

inventor

ful
prepares a very useoleic acid with soda or potash

:
followingproportions
"

Distilled oleine

Ley

Hot

While

importantthat

water

gallons.
gallon.
gallons.

pouringthe hot water into the pan (inwhich the

is kept up, and the
first placed)constant stirring
until
with continued agitation,
added
gradually

THE

138

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

of a thick yellowish
the appearance
hours' rest,the
paste without granules.After twenty-four
The
tages
advanwhite and ready for use.
soap is perfectly
the

has assumed

mass

claimed
with which
The

the soap

is

inventor

other

rapidityand ease
made
and its extreme
simplicity.
since
adulteration
is impossible,

for this process

the

are

says that
substances,if introduced, would

interfere with

the

The
of the process is
economy
process of saponification.
also stated to be an
importantfeature in this method of

preparinga

soft soap.
Silks

Soap for

Printed

aud

Goods.

"

The late Professor

Crace-Calvert,of Manchester, to whose indefatigable

exertions in industrial chemistry manufacturers
were
indebted
for much
valuable information, suggestedthe
following formula for soap to produce the highest
brighteningeffect upon the various shades of colour :
"

For

JPurpUs.

Madder

Patty matter

60-4

Soda

5-6

Water

34-0
lOO'O
For

Madder

Finka.

Patty matter

69-23

Soda

6-77

"Water

34-00
100-00

For

bleachingraw

silk,white

the Continent.
Oleic acid, saponified
by

fattymaterial

olive-oil soap is used

on

potashley,is a

very suitable
first potash ley

for

making soft soap. The

should have a strengthequal to about 20" B., and the soap
may be finished with a strongerley from 25" to 28",
The
Fulling Soap.
soap used by cloth manufacturers
for fulling
woollen cloth requires
to be rather
or cleansing
alkaline than ordinaryhousehold soaps, but at the
more
"

"

same

time

to affect

wool.

it must

not

contain

the
injuriously

Some

more

manufacturers

such

an

excess

of alkali

as

delicate colours of the dyed

employ a mixture of oleic acid

MANUFACTURE

(brown oil)soap,

OF

and

mottled

nine parts of the former

M.

Locli's

Soft

the

matters

SOFT

Soap

soap,

to six

inventor

in

139

the

proportionof

parts of the latter.

In

"

SOAPS.

addition to

introduces

the

borax,

usual

fatty-

binoxalate

of

sal ammoniac, and

of sorrel),
potash(salt
soap wort, pipeclay,
whereby he professesto produce a cheap and
turpentine,
economical
turers
applicablefor manufacsoap, "particularly
of woollen
goods, cotton-mills, bleaching and
220 lbs. of the soap, 9 lbs.
To make
scouringworks, "c."
of soapwort {Saponaria officinalis)
boiled in 22 gallons
are
is then passed through a sieve.
of water, which
In
13 gallons of this decoction, while
hot, are dissolved
in the remaining 9 gallons,
62 lbs. of slaked lime, and
9 lbs. of

also while

hot, are

potash,and

2*2 lbs. of binoxalate

is then

dissolved

poured slowly into

the mixture

is boiled

caustic.

sieve,and then

The
boiled

of

until the
is

This

potash.

first-named

the

whole

borax, 26 lbs. of
solution

decoction,and

ciently
ley is found to be suffiagain passed through a
66 lbs. of fixed oils until

gentlywith

flocthe required
soap assumes
13 lbs. of Iceland
culent condition ; 13 lbs. of resin and
and passed through a sieve).
boiled down
moss
(previously

thick bubbles

rise,and

the

slowlyuntil thick
bubbles
rise and all the ingredients
have thoroughlycombined.
time
the
It is then allowed to cool,and finally,
at
and
of packing for transport, 6 "6 lbs. of sal.ammoniac
220 lbs. of
2*2 lbs. of pure turpentineare mixed
up with
the soap.
The
packing for transport is by preference
This

is then

mixture

efiected

in

allowed

wooden

well-closed

well inside and

outside

to

boil

cases,

which

are

coated

sheet
silicate of soda, and
a
the soap
should be placed over

with

vegetableparchment
before puttingon the lid.
of

potashin
is not easily intelligible.
this process
Again, Panama
is far preferable
to soapwort,
bark [Quillazasaponaria)
with soap, but
but it is generallyused, not in combination
It is largelyused in gettingup the
as
a separate agent.
finest qualityof white worsted goods.
The

use

of sal ammoniac

and

of binoxalate

of

XVII.

CHAPTER
MANUFACTURE

TOILET

OF

OR

SOAPS.

FANCY

for Slicing the Soap.

Ee-melting the Soap. Machine
Perfumes.
Matters
and
Ee-melting the Soap. Mining Colouring
for

Amiaxatus

"

"

"

"

Stamping the Soap.

Cutting the Soap.

"

occasionally

of toilet soaps

manufacture

the

Although

part of the soap-makers'business, it is more

is attached
carried on
as
a separate trade, or

forms

of the

business

perfumer. ^In

either

rally
geneto

the

latter cases,

of the

produced is
by the larger soap-makers,and is
generallyfurnished
re-melted, perfumed,and tinted by the fancy soap-maker.
Before explainingthe system of manufacture, it wiU be
to the apparatus employed
to direct attention
necessary
of applying them, and
in doing so, we
and
the methods
the

from

soap

upon

the

how

the

well show

as

may

which

Apparatus
this

manufacture

are

be conducted

can

scale.

moderate

toilet soaps

for

Be-meltiiit; the
be

Soap.

"

The

pans

for

wrought copper, fitted

steam-tightjacket,the size being regulated
turer.
accordingto the probablerequirementsof the manufacThese pans should be capableof containingfrom
A simple form of
2J cwt. to half a ton of melted soap.
the author has employed for this and
apparatus,which
is shown
other purposes,
in the woodcut
(Fig.25). It has
the advantage of being cheap in construction and economical

purpose
into an iron

in

as

to

be

made

from

use.

Several

having

may

sound

casks

their heads

(rum puncheons answer

removed,

water-tight.Into

are

each

to

be

admirably),

well

of these

coopered,so
"

galvanized-

MANUFACTURE

iron

OF

or

copper

flangaupon

TOILET

the upper

done

ma}'
stiff

paste of Portland

and

flush with

well luted with

be

by

cement.

first spreading'
with
inside the rim

cement

the former

141

to

be

This
trowel a

is

spread
lowered
carefully

and
layer,

place, when

its

of the tub,
this has set

its extreme
edge. When
thinner paste of cement
somewhat

quite hard, a
its

SOAPS.

placed,and is supported by
edge of the cask ; but, in order
steam, by which these pans are to

prevent the escape of

heated, the flangeis to

upon
into

FANCY

a, is

pan,

readilybe

OR

the pan then

it will become
imbedded

in

the

Fig. 25.

cement, which
In

trowel.
hard

to enable

providedfor

should

then

day

two

the

the vessels to be used.

each

horizontal

The

or

neatlywith the
lutingwill be sufficiently

be trimmed

pan.
iron

pipe,b, conduces

wooden
the steam

is

cover

to the

with a
vertical pipes c c c, each of which is furnished
shut-off cock, D D D, and the ends of these pipesare bent
so

to

as

allow

to

enter

the

casks

half-way down, and which

their position
by calkingwith

drilled

about

secured

in

other

them

convenient

means.

To

allow

the

through holes
are
carefully
tow, or by any
escape

of

con-

THE

142

densed

water, and

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

as

for exhausted

vent

steam,

half-

inch hole is drilled at the bottom of each cask,immediatelyabove the iron hoop; and
these must
always be kept
perfectlyfree, otherwise the pans would be liable to
When
of the steam.
become
lifted by the pressure

requiredfor

use, the
which
water

allow any

taps are

have

may

flow into the tubs,and from

at the bottom.
perforations
half

turned, and the

to allow

the

steam

the

remained

thence
The

pipesto
through the

in the

to escape

taps should

then

be

moderatelyturned on at first,
water
to escape freely.After a
the
turned nearlyfull on, when

steam

condensed

while the taps may

first opened full,in order to

be

the water-holes at the lower part of

2 cwt. of soap
pans, a, will hold about

will issue from

casks.

The

each.

convenient

Fig. 26.

The

"

form

dotted

is given in
steam-jacket
pan
of the
lines at a show the position
of

Fig. 26.
pan

with

Kg. 27.

in the
a

jacket b.
stop-cock,d

condensed

and

water

the
operations

Fig. 27

is

nXacliiue

melting the

The

supply-pipe,
c, is furnished
is an
exit-pipefor the escape of
waste
For
steam.
small experimental
jacket-panrepresented in
copper

very

convenient

for

Slicing

soap,

which

the

vessel.

Soap.

is in the

"

Previous

form

of

bars

to

re-

about

be

ART

THE

144

into

cut

shaTings.

shavingsas

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

The

machiae.

the

fell from

they

box, g, receives

wooden

bar

the
or

slab of soap, being placed on

the inclined plane,
e, is allowed
to touch the cutter ; the handle

turned,the first blade

mediately
shaving, and is im-

beingnow
a

removes

by the

followed

blade,and
bar

so

until the entire

on

of soap

cVt.

29.

it is

is cut, when
another,and

by
that
operation,
Kg.

replaced
quick is the

so

in

hour

an

the

Soap.

The

soap
should be

"

into toilet soap

conversion

two

be reduced

may

shavingsby this useful

Re-melting

second

to be

machine.

re-melted
"

pure

to

for
"

unliquored

soap, and of recent manufacture, otherwise those surfaces

hardened
which
have become
by long keeping will
may
bars
of soap are
be troublesome
first
to liquefy. The
reduced
and

thin slices

to

few

of these

and

the pan

contact

and,

after

on,

to melt

where

the

first

are

in

turned

planiag-machine(Fig.28),
placedround the interior of

with
a

short

it is in contact

from

the soap
a

by

it,when the steam is to be

time, the. soap will begin
with the pan.
the unmelted

becoming dry on
good plan to sprinkleit with

the

sufficient time
well heated.
to

have

an

been

If now,

on

allowed

should

be

be raised until

for the

pans to become
raisingthe lid,the soap appears
to melt, a few more
slices of

the pan againcovered.

After
fresh quantities
o" soap may
be put into the

gradually,and
of the

excess

care

must

be

taken

cold soap, otherwise

to avoid

it

mass
soap, form a conglomerate
readilyliquefy. If these precautionsare

the melted

will be

puttingin

fairlycommenced
be introduced,and

soap may
a short time
pan

has

covers

not

prevent^

it is
surfaces,

After

water.

first few slices of soap, the wooden

placedover the pans, and these should

To

no

in the re-melting.As
difficulty

melts it will sink to the bottom

of the

adding
will,by chilling
which

will not

observed
fast

there

the soap
pan ; and, in order
as

MANUFACTURE

OF

TOILEl

OR

FANCY

SOAPS.

145

mingling of the meltingsoap with that which

is alreadyliquefied,
gentlestirringmay be applied,and
fresh batches of sliced soap added
until the
gradually,
full. The
heat must be kept up, with
pan is sufficiently
with a small wooden
occasional stirring
crutch,until the
is perfectly
mass
homogeneous and free from unmelted
lumps.
Since toilet soaps are requiredto be somewhat
firmer
harder
than
and
ordinary household soaps, a certain
of evaporationof their combined
amount
be
water
must
allowed to take placeduring the re-melting
; but this must

to assist tte

be carried

not

crack

far,otherwise

too

combined

water

When

the

with
the

paste to

Colouring

the mass,

of colouringmatter
the melted

worked

"

soap

the
into

mixture
the soap

as

of the
with

it may
and

and

it.

vermilion, yellowbe

to

be

not

to

have
taken

these

stiff,
otherwise,when
become

Perfumes.

able.
unmanage-

"

The

portions
pro-

essential oils to be added

beingweighed
togetherwith a

up
spatula,and
then

too

Matters

to be blended

must

care

soap,

become

addition

metallic oxides

various

melted

with
incorporated

mixing
to

for the

or

ochre, red-lead,and

are

allow

to

perfumeswhich are
dry colouringmatters,

essential oils

allow

liable to

during the subsequent pressingor stamping operations.

it
be
will
to
Again,
evaporate a portion
necessary

of the

mixed

the soap will be

and

measured,

may

be

^--s^S^^^^^

poured
and
rated
thoroughly incorpoby continual crutching or stirring. Or the
colouringmatter may be added, ^ little at a time, to a
portionof the melted soap dipped out of the bulk by a
tnis is well mixed it should
small ladle (Fig.30),and when
of
and stirred in, the remainder
be poured into the pan
in Ijhesame
By this
the colour being introduced
way.
the colouringmatters
method
a^dessential oils may be
with the soap paste.
and uniformly blended
very perfectly
used without colouringmatters, they
"When perfumes are

THE

146

OF

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

until
slowlypoured into the pan, with stirring,
has been added.
The soap being
the requisite
proportion
perfumed and coloured,small samples should be taken to
sliould be

if it be

determine

proper

being brittle.

firm without

and

of the

frames, which, for scented

employed for

those

consistence to set hard

It is now
ready for the

soaps,

household

much

are

smaller

than

soaps.

condition of the soap when

ready for the frames is
and must
that of a thick pasty mass,
be transferred to the
The

of the

short-handled

ladle (Fig.30),or
the frame is full the soap

frames

by

swimmer

(Fig.12) ; and when

be pressedor patted down, so as to prevent any
cavities being formed
or
through the irregular

should

means

hollows
distribution of the

also be well covered

be very

in the

soap

with

cloths,so

the

Soap.

When

"

it is cut into slabs and

bars

which
for the tablets,

or

two

The

soap

that the

should

coolingmay

gradual.

Cutting

or

frame.

to the

pound.

blocks, the width

weight

the size and

the

Stamping
of
generally

an

The

the

soap

is

next

divided

cold
sufiBciently
quired
proportionateto the size rerun
six,four,
generally
eight,

bars

of which

are

is

into cakes

regulatedaccordingto

of the tablets.

As

the tablets of toilet soaps are

oblong form, with rounded corners, the

Soap.

"

the bars requireto be

cut from
been
have
cakes which
before they imdergo the process of stamping.
trimmed
done as follows : A workman, taking a
This is generally
cake

in his

hand,

passes

each

sharp edge of

machine, such
the blade of a planingthe blade of the machine
being so

as

the cake

is shown

in

over

Fig.28,

adjustedas to remove
next
are
only a small portionfrom the edges. The corners
with a knife,and each cake is weighed from time
trimmed
to time
during the trimming, until it approaches the
requiredweight for the tablet.
cakes thus preparedare next put aside to dry, or
The
are
placedin a drying-room,so that the surface may be
free from stickiness before they are stamped. The cakes,
and
dried as described,are
first
after being trimmed
in a lever press (Fig.31),which givesthem the
moulded

MANUFACTURE

OF

desired

form,

press is

firmlyattached

iron

to which
pillar,

and

the

is

TOILET

strongwoodea
by bolts and

the lever

pistond (to which

half of the mould

upper

are

lower

attached

OR

SOAPS.

14?

table,to which
screws

the

is a cast-

"^

the

is
e

FANCY

nected)
con-

is the

half of the mould.

In

man
applying this press the workplacesthe cake of soap

upon

the lower

then

brings

with

considerable

then

half-mould,and
the

lever

down

force,

jerksit upwards,so

and

as

to

separate the two- halves of the

mould.
the

If necessary,

cake

he

^"

gives

several blows, after which

he

removes

it and

replacesit by another cake.

The cakes thus stamped are again set aside until their
surface is perfectly
dry, after which they are slightly
scrapedall over, and a littlealcohol is sometimes rubbed
them to impartbrilliancy
to their surface.
over

Fig. 32.

t3,The cakes

maybe

of the

stamped in a second press,

finally
form given in Fig.32,which is called a
are

which
"

"

fly

148

or

screw

secured

the

frame

end

with

of

the

socket,

by

secured

rods,
h h.

below,

matrix,
of

the

free,

and,

being

tablets
then

the

is

they
for

the

is

fixed,

replaced
by

means

the

impress

carefuUy
wrapping

trimmed
up.

fly,

after

at

brass

stroke

each

screw,

After

soap.

bar
or

another.

of

mounted
sur-

wrought-

tablet

stamped
by

is

e,

cast-iron
d

which

horizontal

the

the
rod

means

is to
are

beneath

is

and

upright
to

screws

lower

its

half-mould

The

The

movable

removed,

which

ready

by

pass

which

by

stamp

are

raise

half-mould

upper

the

rods

i i, and
press,

balls, _/y.

be

represents
at

upper

d.

ported
sup-

must

half-mould,

rod

adapted

These

lower

movable

heavy

are

the.

the

furnished

screw,

which

is

latter

screws,

or

the

into

the

two

gg,

to

by
iron

press

screw

connected

bolts

by

which

table,

former,

the

is, like

press

wooden

floor

the

to

-useful

strong

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

This

press.
upon

is

ART

THE

the

is
In
the

set

the
graved
en-

stamping
edges,

and

CHAPTER
MANUFACTURE
EoBe

Soap.

OF

TOILET

Orange-flower Soap,
"Windsor
Soap.

"

Soap.

"

"

{oontimed.)
Soap.

Brown

"

Musk

"

[Soap.
JSoap.

Windsor

Savon
Vanilla

Soap.

Benzoin

be

made

from

Bouquet.

au

"

"

|Soap.

"

Violet Windsor
Soap. Savon
Almond-oil
Soap. Marshmallow

"

SOAPS"
Cinnamon

"

Bitter Almond

"

XVIII.

"

la CanneUe.
"

Soap.
Bose

Soap,

Savon

la

Bose,

may

either of the

followingformulae,the

soap

well melted,

as

or

before described

being previously

:"

I.
White

curd

Olive-oil

Vermilion

The

cooled

from

is then

"

powder

taken

3 ozB.

first well
to

the

mixed

with

off,and when

followingperfumes
proportionsgiven :
oil of

are

the soap

to

be

added

and

"

'oil of
,,

cloves,of each

in

2
"

bergamot

formula

has

Soap prepared from the above

colour,is very fragrant and emollient,and
rose

"

delicate

is indeed

of the finest of toilet soaps.

II.
curd
White
Vermilion

"

has

6 oza.

rose

oils of cinnamon

Oil of

soap,

"

Essential

one

the

perfectincorporation.

ensure

to be turned

little the

60 lbs.

best tallow

40

is to be

being

care

steam

about

soap
in fine

vermilion

great
The

soap, made

100

soap

10

lbs.
ozs.

15

rose

",

bergamot

neroli

2J ,,

"

Oils of

cloves

"

and

cinnamon, of each

5
"

THE

ISO

Orange-flower

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

Soap.
60 Iba.

White curd Boap

Palm-oil soap

Colour

40

with
16 ozs.

Yellow-greenpigment
Minium

2|

(red-lead)

Perfume

15
15

ambergris

"

Ciuuainou

Pahu-oil

Colour

40

2 lbs. of

yellow ochre

and

14

sassafras

"

bergamot
I

Soap.

White

curd

60

soap

40

soap

ochre,or Spanish brown

Perfume

,,

8 ozs.

with

Oils of musk

Powder

and bergamot, of each

of cloves,pale roses, and gilliflower,
of each

Almond

Soap,

or

Am"res.

d'Amandes

Savon

curd soap
Oil of bitter abnonds

Windsor

Soap.

"

This

ozs.
,,

White

in

lbs.

with

Brown

Bitter

ozs.

2^
2^"

"

Palm-oil

,,

perfume with

of cinnamon

Colour

"

60 lbs.

soap

soap

with

,,

ozs.

Soap.
curd

White

Mnsk

"

with

Oil of Portugal

OU

"

100
20

lbs.
ozs.

famous

toilet soap, as prepared

from
tallow nine parts and

made
generally
olive-oil one
part, and is perfumed (forevery 1,000 lbs.
of the paste)with

London,

is

Oil of caraway
Oils of lavender

Or, for

each

and rosemary,

of each

,,

"

6 lbs.

l^lb.

100 lbs. of soap,

Oil of caraway
"

bergamot

10

cloves

thyme

ozs.
,,

1\"
,,,,

"

THE

IS2

littleat

melted

ART

time,

OF

SOAP-MAKING.

well

and

crutched

stirred into

or

the

soap.

Savon

Bouquet.

au

This

"

prepared from

is

soap

the

:
following
"

"White curd
Oliye-oil

Perfume

60 lbs.

soap

40

soap

with

Oil of bergamot

13 ozs.

neroli

thyme, of each

and
clove,sassafras,

Savon

22 lbs.

ochre

la

White

(Cinnamon Soap.)

Cannelle.

curd

Palm-oil

60 lbs.

soap

soap

2 lbs.

ochre

perfume with

And

14

Oil of cinnamon
sassafras and

bergamot,

,,

in France
"The
the

as.

be

must

time

stir from

hours,
marks

36" B.
the

oil,being careful

if placedin

moulds.

perfectlyfresh,
The

to

to stir the mixture

In

room

about
The

time,

and

solved
sod^:i3 dis-

of its

-Jm

o^itof

and

the

soft grease.
is such as that it
consistency
of

In

purest qualitj-.

aftMlJg^ral
it
ley by evaporationwe^til
take 12 parts for 25 partsfofoil,
; then
the
leyinto a jar,and graduallyincorpoitate

filter; concentrate

107".

be

must

chemicallypure.
water, adding to it one-third

lime;

introduce

best and

of soda

carbonate

slacked

,,

of the

almonds

oil of sweet
in

ozs.

25

Soap

materials

the

of each

is,according to Dussauce, prepared

foUows, and since it is sold at a high price,

Almond-oil

more

,,

paste with

the

Tellow

59"

1 J ,,

with

Brown

Colour

Ij oz.

"

Oils of

Colour

,,

the
one

can

two

be

three

or

into china

run

temperature of which
month

it

can

t'heappearance

until it has

be

(104"to 140" Fahr.),but the soap

rapidlyby placingthe mixture on

is from

taken

temperature of the ley must

dsWs its
nfoulds,

froia the

kO" to
be pr"pared
ashes,and

be from

may
warm

71" to

MANUFACTURE

adding

OF

little

and

taste

water

warm

concentration.

This

OR

the

to

is very

soap

It becomes

odour.

Uarshmallow

FANCY

ley, so

SOAPS.

as

white,

153

prevent its

to

with

sweet

hard."

very

Soap,
curd

White

Colour

TOILET

and

soap

palm-oil

of each

soap,

Its.

40

with
Yellow

oclire

Orange

mineral

ozs.
"

Gamboge

1J

oz.
,

Perfume

with

Oil of lavender

10

lemon

neroli

ozs.

"

,,

,,

,,

vertena

10

,,

,,

mint....

Or,

the

,,

,,

following :

"

Oil

of

"

Portugal

thyme

lavender

1^ oz.

cinnamon

2 ozs.

cloves

ozs.

"

"
,,

"

This
left

as

"

soap

may

white

Vanilla

coloured

be

with

rose

vermilion, or

be

if desired.

soap

Soap.
curd

"White

lbs.

40

soap
of vamlla

Tincture

2
"

of

OU

Colour

rose

drms.

with
Burnt

sienna

Benzoiu

ozs.

Soap.

White

40 lbs.

curd

Tincture

soap
of benzoin

be
must
soap
the tincture
otherwise

The

Brown

ochre

may

64

in

the

be used

as

stiff paste,
very
will render
it rather soft.

form

of benzoin
the

ozs.

of

colouring agent.

CHAPTEE
MANUFACTURE
French

System

OF

"

Crimee.

"

Soap.

Savon

"

"

"

"

la

{cmtinued).

SOAPS"

making

de

Savon

"

TOILET

for French
Toilet
Formulae
Toilet Soaps.
d'ltalie.
Savon
de
Savon
Flours
Guimauve.
aux
de Palme.
Eose-leaf
Violet Soap.
Vanilla Soap.

of

Savon

Soaps.

XIX.

"

"

MarSchale.^Lettuce

Soap.

^Ambergris Soap.

"

"

Elder-flower Soap.
Lemon
Soap. Orange Soap. Glycerine Soap.
Savonnettea
Washballs.
Violet WashbaUs.
or
Honey Savonnettes.
Savonnettes
of Sweet
Herts.
of Camphor.
Savonnettes
Savonnettes
of Neroli.
Savonnettes
h. la VaniUe.
Marbled
nettea
SavonSavonnettes.
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

au

French

a
are

"

Miel.

Floating

"

System

of

Savonnettes.-

"

"

Toilet

making

Sand

Balls.

Soaps.

"

Instead

of preparing

toilet soaps from re-melted soap, as before described,

by which these soaps
system is adopted on the Continent

made

by

will 'endeavour

series

of mechanical

to describe

as

operations which we
various
as possible.The
briefly

the followingheads :
1
arranged under
Cutting the soap into shavings. 2. Mixing the essential

operationsare
oils and

colours

"

with

the

soap.

4.

3.

Grinding the
5. Balling the

soap.

Pounding the soap in a mortar.

soap.
6. Pressing. 7. Stamping.
Cutting the soap into shavings is performed by a
such as is shown
in Fig. 29, and the shavings are
machine
box.
The
placed in a lead-lined wooden
proper
tion
proporof essential oils and
matter
(except when
colouring
the
is required to be white) are
first mixed
in a
soap
separate vessel,with
then

added

little

alcohol, and

the

mixture

is

gradually to the shavings, with continual

stirring.The perfumed shavings are next placed in a
grinding-machine,through which they are allowed to pass
several times,until a perfectly
homogeneous paste is formed.

OF

MANUFACTURE

TOILET

OR

FANCY

SOAPS.

155

The
a

of
soap is next pounded in a marble mortar, by means
the object
wooden
of which is to convert the soap
pestle,

Only a fewpoimds (aboutten or twelve)

too
are
pounded at a time, lest it should become
the subsequentoperationof hailing,
which is performed
somewhat
follows:
The soap is placedon one
as

into auniform
of soap

dry

for

mass.

"

end

of

table

which

on

is

marble

slab,and

in order

allowance

may be made for the reduction of weight

which the soap has to undergo in the process of drying,
the balls or cakes of soap are
made
about
25 per cent,
that

an

than

heavier

making
and

the

finished tablets.
The
into cakes of the proper

the

form

soap
for the

"

thus

"

piecesof 4^
with

ounces

ball,which

marble, give it

movement

rotary

of
you want
each little mass

as

the hands

of soap, so as to form a
marble
this
slab. For
a

are

; knead

ounces

for

size, weight,

and stampingmachines
pressing

givenby Dussauce
Weigh as many
cakes of 3J

directions

purpose,

is made
the
with

ball

round

on

the

being on the
the right hand.
marble, and give

ball

being obtained,leave it on the

it a cylindrical
it with the flat of the hand.
shapeby rolling
than the model (mould?).
not be larger
This. cylinder
must
Nevertheless, as the cylindrical
shape is not that which
the soap ought to have, strike the cylinder
all its sides
on
the marble
it that is,to form
to square
on
an
oblong
and
round
the
them
anglesby striking
gentlyon
square
If any unforeseen
the marble.
circumstance
requiresa
the pounded soap with a
suspensionof the work, cover
damp cloth and keep it in a cool place. If the soap is too
dry, it will be difficultto work well. Once begun,it must
be worked
quicklyand without interruption.
"The
small cakes being shaped as indicated,dispose
The

"

"

them

on

trays or

frames

of white

wood, traversed

in

their

wood, in such a way that each frame

These frames
presentsas many
empty spaces as full ones.
have a lengthof twenty-seven inches,by eighteenwide ;
they.are arranged on shelves,at a distance of five or six

lengthby small

inches from each

In

rods of

other."

arrangingthe

soap

cakes

as

above, a

space

of about

THE

iS6

half-an-inch

them,

that the air mayfacilitate their drying on

each, so

between

is allowed

circulate round

SOAP-MAKING,

OF

ART

thus

and

important that the drying should be

as
rapid as possible.In about a week the surface of the
cakes will have become
hardened, and ready for pressing.
of a lever press. Fig. 31, which
This is done
by means
merely givesto these cakes the preliminaryform of the
of the cakes is placedon
To apply the press, one
mould.
the lever is then forced
the lower half of the mould, and
the cake is removed
and then
downwards
raised,when
and another substituted for it,and so on, until all the cakes
have
been
struck.
The
edges of the cakes are then
which
trimmed, after,
they are again set aside to dry, and
from
the dryingwhen
so
sufficiently
they are removed
the

It

surface.

and

room,

the

is

skin which

hardened

has

formed

the

upon

of a sharp knife,
carefullyremoved by means
man.
with which the cakes are dexterously
scrapedby the workIt is said that a good workman
can
scrape forty
dozen of cakes in a day.
the cakes have been scrapedthey are moistened
When
with alcohol,to improve the smoothness
of their surface.
To accomplish this,the fingersof the right hand
are
dipped in alcohol,and this is spreadquicklyover the cake,
which
is then rolled in both hands, by which
it becomes
The cakes are again
moistened all over
in a few moments.
dried for about
twenty-fourhours, after which they are
ready for the final stamping,which is effected in the fly
mould
or
can
1,500
screw
press, by which an active man
cakes of soap per day.
surface is

In the above

per cent, of water

but this is allowed
the
soap

cakes
is

during

requiredto

afterwards

worked

heavier
The

be.
up

is

the

for in the

made

are

there

process

loss of about

14

or

15

several

drying operations,
in which
operationof balling,
than the resultingfinished
scrapingsof the cakes are

in future

batchefs of the

same

kind

of soap.
Fonanlse
are

some

French

for

Frencli

formulae

of the
makers

"

Toilet

Soaps.

for toilet soaps

"

The

following
adopted by the

MANUFACTURE

"

Savon

OF

Gnimanve.

de

White
Falm-oil

TOILET

OR

FANCY

SOAPS.

(MarslimallowSoap.)

tallov soap
soap

10 Its.
10

,,

Colour with
Tellow

oclire

1 oz.

Orange mineral
Gamboge

Perfume

"

5 dxms.

with

OU
"

of lavender
mint

IJ oz.

"

Oils of rosemary

Savon
White

Perfume

"

S drms.

and thyme, of each

Fleurs

aux

"

caraway
lemon

"

2J

"

d'ltalie.
20 Iha.

tallo-w soap

with

on

of citronella

1^

geranium

,,

oz.
"

verbena

mint

2^ dims.

""

"
,,

Colour

with

White

curd

Pahn

ozs.

Crim^e.

de

Savon

Colour

2\

ochre

Brown

16 lbs.

soap

soap

"

with
2^ drms.

Yermilion
ochre
Brown

Ivory

oz.

black

"

with

Perfume

Oils of thyme, mint, and rosemary,

OU of lavender

of each

of benzoin

de

Savon
Palm

2^ drms.
I5

oz.

Palme.
10 lbs.

soap

HaU-palm

1 oz.

l| drm.

cloves
"

Tincture

....

soap

.;

10
,,

with

Perfume

Oil of

bergamot

ozs.

cloves

oz.

,,

Oils of cinnamon

and lavender, of each

1
"

157

THE

158
Violet

Soap.

Yellow

ART

OF

SOAP-MAKING.

(Yellow.)
20

oil

cocoa-nut

Palm-oU

20

TaUow
Soda

10

"

"

ley at 36" B

To ^hich

26
"

orris-root

Powdered

the

added

are

4
2

thyme

Tincture

Colour

"

rhodium
"
"

of musk

with cadmium

Vanilla

"

followingperfumes:

of lemon

OU

Ib^

ozs.
"
"

,,

yellow.

Soap.

Lard, with vanilla

30 Ihs.

Cocoa-hutter

10

Palm-oil

10

Caustic ley, 36" B

26

"

"
"

Wax

Starch

"

"

Perfume

with

Tincture

of vanilla

4 ozs.

musk

amhergris

"

"

"

Oil of

Lard
for

some

Bose-Leaf

vanilla is

Soap.

pomade

Bose

20 lbs.

Lard

20
"

Cocoa-nut
White

oil

10

"

ley, 36" B
ley,30" B
tragacanth

20
"

12

"

"

with

Perfume

Oil of
"

roses

2 ozs.

geranium

rhodium

1 oz.
2 ozs.

"

"
"

bergamot
cinnamon

"

Colour

"

wax

Soda
Potash
Gum

oz.

preparedby adding the vanilla to

(1 oz. to the lb.),keeping it at a moderate heat
"c.
days,then straining,

with

the lard

"

rose

(Oeyloii)

with aniline

(fast
red)a lightpink.

oz.

i6o

Elder-flower

OF

ART

THE

MAKING.

SOAP-

Soap.

Half-palm

100 Its.

soap

Dextnne

Perfume

with
8 oza.

Oil of bergamot
lavender

thyme

cloves

cassia

i"

almonds

"
"

"
"
"

Colour

50 lbs.

soap

Starch

"

with.

Perfume

4 ozs.

Oil of lemon
"

"
"

bergamot
lemon-grass

cloves

1 oz.

"

2
"

lightyellowwith

yelloW.

cadmium

Soap.

Orange

50 lbs.

Wbite
soap
Starch

2
"

with

Perfume

8 ozs.

Oil of orange-peel
cinnamon

thyme

2 ozs.

"
"

Tallow

oz.

yellowwith naphthalineyellow.

dark

Glycerine

Soap.

(mutton)

44

oil

44

Cocoa-nut

22

Glycerine (pure)
Caustic ley,40" B
Alcohol, 96"

27

"

22

|"
"

48-4
"

9-9

Water

the grease

lbs.
"

Castor-oil

Melt

02-

Soap.

"White

Colour

"
"

lightgreen.

Lemon.

Colour

"

at

104" F., and

add

"

the alkali

by slow
and
prevent evaporation,

keeping the heat low to

degrees,
the ley has become
stir constantly.When
absorbed, after
add the alcohol,which
three or four hours' stirring
should
be warmed
clear,then add the glyce; stir tillit becomes
rine,
and when
mixed, the water and perfume ; turn into

MANUFACTURE

OF

TOILET

OR

FANCY

SOAPS.

i6i

the

frame,.
pouringslowly. This soap, if carefuUymade,
is a very superior
Cristiani.
one.
The same
author
gives the followingformulae for preparing
"

white

Castile soap, with

or

without

olive-oil :

"

1. Olive-oil

Grotmd
Tallow

40
suet

parts.

30
"

30

"

2. Olive-oil
Lard

30

"

30

Palm-nut

oil

,',

40

3. OUve-oil

30

Cotton-seed oil
TaUow-oil
4. Palm-oil

....

"

30

,,

'.

40

(bleached)

"

50
"

Sesame-oil

20
"

Tallow

,',

30

Savounettes,

Washballs.

These may

be made

from
formulae.
any of the milder toilet soaps, or from the subjoined
The
sphericalform is given by pressingthe soap in

moulds,

or

"

by first formingthem into balls with the hand,

and when
quite dry and hard turning them in a lathe.
Accordingto Mr. Beasley, they are formed into spherical
balls by taking a mass
of the prepared soap in the left
with
rather
thin
hand, and a conical drinking-glass
*
edges in the right. By turning the glassand ball of
form is soon
given;
soap in every direction the rounded
when dry,the surface is scraped,
to render it more
smooth
or

"

and

even."

Washballs

sometimes

are

made

with

the

addition

of

powdered starch or farina,and sometimes sand.

Having
but a comparatively
limited sale,they are
usuallyprepared
in small quantities.
Violet

Washballs.

Palm-oil
Farina

4 Its.

soap

(starch)

"

1 lb.

Fine powdered orris

shavingsand m.elt over a hot

Then
add
water-bath,adding a small quantityof water.
the farina and
it well by stirring.Lastly,
incorporate
add the orris powder,and mix well.
Cut

the

soap

into

fine

brass tool is

commonly
M

used for this purpose.

l62

THE

Honey

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

Savounettes.
7 Its.

Knest yello-wsoap
Palm-oil Boap

Melt

and

add

then

Oil of Terbena, rose,

geranium,

ginger-grass

or

of

Sweet

then

add

Savounettes

soap, and

oUs:

Herbs.

the

Melt

"

oz.

"

...

Oil of rosemary

curd

white

12 lbs. of

of essential

followingmixture

"

Oils of lemon

and

1 oz.

fennel

"

with

3 lbs.

the addition

of

then

little water, and

Spermaceti
Camphor (cutsmall)
These

add

ozs.

first to be melted

are

ozs.

Camphor.

ctrrd soap

White

"

of

Savounettes

ozs.

of each

mint, sage, and wormwood,

,,

Melt,

bergamot, of each
thyme, myrtle, and
thyme, lavender, wUd
marjoram, of each

"

the

lb.

.-

together,and

"

added

then

to

liquidsoap.
of

Savonnettes

ITeroli.

Melted
curd soap
Orris powder

12 lbs.

Orange powder
Oil of .neroli
Essences of musk

Savonnettes

with

and

mixture

ozs.

ambergris, of each

4 ozs.

Vanille.

la

12 Its.

little

lb.

12 drms.

"White curd soap

Melt,

water, and

then

add

the

following

"

of ranilla

Tincture
Balsam

4 q^s.

\ 4
..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.
2

of Tola

I'eru
,.

Tincture

of cinnamon
of musk

I02.

!!!]!'.;!!!!!!
2 d^s.

Oil of cloves
Tinctures

"

and amber, of each

1 oz.

MANUFACTURE
Marbled

and

stronglywith
soap

into

of any

savonnettes

shade

colour

or

to mix

be

real marbled

piecesof

the

For

above.

yellowochre
of the powder
produced.

colour

may

the

of

mixture

squares,

then press them

rouge,

By varying the

pleasingand

very

in

lows:
fol-

as

small

halls,taking care

of soap

163

formed

possible. For blue,roll

powder blue, and then treat them as

green, roll the cakes

and powder blue.

into

be

soap
or

SOAPS.

little as

as

in

bole

FANCY

may

curd

powdered

the hands

OR

These

"

white

red, cut

roll these in

colour

TOILET

Savonnettes.

For

"

OF

be
appearance
may
in one
vessel any

given to soaps in this way : Melt

requiredquantityof white curd soap, adding a littlewater.
When
thoroughly melted put a small quantity of the
warmed, and add to
soap in a separate vessel,previously
it a sufficient quantityof ultramarine,vermilion, or any
little water),to
other
mixed
with
colour (previously
a
stain the soap.
and stir round
coloured
coloured

soap

in

formed

Care must

mass.

round

and
has

soap

add the coloured

Now

be

taken

merely

may

tablets

to do

be
soap may
hot, but this must be done
should
soap

the

with
be

white

added

to

this

white

streak the

Allow

soap.

scooped out in
bright trowel, and
be

fashioned

be

small
these

balls

into

or

cautiously,so

the

white

before

soap

not

to mix

the

requiredperfumes

The

ground.

as

the

coloured

is introduced.

Savonnettes
"White

Miel

an

curd

soap

(Honey Savonnettes).

(melted)

1 lb.

Honey

Essential

oil of any

kind

rec[nired

Rose-water

Add

the

water, and

to any

Savonnettes

of the

may

"

soap, then
be made

perfumed soaps

in

"

ozs.

".

honey to the melted

the perfume.
lastly

Floating
water

that the

slowly,so

requirement. If preferred,the
carefullyput into a frame while

marbled
colour

soap,
the
until
only

series of circular veins in the

then

lumps may
according to

direction

one

1!he soap to cool, when

it may
lumps with a half-round and

marbled

the white

to

add

the

by adding a
a

melted

rose-

little

state,and

l64

THE

briskly
the

stirring
This

soap.
is

mass

at

perfumed

sieve

doubled
made

are

soap

certaia
sand

The

however,

sand,

using.
for

so

the

as

to

to

volume.

by

incorporating

two-thirds

should

is

passed

finely-powdered

into

until

the

melted
river

fine

soap
be

up

with
of

air

beat

or

kept

in

Sometimes
sand.

mix
be

should

proportions

one-third

before

substituted

mass,

agitation

least

Sand-Balls

About

the

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

fair

through

and
sand.
tion.
propora

pumice

fine
is

CHAPTER
SOFT

XX.

TOILET

SOAPS.

French
Cream.
Naples Soap, or Almond
Method.
Powdered
Paste.
Essence
Soap.
Soaps. Shaving
"

"

de Savon

The

Vienne.

of

"

Essence

"

de Savon

alkaline

base

of these

the

skin

after

Corinthe.

"

Soft ToHet
Soap. Essence

White

"

"

"

Transparent Soap.

is

potash,and the fatty

matter
times
generallyused is good hog's lard,though someoil is introduced
cocoa-nut
to promote the lathering
This latter oil, however, should
propertiesof the soap.
he used sparingly,
since it invariably
leaves a disagreable
odour

on

soaps

washing

serious

"

objectionin

toilet soaps.
This

elegant preparation,
used
which
has been much
a
as
shaving soap,
is prepared as
A potash ley,marking 36" B.,
follows :
is first prepared. Now
take 20 lbs. of clarified hog'slard,
and placethis in a small copper jacket-panor other convenient
vessel,and applygentleheat, stirringcontinually
ITaples

Soap,

or

Almond

Cream.

"

"

with

wooden

melted, but

stirrer.

When

the

lard

is

about

half

free from

lumps, add 5 lbs.,by weight,of the

and also the same
continue the agitation

potashley,and
degree of temperature, when, after an hour or so, soap
of the pan, while
at the bottom
granules^^JLhavedeposited
fat will float on the surface. Another
of unsaponified
a layer
5 lbs. of the same
and the mixture
be added
now
ley must
and the
the graniiles
and oil will disappear,
stirred,when
mass

the form

assume

of

stirringmust

be

time

will becc

the

mass

to be beaten

kept

up
ne

paste.

The

for about
a

stiff

heat
lightly,ll^lie

heat

and

occasional

four hours, by which

paste,when

should then

be

it

requires

withdrawn.

OAP-MAKING.

.ed over,

cooling may

that tte

so

lOW.

soap is to be put into a marble

by which
pounded with a wooden pestle,
the

.,

united,and

become
parated particles

paste formed, which

ugeneous
iUstre; hence

it is sometimes

preparationis
; hence

-imonds
French

usuallyperfumed

beautiful

fearl
oil of

with

per-

soap.
bitter

cream.

Fiftypounds of hog'slard and 10

oil are
placed in a steam-jacket
pan,
lbs. of potash ley'marking 20" or 21" B.
gradually,with constant
stirring,and
"

"

; 50

then

called

it is also called almond

Method.

of cocoa-nut
melted

has

added
of the

lbs.
and
are

the

kept at from 140" to 158". After

while the mass
thickens, by the evaporation of the
a
from the ley; if a tendency to separation
of the fatty
water

heat

matter

is

necessary,
is

must

now

must

be

exhibited, the heat must

little stronger ley
a

be

lowered,

added

until

and

if

cation
saponifi-

complete, which generallyoccupiesabout four

finish the operation,
30 lbs. of potashleyat 36" B.

To

hours.

is to be

mass

be

added, with

taken

keep

to

and
care
stirring,
below the boiling-point
the
become
quite stifi',

the heat

the

When

of water.

continual

down, after

paste has
the paste allowed to cool
be turned off,and
which
it is put into stone jarsfor future use.

To

this into

is to

steam

convert

mortar,

few

pearl soap

pounds

at

it is

time, from

pounded
\\

to

in

marble

drachms

of

oil of bitter almonds

When
from
must

being added for each pound of soap.

the soap is requiredto be of a delicate rose
colour,
15 to 30 grainsof vermilion
to each pound of soap
be added, and well incorporated
by the pestleand

mortar.

Although

the oil of bitter almonds

perfume for these soap

substances are
other fragrant
example,Creme Ambroisie is
a

as

and

benzoin, and

Creme

de

is

used
principally
as
they are called,
creams,
occasionally
employed. For
perfumed with liquidstorax

Cacao

Mousseuse

with

oil of

cacao.

White

Soft

Toilet

Soap,"

Cristiini

gives the following

ART

THE

1 68

Powdered

Soaps.

"

OF

SOAP-MAKING.

^All hard

soaps

may

be

reduced

to

dry, by trituration with a

perfectly
confined
but the operationis generally
other toilet purposes.
to cosmetic
soaps for shaving or
The
perfumed in the usual way,
soap, being previously
is cut into thin shavings,and these are laid upon sheets of
dried in any
and placed in the drying-room, or
paper
brittle
As soon
convenient way.
as the
shavingsbecome
they are in a condition for powdering. Small quantities
reduced
to a powder in a
should
be carefully
at a time
mortar, and the powder afterwards
passed through a fine
sieve,the fine powder being placedin a jar and kept well
All coarser
covered.
particlesretained, by the sieve
should then be pulverised
and sifted as before, until the
entire quantityis reduced
to a powder fine enough to pass
through the sieve.
Although it is better to colour the soap in the ordinary
if
before powdering it, the colouringmatter
way
may,
when
the soap is
be introduced
into the mortar
preferred,
about half reduced
to powder, and then worked
up with
the soap until thoroughlyincorporated. For rose-colour,
about
of vermilion
drachm
to each
one
pound of soap
should
be used.
from one
of
For yellow,
drachms
to two
ever,
finely-powdered
gamboge. Other shades of colour,howbe given if desired.
may
after their respective
Powdered
perfumes,
soaps, named
much
the
esteemed
fastidious
are
as
shaving soaps by
;
and perhaps the so-called rose
soap, perfumed with oil of
and tinted by vermilio.n,
be considered one
of the
rose
may
most delicate preparations,
providedthat it has been piade
from a good white tallow soap free from cocoa-nut
oil.
Paste.
This popular cosmetic
be preShaving
may
pared
in various
but
the
formulae
following
ways,
may
be taken as representing
1.
Take
tbe mode of manufacture
:
1
lb.
Castile
Marseilles
or
jSTaples
;
soap,
soap, \ lb.;honey,
of
lb.
of
oils
cassia and nutmeg, of
i
ambergris,
; essence
each 20 to 30 drops. Mix these ingredients
well together
in a mortar, adding a little rose-water, until a perfectly
2. Take of white or virgin
homogeneous paste is formed.
fine

powder, when
pestleand mortar,

"

SOFT

and
spermaceti,

wax,
a

worked

Mix

all well

kept well

and
together,

any essential
accordingto taste.
of

Soap.

made

are

the

Under

"

; but

because
those

they remain

prepared from

Dussauce
soap

mass

animal

; spermaceti

ounces

these

title various

preparations
of soap in warm

all solutions
addition

of

small

vegetableoils

clear and

should be

ingredients
is nearlycold ; perfume
of perfumes,
mixture

this

they are

the
alcohol,with, generally,
of potash. Soaps made from

Melt

oz.

oil, or

viously
pre-

little rose-water.

soft soap, 12

1|

stir until

soap

jar,which

o\a?r

2 ozs.; melt

each

of Windsor

ozs.

3. White

with

169

paste with

of each
olive-oil,

Essence

togetherand placein

covered.

and

oil,of

add

into

up

SOAPS.

almond

then

water-bath, and

all

TOILET

givesthe followingformula

preferred,

cold,whereas
solid in cooling.

liquid when

fats become

are

quantity

for

"

preparing this

"

White

Marseilles

Aloohol

6j ozs.
1 quart.

soap

at 85"

6 drms.

Potasli

into

soap into fine shavings,and put them

bottle holdingabout half-a- gallon(a "Winchester"

Cut

the

bottle

admirably); add the alcohol and potash,and

heat gently,
without boUing, over
a water-bath
; stir with
When
the solution is complete,take it out
a glassrod.
would

suit

of the

water-bath, and
perfume may be given

add
to

the

this

essences.

sweet

very

preparationby adding to

it"

Ij drm.

Oil of geranium

2j

verbena
"

To

colour

This

stir

2 J drachms

use

it,pour

of safiron.

the ordinary temperature.

of water,
little into half a tumbler

continues

essence

To
and

yellow,add

drms.

limpidat

quickly.

Essence

de

Savon

White

soap
of
Carbonate

Alcohol

potash

at 95"

Lavender-water

Digestand

Vienne.

filter.

ozs.

1 drm.
18
6

ozs.
, ,

THE

170

Essence
''

de

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

Savon

Coriuthe.

Dry white soap

Alcohol
at 80"
Potash
Essential

10 ozs.

oil

quart.

ozs.

few

drops.

Digestas before.
Any perfumed
"essence,"
form

toilet soap may

into an
be conTerted
doubtless the white
Castile soap would

but

the most

besides being the

elegantpreparationj

most

emollient.

dry,is readily
Soap,when perfectly
soluble in warm
alcohol, and advantageis taken of this
chemical
fact in the manufacture
of Transparent Soap
perhaps the most elegantform which this substance is
capableof assuming.
To prepare
transparent soap, either tallow,almond, or
Transparent

Soap.

"

"

soft soaps may

be used, but in either case
the soap must
be rendered
free from
The
water.
perfectly
soap is first
cut into thin slices or shavings,and
these are then
dried
over

water-bath,

of the dried
heated

by

or

and

soap

by

hot air.

rectified

water-bath.

Equal parts by weight

spiritare put into a still,

Only

moderate

heat

is

applied,
the
dissolving
pass over
It is Sometimes
the practiceto powder the
soap.
soap in
after drying before treatingit with
the spirit,
a mortar
it
becomes
If it is
more
by which
readily dissolved.
desired to colour the soapj any colouring
soluble in
matter
alcohol may
be employed, and it is best to colour the spirit
before adding it to the soap.
When
the soap is completely
dissolved,it is allowed to
hour or more,
rest for an
accordingto the quantity,after
which
the clear and
transparent liquidis put into the
it will solidify
frames, in which
on
cold
cooling. When
the soap is cut into piecesof any required size,and these
otherwise

does

would
spirit

in

the

same

without

way

as

other

toilet soaps.

The

not, however,

parency
acquire its characteristic transuntil after it has been exposed to dry air for a
considerable time. To colour the soap red, a strongtincture
soap

'

the

moulded

are

"

of

archil may

be

used, and

for

yellow turmeric

may

be

TOILET

SOFT

for

used
suited

this

Resin

are

and

soaps,

the

171

colours,

aniline

transparent

however,

and

soap,

are,

be

may

indeed,

well

purpose.

soaps

considered

the

of

the

for

suitable

very

presence

favours

undoubtedly

fair

transparency

proportion
and

making
of

resin

beauty

substance.

the

Although
to

the

tinting

to

these

of

Any

employed.

SOAPS.

the

powers

transparent

eye,
of

they

ordinary

do
soaps.

soaps
not-

possess

are

exceedingly
the

active

pleasing
detergent

of

CHAPTER

XXI.

SOAPS.

MEDICATED
Sir H.

Marat's

Soft Soap."
Sulphur Soap. Mercurial
Soap. Medicinal
Tootli
Tar Soap.
Soap. Carbolic Acid Soap. Medicated
Arsenical
Bordhardt's
Herb
Soap. Liquid Glycerine Soap.
Soap.
Soap. Soap for Washing Dogs.
Turpentine Soap. Tar Soap.
into Manufactured
Black Soap. Various
Substances introduced
Soaps.
"

Antimonial

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Many

different

substances

soap for the relief or cure

other purposes,
amongst

have
of

been

into

affections

cutaneous

which

introduced

mentioned

be

may

for

and

the

following:

"

Sir

H.

Marsh's

sublimed

and
with

smooth

fluid
is

paste

coloured
otto

sulphur ^
2

or

Snlplmr
drachms

roses

are

added

to

2 ozs.
soap
in a mortar,

spirit,until

rectified

spiritshould

The
alkanet

White
"

triturated

are

of

formed.

strongly with

of

oz.

Soap.

root.

give

the

few

soap

an

be

first

drops of
agreeable

fragrance.
is made
from
powdered Castile soap
Soap
4 ozs., corrosive sublimate
1 drachm, dissolved in rectified
Mercurial

spirit1
mixed

fluid

in

oz.

These

Wedgwood

ingredients are

to

be

thoroughly

mortar.

is made

from

olive-oil

saponified
from pure potash. The
with a caustic ley made
ley
is added
graduallyand cautiouslyto the oil during the
of
boiling,and the greatest care taken to avoid an excess
When
the mass'
alkali.
assumes
a transparent and
tinous
gelathe addition
of ley is stopped. The
appearance,
until the soap has acquiredthe
boilingis continued
proper
Medicinal

consistence.

Soft

Soap

pure

MEDICATED

in

173

Castile soap (white)in powder

et of antimony 2 drachms, solution
oz., golden sulphur
of caustic potassa 6 drachms.
Dissolve the sulphuret
the potashand add to the soap ; then triturate in a

Antimouial

1J

SOAPS.

Soap.

until

mortar

stiff

Pure

"

paste

is formed.

It should

have

colour.
greyish-white
Carbolic

Acid

acid had
Dr.

long

Soap.
had

scale that

extensive

advantage

and

About

commerce.

in

to soap

crutching.
cut

into

bars

or, for

of the

prepared from

the

cent,

put

fullytaken
employment as a

universal,and
taken

the

useful

and

of carbolic

extensive

use, it may

Carbolic

soap

20 Its.
1 lb.

Pumice

oz.

ozs.

1 oz.

cloves.

Soap.
20 lbs.

oil

10
5

Juniper tar
Soda ley, 40" B

TaUow

may

"

TaUow

Tooth.

formed

be

Carbolic acid, in crystals

OE of lavender

Cocoa-nut

is added

thoroughlyincorporatedby
a
frame, and when cold is
in the same
way as ordinary

ordinarysize.
:
following

Tar

"
"

15
"

Soap.
20 lbs.

soap

sifted)
powder (finely

lb.

Prepared chalk

2 lbs.

Starch

4 It

Lig.iiidGlycerine
Oleic acid
Cocoa-nut oil
Potash

ley

Glycerine

Soap

of

article of

acid

Starch

"

name

its

Indeed, this

Half-palm soap

Medicated

an

into

moulded
more

upon

late

be

extensive.

necessary

state,and

and

has

very

per

It is then

into squares

fancy soaps,

could

has become

which

soap,
been

melted

its usefulness

become

now

until the

not

was

developedits manufacture

deodoriser

incorporationwith
Carbolic Soap, has
article has

carbolic
powerfulantiseptic,

Since then, however, its

of.

disinfectant

As

known, but it

been

Crace-Calvert

"

is thus

made

"

187 lbs.
33

(best)

H*

35" B
"

"

"

1"

"
..
"

be

THE

174

Tlie

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

are
ingredients

at
saponified

sufficientalcohol at 95" added to make

Bordhardt's

Herb

gentle heat, and

the soap

clear.

Soap.
30 Its.

Olive-oil Boap
Palm-oU
soap

20

Dextrine

"

"

with

Perfume

Oil of rosemary

ozs.

lavender

Ij

oz.

"

thyme

\\

"

"

sage

magnolia
peppermint

"

"

"

"

,,
"

Colour blue.
Arsenical

the

preserve

is used

Soap
skins

by

from

the

animal

bird and

stufPers to
attacks of insects.
It is

formula : White
preparedby the following
soap, arsenious
acid,and lime slacked by air,of each 4 ozs. ; carbonate
of soda, 12 ozs. ; powdered camphor, | oz.
The whole
of
these ingredients
worked
are
up into a paste,with pestle
and mortar, a small quantityof water being added during
the mixing.
"

for

Soap
made

soap.

by

The

times
Dog's and other animals is somemixing Btockholm tar (wood tar)with melted

Washing

should

tar

first be

dissolved

ia

pyroxylic

(wood naphtha).
spirit

Starkey's Soap, is prepared as

follows : Take of "Venice turpentine,oil of turpentine,
and carbonate
of potash,
of each equal parts ; placethese
in a mortar
triturate them
warmed), and
(previously
together,
adding a little water, until a homogeneous mass
is formed ; put it into a paper mould, and after a few days
ia a well-stoppered
cut the soap iato slices,
and keep them
Turpentine

Soap,

or

"

bottle.
Tar

Soap

is made

from

tar,1 part; and liquorof

mixed
intimately
Black

Soap,

or

in

into

2 parts ;
shavings,
potassa,2 parts;the whole being
soap

cut

mortar.

Farrier's

Soap,is

coarse

kind

of soft

fish oils and caustic potash; sometimes

from
soap, made
Besides the substances above named, iodine.
tar is added.

XXII.

CHAPTER

PROCESSES.

MISCELLANEOUS
Levat's

Jennings's Processes.
Shaving
Hampel's
"

"

"

Lewis's

Process.

Mackay

and

BesBon

"

Soap.

Process.

Borax

"

Eemy's

and

Process.

Process.

"

Process.

"

Bastet's

Process.

Tardani's

Soap.
Soap.
Soaps.

in

Ammonia

Soap

Petroleum

Bankmann's

"

"

and

Soap." Camphor
Process.

Palm-oil
Sawdust

Violet's

"

Marriott's

"

Seller's Process.

Payne's

"

Soap.

"

Jeyes's

"

cess.
Pro-

Half-resin
Process.

"

Cleaver's Terebene
Varicas's Process.
Lortury's Process.
Soap.
Process.
Schaxr's Liquid Soap. Bichford's
Maxking Soaps.
"

"

the

from

Apakt

ordinary,or,

innumerable

soaps,
time
to

frequentlythe

we

recognised

so,

may
say
taken
been

from

out

the

case,

new

bear

process
the brand

does

of

absurdity

judgment
in

described
in

which

brief

case

he

and
specification,

with

the

patent is in
Jeuuings's

will be
will

if necessary,

of

form

processes

of the
copy
in communication

that

such

full force.
Processes.

1. Combine

"

from

temperature
of potassa or

olein

animal

of 212"

or

few

acquaintance,

course,

soda

1,000 lbs. of stearic

as

possible,or palmi-

stearine

F., with
of

trowel.

"When

the

or

margarine,

solution

of

specific
gravityof

1,500"; stir constantlyuntil an intimate

obtained, and no separationvisible when
shovel

the

on

put himself

patentee, provided,

margaric acids, as free

tine or
vegetableor
any
at

worth

of
any
further

naturally obtain

or

the

whether

to

as

is

"

The
followingabstracts from
very face of it.'^
the reader to
will enable
of the patent specifications
own

or

not, which

the

his

time

"improvements," modifications,
of which
easilybe determined
may

additions, the merits

by a small trial when
too

if

have

patents

various

for

"

"

"

mass

has

about

combination
tried with
cooled

carbona
bi-

down

is

the
to

MISCELLANEOUS

about

PROCESSES.

F., add 1 lb.

about '880",and 1 lb. per
caustic potassa; these are
60"

177

of

of
liquidammonia
cent, of tbe strongestsolution of
to be added gradually,
and well
until perfectly
mixed
combined.
Dissolve
by stirring
15 to 18 per cent, of resin by boilingit with a solution
of carbonate of potassa and soda in equal parts, or as
m.uch as will give the solution
a
specific
gravityof or
about 1,800"when
with
boilinghot. Mix these perfectly
the stearic or
acids
and
carbonated
alkali;
margaric
then add a strong solution of caustic potassa or
soda,
until perfectsaponification
is produced. The
dose of
caustic alkali will much
depend upon the purityof the
stearine or margarineemployed. The
is now
separation
salt or sulphate of soda as
effected by using common
If the soap is to be colourless,
usual.
resin must
be
no
ammonia
and caustic
employed,and a largerdose of liquid
alkali must
be used according
of the stearine
to the dryness
to be operatedupon.
2. White

curd

weight of water,
carbonate

of

per

cent,

soap is dissolved in about one- third of its

is added colophony
to which
(blackresin),

For this purpose

soda, and alum.

the

resin

commerce

per cent, of the quantity of soap) is

with about 6 per cent, of carbonate
of soda of
to the resin employed,
usingabout a like weight

of water

as

(at the

of 25

rate

dissolvpd

there is of the

resin.

These

matters

being

alkali are
boiled togethertill the resin and
dissolved,
to the dissolved soap, and
the compound is to be added

the whole

of the mattet's

to be boiled tillthe workman

are

taking a samplefinds that the soap is hard and smooth,

To this compound
as is well understood
by soap-boilers.
is to be added a quantityof sulphateof alumina
(common
alum) with a view to improve the colour,say from about
on

to

per

cent,

of the

mixture, usingmore

or

tallow

or

oil and

less of the alum

resin

in the

accordingas the
compound is to be

The
whole
pure.
boiled up, and then allowed to stand from two to four hours.
In order to prevent the resin precipitating,
a quantity of
resin is less

or

more

dilute

sulphuricacid

above

mixture.

The

is introduced

strengthof
N

and

stirred into the

each

solution of acid

178

THE

"which is used
9

ART

by weight of sulphuricacid

is 1 part

parts by weight

in respect to the
mixture
is to be

of

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

water, of which

about

weight of tallow or oil and

employed. The compound

fitted,
cleansed,and framed

as

to

per cent,
resin in the

is then

to

be

usual.

of this process is to utilise

object
the
from
the waste
residual oilyproducts resulting
or
distillation of essential oils,and to add to the emoUiency
of the soap by the employment of lichen.
The
fatty
first heated to expel the alcohol left in them
matters
are
then heated
after the process of distillation,
and they are
with a weak
soda ley,after which stronger leysare used
the soap separates
When
to completethe saponification.
and the grainhas the proper consistence,
infusion of lichen
an
is added, when
smooth
The
a perfectly
paste is formed.
levat's

soap

Process.

consists of:

The

"

"

Fatty matters

58

Soda
Water
Lichen

Violet's

and

at

added,

"

Palm-oil

Soap.

"

"

100 lbs. of palm-oil

are

melted,

the temperature of 203", \2\ ozs. of nitric acid

for about a quarter of
with Tigorousstirring
water

continued, after
stirring

which

The

"

34

hot

hour

parts.

; 12

gallonsof

oil is then

well washed

acid, and

after

then

are

added, and

the oil is allowed

seyeral

times

to

are
an

the

to rest.

free it from

from
the water
is
being 'separated
with a weak
ley at 8" B., followed by stronger
saponified
leys of 10" and 15". The boilingis kept up until the
and the grained
consistence,
soap is of the proper granular
from the ley,is dissolved with
soap, after beingseparated
lemon juice. This soap is called
Orangine."
is
made
Shaving
Hampel's
Soap
by his patented
the

"

process
mixed

as

follows:

"

olein 6'6 per cent, is first

per cent, of hot water ; then

Cleaned

thoroughlywith 13
per cent, of soda ley at

25" is added, and the mass,

5*4
the appearance
of soft butter,is agitated
which assumes
cold and is easily
untH it becomes
when
12*5
liquefied,

per cent,

of best white

soap

and

50

per

cent,

of

boiling

MISCELLANEOUS

water

added.

All

PROCESSES.

179

these

to be well
are
ingredients
mixed
and finally
12"5 per cent, of spiritat
together,
90" is to be added
and well incorporated
with the mass.
The compound is then to be covered,and allowed to rest
for a while,after which it is to be filtered,
and is then
ready for use.
For making a washingor
Process.
]VErs. Marriott's
cleansingcompound," the inventor mixes with common
yellow or any fancy or toilet soap about an equal proportion
of very finelj'^-powdered
which
is
added
to
pumice,
the soap in its melted state.
The powdered pumice is tobe thoroughlyincorporated
with the soap, so as to be
equallydistributed throughout.This compound combines
the detergentqualities
of the eoap with
the frictional
action, of the pumice ; at the same
time, when used forwashing or cleansingpurposes, the soap lubricates the
of the powdered pumice and modifies its abrasive
particles
action,thus preventinginjuryto the finest fabrics.
Mr. Waller
forms a washing or
in Soap.
Sawdust
cleansingcompound by adding to melted soap certain,
of sawdust, and well mixing the whole togetherquantities
or
crutching. The sawdust may, if preferred,
by stirring
in thebe introduced
during the process of manufacture
added to soap.
that other ingredients
are
same
way
are

"

"

"

Lewis's
or

viscous

Process.

"

Mr.

Lewis

mixes

suitable farinaceous
solution of soluble glassor
other

trine,
potato flour,dexsubstances
solution

with

of silicate

of about
silicate of potash,in the proportion
one
part flour to ten or twelve parts of the silicate. The
from
oleic acid in the usual way,
soap is manufactured
with the addition of a small quantity of resin,say about
the
one
part of resin to about ten parts of soap. When
of soda

or

hot and
and while the soap remains
process is finished,
frames, the
in a fit condition for running into the cooling
substance
above compound of the silicate and farinaceous
is added
three

in the

parts of

of
proportion

the soap,

more

orincorporated
thoroughlj'-

and
as

usual.

then

the whole

about
or

one

less.

part by weight
These

materials

to

are

ring,
mixed by crutchingand stiris transferred to the frames

i8o

THE

Por

household
a

tallow
a

or

made

soap

animal

OF

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

he uses
purposes
oleic acid mixed
with

laundry
of

by

ference
pre-

common

resin ; if necessary, he adds

certain proportionof French
chalk to give firmness
to
or

the soap.

The

solution of silicate of soda

specificgravity of
Borax

Soap.

and

grease

about

170"

Mr. Rowbottom

"

by

should

Twaddell's

produces"borax

have

meter.
hydrodrysoap,

"

by adding borax to the usual carbonated

or
alkali,or other substance used in the
or
manufacture
of dry or
powder soaps*.For borax soft
solution of borax to the ingredients
he adds
a
soaps
usuallyemployed for making ordinarysoft soaps before
or
during the manufacture, or he dissolves by heat any
ordinarysoft soap in the borax solution,and incorporates
soap powder
silicated ash

or

the

same,

usual

after which

the

mass

is allowed

to cool in the

manner.

Messrs.

Cooper and
Smith introduce these substances into ordinaryhard or soft
melted.
The camphor is
soap, the former being previously
first dissolved in camphine or rectified oil of turpentine,
The
solution of camphor is added to the
in alcohol.
or
hard or soft soap in any desired quantityaccordingto the
of ammonia
to which it is to be applied.The carbonate
use
this is well incoris first reduced
porated
to a fine powder, and
with the soap by stirring. The
carbonate
of
ammonia
is added
in the proportionof from one
to five
The addition
parts by weight to every 100 parts of soap.
of camphor to the soap is said to give it valuable disinfecting
whle
carbonate
of ammonia
increases
properties,
of the soap.
the detergentpower
The camphor may
be
the carbonate
of ammonia, and
used without
the latter
the former, or they may
without
both be added to the
Camphor

same

and

Ammonia

Soaps.

"

soap.

addition to the

camphor solution and carbonate of

ammonia, the patentees prefer to add of borax about
10 per cent, to the soap, and also glycerine
to the extent
In adding borax it is dissolved in as small
of 5 per cent.
of water as is practicable,
and
the solution is
a quantity
In

MISCELLANEOUS

added

melted

to

hard

borax
In

powder.
of tar

making

is added

to

the
ingredients,
spirit.
and

Mackay
consists

in

chlorate

of

of solution

in

in

solution

first dissolved

being

Seller's

"

added

be

soap

the

singly or

glycerine.
or

in

fine

soft soap for ships'use

2 per cent,
soft soap
in addition
other
to the

tar

mixing
potash

treatingsoft

be added
either
may
without
borax
and
or

either

may

In

soap.

camphor and ammonia

and
with
conjointly,
The

i8l

PROCESSES.

Process.

with
or

The

during

soap,
other

any

"

water, will

pyroxylic

patentees'
process
its

off

manufacture,
which, in process

substance

give

in

oxygen."

The

potash is sifted into or mixed with the soap

the point of its setting,
on
or
justbefore it is allowed to
that the oxidizingagent is not then
cool,in such manner
dissolved in such soap base, but preserved therein more

chlorate

of

"

or

less in contact

with

the

introducingthe chlorate,or
facilitate

the

of

removal

The
objectof
soaps treated.
other oxidizingagent, is to
of
process
7 lbs. of chlorate to 113 lbs.

dirt

washing. Proportions: about

the

during

of soap.
Petroleum

Soap:

Bastet's

Process.

Caustic

ley at
then equal parts
oil are
placed in
"

placedin a suitable vessel,and

mineral
and
of animal
fatty matter
separatevessels. The combined weightof the fattymatter
oil being taken
standard, boracic
and
the mineral
as
a
36" B. is

acid sufficient to dissolve the alkali is used ; the

oil is heated
to
a
temperature of about 90"
the
while

animal
in

fatty matter
this

condition

is melted
a

by

quantityof

steam

F.,
heat,

boracic

dissolved therein,which, with that acid used

combined
make
up one-half per cent, of the

as

mineral
and

acid

and
is

before,will

weight of

the

fattymatter and mineral oil employed.

The
partiallyacidified animal fattymatter and the
now
mineral
oil being heated in separate vessels, are
united by graduallypouring the former into the latter,
in order to effect a
with constant
stirringor agitation,
acidified alkali is then gradually
combination
perfect
; the
added, and the mass
kept well stirred.

i82

THE

ART

OF

SOAP-MAKING.

convertingthe mineral oil into a solid

is completed by graduallyadding the ordinary or unacidified alkali in sufficient quantities
to effect this result,
the entire
keepingup the agitationas before. When
into a
is found
the conversion
to be granulated,
mass
animal fatty
compound is complete. While
saponaceous
be
results can
matter
only has been mentioned, the same
reached
by the use of vegetablefattymatter, or a mixture
of animal
and
is
The
vegetable fattymatters.
soap
finished by the free use of steam.
is accomplished
Liquefaction
of
the
deoxidise
steam
to thoroughly
by a jet
and disintegrate
After
matter
the compound.
saponified
the use of steam
for this purpose, the soap is boiled by
superheatedsteam.
This consists in forming
Besson
and
Bemy's Process.
and perfuming
a soap paste of
any ordinaryingredients,
The soap is afterwards
desired.
ing
as
as in makpulverised,
shaving powder, and the powder thus obtained is
agglomerated by pressure in small moulds of specialform,
that is to say, of a form corresponding
to that requiredin
the pieces. This form is in section plano-concave,
that
so
the middle
be
portion is comparativelythin, and can
crushed
by the fingerwith a very slightpressure applied
flat side. The
crushed
to the
piece,as it consists of
becomes
agglomerated powder, at once
disintegrated,
and forms a good lather in water, an effect which
cannot
from
be obtained
an
equal-sizedpiece of ordinarytoilet
The

process

of

"

soap

without

Tardani's
suet

other

or

much

friction.

^Any convenient quantityof oil or

fattymatter is taken, and placed in a flat-

Frocess.

"

boiler of iron,constructed
cone, together with double

bottomed

in the form
the

of

cated
trun-

quantity of water
and
a
proportionof quicklime previouslyslaked by a
quantityof water equal to 12 per cent, of the weight
be boiled and mixed
of the oil or fat. The whole must
by
mechanical
of
an
one
means
agitator a
by preference.
hard
This will produce an
insoluble
lime soap and a
solution of glycerine,
the latter of which may be separated
by opening the top of the perforatedpipe connected with
"

THE

84

resinous

and

one-fourth,

as

ART

OF

fattymatter,

SOAP-MAKING.

instead

of

only

one-third

or

usual.

its qualityand hardness

preserve
better than ordinaryresin soaps, does not become
unduly
the
advantage that
dry and brittle,and also possesses
while
in most
laundry soaps a large portion is wasted
This

soap

is said

to

them
to
which
causes
solubility,
than
is requiredfor the
dissolve to a greater extent
detersive
the soap
produced by the
strictly
purposes,
also
above
process is said to last longer,besides being
cheaper.
consists in treatingfattyor
Mr.
G. Payne's
Process
the same, under
oilymatters and subjecting
pressure, in
because

of their extreme

autoclave with

an

lime

and

water.

decompositionof the fattyor oilymatter in

the autoclave,the aqueous
drawn,
solution of glycerineis withand
instead of decomposing the lime
soap with
acids,as in the ordinaryprocess of making stearine,the
inventor employs for its decompositionstrong caustic soda
or
potashleys,or a solution of carbonate of soda or potash.
The hydrated or carbonate
solution is used in about the
proportionof 7 per cent, of the alkaline base to from 60 or
70 per cent, of the fatty acid, these proportionsbeing
After the

varied

within

limits ; in all cases

be
must
care
taken that the alkali shall be sufficient to coinbine with or
the whole of the fattyacid.
saturate
The decomposition
certain

of the lime

of the hydrate or carbonate

of
soap by means
soda will result in the productionof a soda soap, and where
the

position
hydrate or carbonate of potashis used for such decomthe productwill be potashsoap, the lime in either
in a more
less insoluble condition.
case
or
being precipitated
The soaps obtained by this process
be finished
may
in a soap-copper in the ordinarymanner.
has for its object
TBx. Baukmann's
Process
to furnish soap
in the form of thin perforatedsheets or tablets,
that a
so
singlepiecemay be torn off for each washing of the hands
A number
of frames are placedone above another,
or face.
and are
fastened together
in such a manner
that
securely
the joints
are
water-tight.The soap to be treated is put

MISCELLANEOUS

PROCESSES.

into these frames, and

tlie sides

185

sections

capableof
being removed so as to leave the soap projecting.Thin
shavingsare planed from the block of soap by a cutter
passingalongthe surface,and the shavingsor sheets are
then subjected
to the action of a roller which
compresses
Then
and smooths them.
each
d
ivides
a perforator
shaving
into
sheet
small pieces. Each
sheet
or
correspondingly
should be about 3 inches long by 2 inches broad, and -perforated
crosswise
then

have

packet in

then

one

dozen

form

of

the

contain

to form

as

the thickness

about

stamps. About
in

so

four

material

Jeyes's

anthracine

for

the

Process.

sheets

"

material.
The
any

inventor
similar

introduces

crystallisable

of
ordinaryingredients

salts is added

of the above

The

ings.
forty-eight
separatewashbe impregnated with carbolic

salt,naphthaline,or

hydrocarbon into

tablets.

of postageportability
of such sheets may
be arranged
pocket-book. The packet wiU

desired,the soap may

acid,tar, or other medicinal
W.

are

and

If

Mr.

or

to and

mixed

soap. Either
with the ordinary

of
ingredients

period during the

manufacture

in various

soap at any convenient

before solidification,
and

accordingto the
apply the

to which

use

tions,
proporbe intended
to

it may

soap.

says the
inventor," is to saponifyfats with alkalies without any
of the fat,lookingto the preliminary
previous treatment
m.

Varicas's

Process.

decompositionof

the

"

"

The

The

same.

and all the

slow saponification,
remain

in the

prepare

result is

comparatively

which
glycerine

does not

mechanicallysuspended,is carried
of this invention
lost. The object
and to save
instant saponification,

soap
leyand

in the waste
to

now,"
practice

fats for

off
is
all

glycerine.To effect this,the inventor firstextracts the

glycerinefrom fats in their neutral state by the direct

the
'

action

of

steam

and

water, under

of about

pressure

of
150 lbs.,whereby a soap stock is produced susceptible
with an alkaline
combined
when
immediate
saponification

ley.

Besides

important advantage of savingall the

whole process of soap-making is said to be

the

the
glycerine,
hastened,and
materially

the

resulting
soaps

are

of

superior

86

THE

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

all thingsbeing equal,than

quality,

soaps

made

by

nary
ordi-

methods.
consists in

Process

torbnry's

in caustic alkali to

addinga

gluten

solution of

emoUiency of the
increased.
The glutenmay
soap is said to be considerably
be added to any kind of soap after the process of saponification
tained
is complete. The
solution of gluten is thus obTo

"

much

as

added
mass

bran

it will take up.

becomes clear and
fine sieve

to the soap
Cleaver's

or

After

Terebeue

in

terebene,
whereby

cloth.

the

state

substance

however,

as

is produced.

toilet creams,
followingproportions,which
may,

The

be varied

known

antiseptic
soap

This substance is also combined

cosmetics, "c.

solution is added

"

disinfectant and

This

it is strained

of 10 per cent, more

less.
or
Mr. Cleaver combines
with
Soap.

melted

the
digestion

hours'

some

homogeneous,when

coarse

to the extent

while

the

solution of caustic potassa of about 20" B.

or
gluten obtained from any other source is

as

through a

soap

which

by

soap,

said to

will,are

at

with

give good

results

"

For

toilet soap 4^ pintsof terebene are added to 112 lbs. of

For household
or
laundry-soap, he adds 6 pintsof
soap.
terebene to 112 lbs. of soap.
The terebene is introduced
into

the

in its

soap

liquid state, and

by stirring.The
The

soap

is known

may

porated
thoroughlyincorbe perfumed if desirable

terebene soap.
For making this soap the folScharr's
lowing
I^iqnid Soap.
complicatedformula is given for one ton of the
soap

as

"

compound:
Twelve

"

cwt. of water

together for

are
ingredients

few

minutes, after which

introduced

Lingeed
Sal

4 lbs. of starch

and

are

the

first boiled

following

"

53 lbs.
8

amiaomac

"

Soda

ash

(52" to 54")

44
"

Pearl asli (American)

Eussian
potash.

56

Resin

52

Oleine

26

73

"
^^
"

Borax

Spiritof turpentine
Liquid anunonia

"

4
5
10

MISCELLANEOUS

The

187

PROCESSES.

ingredientsare

placed in a vat or other suitahle

for two
hours.
vessel, and boiled by injectionof stdam
The liquid,
after being boiled,is passed through a sieve,
to separate the solid portion; it is then
cooled
down
to
between
90" and
122" F.
The
solid or
third portion
is put into a cask
the
(which is provided with a tap near
bottom) and upon it is poured about 40 to 44 gallonsof
boilingwater, which is thoroughlyincorporatedby stirring.
It is

then allowed

clear

portion is run
brought to

and

The

steam.

and

soap

lbs

stirring. The
introduced

now

compound
Mr.

out

the
is

steam

20

is

of

by the tap into a

boiling-pointby

soap which
and
well

injectionof

the

lbs. of soft

152

pearlash are added, with

had
previouslycooled down is
the
mixed
when
by stirring,

use.

introduces

soapstone) into

or

off,and

turned

now

the
clear,when
suitable receiver,

American

ready for

Bichford

until it becomes

to rest

powdered French
employing froni

soap,
per cent., according to the purpose
be used.
to
For
a
nursery
soap,
and

chalk

4 to about

for which

the

4 per cent,
cent, of the

for toilet soaps 5 per

back
1838
Mr.
Sheridan
as

tite,
(stea-

is

is

soap
mended,
recom-

powder.
ventor
originalinof silicated soaps
patented a process for combining
potato flour,water, and soda or potash leys (preferring
the latter alkali)in the followingproportions:
^potato
flour,16 lbs. ; water, 270 lbs. ; potash leys,100 lbs. It
"wUl be seen, as is too frequentlythe case
with
ments
improveidea has been often patented
in soap, that the same
As

far

"

the

"

"

"

"

since.

Marking
coloured
The

Soaps.

"

Mr.

Dunn
similar

suggestedmarking
material

other
or
soap,
is first stamped in the usual

soap
the impressionis filled in with

in

manner,

this

soaps,

:
way
and
when
"

plastic
soap of a different
colour by means
of a spatula; or if the impressionis fine
and
small, with
dry powdered and coloured soap, by
little of the powder is
of a spatula,
with which
means
a
the impressed surface.
spread over
dry

XXIII.

CHAPTEE
METHODS

ALKALIMETRY.

PERCENTAGE

TSE

Mohr's

The

"

It

To

in

materials

of

actual

be.

It

be

all but

AND

The

which

of variable
value

should

PearAlkali.

anhydrous

or

manufacture

Commercial

Testing

"

Alkalies.

Sampling

"

of real

Percentage

the

that

obvious

quantities of
estimating the
consumer.

POTASH,

Test-Acid.

the

Method.

Normandy's

"

determine

vast

the

of

Preparation

"

Assay.
"

be

must

IN

ALKALI

Alkalimeter.

lashes.

ALKALI

ASH,

SODA

CAUSTIC

REAL

OF

COMMERCIAL

DETERMINING

OF

consumes

quality, some
be

the

at

means

command

of

of

chemistry, which, as we have

the art of soap-making
from
the empiricism
shown, rescued
ruled
its operations until
little more
imd
ignorance which
than
not
since, has shown
forty years
only the principles
of saponification,but
also the means
the
by which
precise
of the
various
value
in
the
art
ingredients employed
may
determined
be
with
absolute
with
certainty, and
parative
comand
ease
simplicity.
It
the
custom
was
formerly for the
soap-boiler to
estimate
the
of
his
alkali
first
strength
by
pouring a
then
on
a
pound of the ash, and
quart of water
putting
the
solution
into
of
Dutch
which
floated
in
a
lump
soap,
it ; he then
added
water
more
gradually until the piece of
that
water
sank, and the more
was
required to efiect
soap
this
in alkali
the
ash
object, the richer
was
supposed to

The
value

is

of

to

say

that

test

of

this

kind

would

worthless.

first

celebrated

by

needless

science

adoption
alkalies
by
Trench

Descroizelles'

the aid of which

of

system

chemical

chemist

for

estimating the

agency

Vauquelin

made

was

; this

of
important invention
results
tolerablyaccurate

the

was

relative

by

the

followed

alkalimeter, by

could

be

obtained.

189

ALKALIMETRY.

To

our

countryman. Dr. Andrew

own

indebted

are

for the

the absolute

sample of
or

soda

potash,whether

or

chemical
Dr.

of

to

defined

in the

real

given cqmniercial

alkali in

by

of carbonate

form

of determining

the methods

refer

we

test-acid that represents

understand

be necessary

combination

Dalton.

To

percentage

sample it may

of

of alkali in

amount

of caustic alkali.
the

employment

TJre,however,

to
briefly

the

commercial
the laws of

atomic

theory of

This

stances
great chemist discovered that all subin definite
combine
proportionsor equivalents
; for
with
example, 1 part by weight of hydrogen combines
The
8 parts of oxygen
number
to form water.
eqidvalent
is 1, that of oxygen
8, and that of
hydrogen,therefore,
with
9.
water
Again, 3 equivalentsof oxygen combine
1 equivalent
of sulphur(16) to form sulphuricacid,thus :
acid 40,
anhydrous sulphuric
sulphur16, oxygen 24, equals
fore,
acid (thestrongestoil of vitriol)
49 ; thereor m.onohydrated
of this
40 is the equivalent
or
combining number
of

acid, and

it cannot

be made

to unite

with

alkalis

or

other

proportion. For example,fortygrains

sulphuricacid will neutralise exactly
by
63 grains of dried carbonate of soda, 31 grains of pure
anhydroussoda, or 40 grainsof hydrate of soda (caustic
soda). This being so, it is only necessary to have exactly
acid in 1,000 grainsof water to
40 grainsof real sulphuric
in any other
weight of pure

bases

test-acid,
which, when
employed to neutralise an
alkaline solution,will show, by the proportionof dilute
the alkali,
the absolute percentage
acid used to saturate
present in the sample.
form

of analyzing or
principalmethods
the first of
of the test-acid,
assayingalkalies by means
and
the
second
which
is mlumetric, or
by measure;
or
by weight. In the former, the test-acid
gravimetric,
of a glass
is appliedby means
"standard
solution"
or
There

two

are

which
holds,up to
alkalimeter,or burette,
mark, exactly1,000 grains. The scale is

vessel termed
its 0

or

an

zero

which
100 divisions,
are
forms
several
There
are

graduatedinto
into tenths.

alkalimeter,all

more

or

less admirable

again subdivided
of the

for their

burette

or

ingenious

THE

igo

ART

OF

SOAP-MAKING.

but for the ordinary

construction,
purposes of alkali testing
Sink's burette.Fig. 33, or Mohr's
burette.Fig. 34, will be

well suited to the

of the former at

laboratory.The simplicity
soap-maker's
it,but the latter has the

commends

once

advantageof enablingthe operator to add the test-liquor

drop by drop,when the alkaline solution is near the point
of saturation,
without encumberingthe hands.

'"^

is7

Kg. 33.
AUEalimeter.

SEohr's

and

use

of

"

Mohr

his

thus

very

describes

which

with
person
ease, which
any
absolutelyair and water tight for an indefinite

by

constructed
which

be

may
*

The

opened

and

regulatedat

Chemist,toI. i.,New

struction
con-

useful and
ingenious
in substituting
for expensive

apparatus.* I have succeeded

glassstop-cocks,an arrangement
"

the

Series,p. 158.

will

be
may
remains

period,
by the

J92

THE

ART

OF

MAKING.

SOAP-

periment the limit of the quantityused before may be

aproached so near that the further addition of liquidmay
be made
drop by drop."
alkalies are
When
analyzed gravimetricallya specific
gravity-bottle
(Fig.35) capableof holding exactly 1,000
grainsof distilled water is emplo5'ed,and this,
filled with
when
teat-liquor,
weighs (exclusive
of the tare of the bottle)
exactlyi'033 grains.
contains exactly
1,000 grainsof the test- liquor
The test-acid
acid.
40 grainsof real sulphuric
that is,with the alkato be used volumetricalli/,
limeter,has a specific
gravityof 1*032 at 60" F.,
40
and 1,000 grainshy measure
contain exactly
Fig. 33.
grainsof real or anhydrous sulphuricacid.
Preparation

of the

Test-acid

or

Standard

Solntiou.

"

it is advisable
to prepare
a
making the test-liquor
is
since there
operations,
quantity sufficient for many
of trouble involved in its prea certain amount
necessarily
paration.
It may
be readilymade
by mixing 1 part of
acid with 11 or 12 parts of distilled
concentrated sulphuric
Winchester
being effected in a
mater, the mixture
half a gallon. The acid
bottle,which holds rather over
be adjusted
solution must
or broughtto the proper
strength
after it has cooled down
to 60" F., and it should h^ faintly
tingedwith litmus,which will give it a pinkishhue.
If the acid is of the proper
strengthit should exactly
of soda previously
53 grains of pure carbonate
saturate
calcined at a red heat, or 31 grains of pure anhydrous
the anhydrouscarbonate of soda, place
soda.
To prepare
of carbonate
of soda in a Berlin
few crystals
a
porcelain
a
nd
heat
this
buirner ;
over
a spirit-lamp
or Bunsen
crucible,
of crystallisation
all the water
when
is expelled
continue
the calcination until the mass
is at a brightred heat,when
be set aside to cool. Ifow carefully
the vessel may
weigh
the
of
calcined carbonate,and dissolve in
out 53 grains
of distilled water
about 2 ounces
in a beaker-glass.The
alkalimeter
is now
to be charged with
the test-acid to
the level of zero, and (ifMohr's burette be used)the beaker
containingthe alkaline solution is to be placedupon the

When

"

"

ALKALIMETRY.

stand
nobs

193

immediatelybeneath the exit-tube. Now

of the pressure-cock,
and allow a portion
of

to flow

into the beaker.

When

the

is

press the

the

liquor

effervescence which
further additions of

set up subsides,make
immediately
the test-liquor
from time to time, until the effervescence
becomes
the acid must
be added
with
sluggish,when
the solution approaches
saturation
greater caution. When
it acquiresa purplishtint (due to the litmus with which
the acid is tinged),
it retains until the point of
which
it suddenlychanges to pink
saturation is reached, when

onion-red

or

colour.

After each

solution should be stirred with

addition

of the acid the

thin

glassrod, and before

the final change from
purple to piak or onion-red,the
end of the glassrod should be applied to a strip
of blue
when, if the spot touched assumes
a- red
litmus-paper,
colour,the saturation is complete; if,on the contrary,the
is unchanged,or has a violet or reddish
hue, add
paper
the test-liquor,
two drops at a time, with continued
one
or
until a drop of the solution appliedwith the rod
stirring,
reddens
the litmus-paper,
the saturation is finished.
when
If any test-liquor
remain
in the burette this indicates that
there is an excess
of acid in the test-liquor
; consequently
more

distilled water

must

be added

to the

bulk, the burette

and another
emptied and refilled with the reduced liquor,
53 grainsof anhydrous carbonate
treated as before,xmtil
tion.
neutralise the solu1,000 grainsof the acid liquorexactly

Should

the

first trial be used

whole

contents

of

the burette

in

the

before saturation is complete,a little more

or test-acid
sulphuricacid must be put into the Winchester
bottle,and a 53-grainsolution of carbonate of soda treated
before.
A very little practice
will enable the operator
as
with perfectaccuracy;
to adjusthis test-liquor
and, in

prevent mistakes, the bottle should be labled

"Testracid," and should be kept closed with its glass

order

to

stopper.
Sampling

Alkalies.

"

The

ordinarysoda

ash

of

merce
com-

usuallypacked in wooSen casks ; and in order to

sample from a largenumber of these
secure
a fair average
itis important
casks,which may representone consignment,
is

THE

194

to take

small

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

samples,as

of eacli cask

the centre

near

as'

of the casks as time will permit.

from as many
possible,
Each sample,as drawn
from the cask, should be at once
with a wellbottle furnished
placed in a wide-mouthed
and marked
cork. Each sampleshould be numbered
fitting

with the brand

maker

who

each cask.
cGstinguishes

which

tests

or

assays

his

The

soap-

alkali should

always
and
intelligence

own

be careful to

employ a person of known

to procure
samples for him.
integrity
"When
about to analyzeany given sample,first empty
the contents
of the bottle upon a pieceof dry paper, then
crush the largerlumps,and reduce
the whole
to a coarse
to prevent absorption
so
as
powder as quicklyas possible,
of moisture from the atmosphere. Now
weigh
carefully
out 100 grains,and put them
into a small flask (Fig.36),
and

at

and

cork
securely

half

an

heat

of

ounce

it. Pour

to enable

aside

distilled water, and

After

pour

the clear

^^^

wash

the

gently

assist solution

few minutes

set the flask

the insoluble matter

then
36.

bottle,

to the

into the flask about

to
it,shakingoccasionally

of the alkali.

FiK

the remainder

return

once

to

subside,

%Mor'into a beaker-glass,

sediment

several

times

with

small

of distilled water, being careful

quantities
in the
to add the washings to the alkaline solution
This washing must
be performedseveral times,
beaker.
until the last washing-liquor
or
producesno effect upon
yellow turmeric-paper. So long as the washings give
a

brown

tint to this

assured,and

test-paperthe

presence

of

alkali

is

the

portant,
It is imwashing must be continued.
after each washing,to pour off the last drop of
the liquor,by which
the process is rendered
more
plete
comand with less water
than when
this precautionis
To ensure
not observed.
perfectaccuracy every particle
be added
of the washings must
to the contents
of the
in which the assay is to be made.
beaker-glass
The
Assay." To perfoum- the assay, the alkalimeter
first be filled with the test-acid exactlyto the line 0
must
or

zero

of the scale ; the

acid must

then

be

allowed

to'

ALKALIMETRY.

flow

igS

the alkaline solution

graduallyinto

(which

should

be

constantlystirred with a glass rod) until the liquid

a
assumes
purple tint,which it retains until the exact
point of saturation is reached,when it suddenlychanges
the
to
pink. It is commonly the practiceto warm
alkaline solution so as to expel the carbonic acid which is
absorbed
GTolved and
by the solution during the process
of saturation.
the neutralisation is complete,
the
"When
alkalimeter

is allowed

that the acid

for a few moments,

so
repose
drain from
the interior of the

to

liquormay

glassinto

the bulk

of the

acid used

is then

determined

of divisions which

have

alkalimeter

Every

represents x^th
100
"

taken

grainsare

commercial

In

the

or

the
of

'

common

from

acid to neutralise

burette

cent., of

per

(Fig.34)

alkali,when

100

when
taken

for

the number

of

grains (or

some

the
trial,

percentage
alkalimeter divisions,

by
grainsof the test-acid consumed
of Proportion.'Thus : A critdq
sample

Rule

potash,having

of Mohr's

assays,

of

number

the number

for assay.

aliquotpart thereof) are

result is obtained

test-

exhausted.

division
or

quantityof

by readingoff

been

part,

the

fluid,and

taken

90 alkalimeter

it,would
100

contain

: 47

divisions of test-

"

:. 42-30
".(^oo

nearly42^ per cent, of pur6 potassa. If only 50, 25,

20 grains are
tested, the tesult must, of course, be
or
"o., as the case may be. Or the third
double,quadrupled,
be multiplied
nator
term of the proportion
by the denomimay
of ih.efraction
representingthe aliquot
part. This,
the above
of 50 grains(repeating
in the case
example),
or

would

be

"

100

before ; but

as

even

:'47::

45X2

these

; 42'3og

easy

calculations

may

be

is shown
below.
as
simplified,
One of the advantages,and not the least,attending
is that,
to equivalents
the use
of test-acids corresponding
of the simple 'Rule "of Three,' the percentage
by means
"

196

THE

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

O-F

alkali may be found, whether

of groins have been submitted

any other
to trial. For the
100

quantUy of
number

or

the

lation
resample tested (in grains)bears the same
tion,
to the equivalent
of the alkali under examinameiffkt
that the 7mmJ"eT of alkalimeter divisions or
of the
do to the percentage of alkali
grains of test-acid consumed
sought. Thus, with a sample of 33 grains of pearlash,
taHng 35 alkalimeter divisions or 360
grains (every
10 grains being
of
neutralisation.
test-acid for
1")

Tc"jgMof

This would

be

"

33

: 47 : : 35

49-85g

nearly50 per cent, of pure potassa. By substituting

the equivalentof the dry carbonate of potassa (69) for
that of 'pure potassa' used above, the quEintity
of that
article corresponding to the same
weight of the pure
be at once
alkali may
found.
Repeating the last example
or

this will be

"

33

nearly 73j

or

alkaline bases

: 69 : : 35

73-iss

The
same
per cent.
and their carbonates."

The

followingtable shows
proportionsof alkalies with
anhydrous)sulphuricacid :

the
40

appliesto all the

A. J. Cooley.
equivaUnt or combining
grains of real (thatis,
"

"

grs

40

giaiiisof anhydrous

47 Potassa

phuric
sul-

"g

acid

66

(sp. gr.

1-033)
1,000 grains

measure)

(water-grain
sp. gr. 1-032

Normandjr's
method
"

Carbonate

"3^

31

Soda

of

40

Hydrate

53 Carbonate

"^

potassa

(pure caustic

143

potassa (anhydrous)

(anhydrous)
of soda

(pure caustic soda)

of soda

(anhydrous)
carbonate of soda.
Crystallised

Dr.

l^ormandygives the

assayingcommercial

Commercial
Handbook
and Co.
Lockwood
*

$. 69

Metliod."

of

of

potash)

sul- pS
1,000 grains of dilute phuric
acid

(anhydrous)

Hydrate

of Chemical

soda and

lowing
fol-

potash*:

"

Analysis." By A. Normanby.

ALKALIMETRY.

Commercial

"

from

Soda.

Five

"

197

hundred

the

grainsare
and

weighed
sample.

mixed

thoroughlypowdered
After being dried it should be gentlyignitedin a porcelain
and
cool
allowed
without
to
crucible,
or
platinum
cool it is againweighed ; the
exposure to the air. "When

out

loss indicates the amount

into

beaker, in

residue

of moisture.

which

remain

it is dissolved.

up

[with

washed

Should

it is filtered off,
dried,and

clear filtrate is made

the

It is then

distilled

any

weighed;
water] to

The
solution
exactly 10,000 grain measures.
mixed
together,and from it 1,000 grain measures

taken, transferred
a

few

then

to

beaker, the solution

soluble
in-

made

is well
are

blue

by

dropsof litmus

and
water, heated nearlyto boiling,
the normal
acid [or standard
test-acid]

tested with

until

neutral

the

repeated several

point is

reached

be
; the process
may
times, if necessary, to be certain of the

of the

analysis.In order,however, to avoid aU

the carbonic
acid, a sufficient
ambiguity arising from
quantity of acid may be added to render the acid very
decidedlyred, and then the normal caustic alkali* added
drop by drop until the liquid changes suddenly to
accuracy

violet-blue.
that

have

from

the

backward

The
been

required to

quantity of
residual

or

of

number

divisions

of

effect this must

acid

method

the

be

burette

deducted

By
originallyused.
very sharp results may

this
be

obtained.
"

Example.

"

acid

givesthe

have
amount

mal
Suppose 850 burette divisions of the northe
calculation
been
following
required,
of real carbonated alkali in the sample:
"

1-000

45, the

of the
"

The

amount

: 850

:; 53

of carbonate

of sodium

in

53

grains

sample.
soda

ash of

commerce

contains

besides
generally,

exactly
prepared by dissolving
grains of hydrate of potassa (pure caustic potash),or 40 grains of
in 1,000 water-grainmeasures
of distilled
hydrate of soda (purecaustic soda),
The solution is applied from a buiotte.
water.
*

"66

Tho

normal

caustic alkali solution is

THE

igS

ART

OF

SOAP-MAKING.

a
by filtering,
(common
greater or less quantityof chloride of sodium
of sulphateof sodium
and
salt),
(which,however, do not
when
of the result)
interfere with the accuracy
; but
or
hyposulphitesare present,these
sulphites,
sulphurets,
certain quantityof the testa
substances, neutralising
seriouslyinaccurate ;
acid,would render the estimation
to transform
wherefore it is absolutely
necessary in such cases
these substances into sulphatesby calcining
a given
quantityof the sample with 5 or 6 per cent, of chlorate
recommended
of potassium, as
by Gay Lussac, and

substances, which

insoluble

removed

are

Welter."
and then 5 or
potashis first pulverised,
mixed
with each 100 grainsof the
6 grainsare intimately
is fusfed in a platinum crucible.
sample,and the mixture
is dissolved in boiling
When
cold, the fused mass
water,
The

chlorate of

in the
the assay then conducted
before described.
If, however, the soda ash

filtered and
same

washed,
as

way

and

this method
be
must
not
hyposulphites
each equivalentof hyposulphitewould
be
into two equivalents
converted
of sulphate,
at the expense
of the alkali or its carbonate
present in the sample,and
which
would render the assay seriously
inaccurate.

contains

any
adopted,since

MM.

Fresenius

and

Will,

in

order

to

this

overcome

the addition of a small

recommend
inaccuracy,
of potash to the alkaline
quantity of yellow chromate
the sulphurets,sulphites,
and
solution,by which
sulphite
hypoconverted
into sulphates-,
are
sulphur,and water.
Fresenius
It is always advisable
it a
to make
says :
of soda, to add some
chromate
of
rule,in the examination
source

of

"

Commercial

Testing
same
a

for

way

as

separate

Fearlashes

samples of soda,
test-acid

for

this

but

is

performed

it is usual

purpose.

The

to

in the

employ

test-acid

potash should have a specificgravity of I'OTO to

1'071 ;" 470
40
phuric
grains contain
grains of real sulOf this solution 1,000 grain measures
acid.
(or
burette
100
divisions)
exactlyneutralise 113 grainsof
anhydrous carbonate of soda,or exactly100 grains
pure

THE

200

TJre

"

says

gradually
the

of

result
acid
the

of

the

caustic

depends
gas

is

test-acid

netdralised."

sample,

carefully

test-liquor
alkali

upon

expelled
until

under

the
from
the

the

caustic

that

the

shows

Toeight

quantity
The

(nearly).

treatment

fact

effect.

the

commences,

expended

very

the

observing

length

at

test-acid

the

of

portions

first

effervescence

measure

pure

the

the

to

When
or

Add

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

little

liquid

on

portion

or

the
is

carbonic

no

addition
very

of

nearly

CHAPTER
METHODS

ANALYZING

OF

Soap Assay.
"

XXIV.
OR

Eampel's Method.

D'Aroet's

"

Watt'a

It is of the
should

to estimate

ready for sale,in

of manufacture

"

Eiohardson

and

tlie

soap-maker that he
proportionsof fatty

the exact

ia each

matter, alkali,and water

and

Method.

Method.

importance to
.greatest
able

be

SOAPS.

ASSAYING

order

and

boil of soap when finished

that he may
determine
the

estimate

his

profit.A simple
of assayinga sample of soap is the following:
method
I. To estimate the percentage of mater,
Soap
Assay.
take a fair sample,say from
cut bar of soap,*
a recently
and
weigh 100 grains. Cut this into thin slices or
shavings, and put them into a small porcelaincapsule,
which
is then to be placedover
a water-bath
kept boiling,
heated
oil-bath
350"
until
to
the shavings
F.,
or
over
an
are
quite free from water, in which condition they are
exceedinglybrittle. The shavings should be weighed
time to time, or
until they cease
from
to lose weight by
continued
heating. The ultimate loss in weight indicates
cost

"

"

the

percentage

the

case

of free

of curd

and

or

uncombined

mottled

soap,

water, which, in

should

not

exceed

35

loss in yellow or resin soap would

The
be
per cent.f
about
45 per cent., and in Castile or olive-oil soap about
14 or 16 per cent.

II.
soap

To
to

be examined

in

water

the

estimate

in 4

or

If the soap has dried

interior
of the har.
the

on

the surface,the

add

water, 42

100.

grainsof the
boilingdistilled

little muriatic

sample should be taken from

gives the follo'winganalysis of London

t Ure

100
of

ounces

porcelaincapsule,then

soda, 6

fat acids,dissolve

curd

soap

"

Fat, 62

THE

202

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

acid,and stir gently. The acid,combining with the soda,

will set free the fat acids,which
wiU float on the surface.
Now
set the vessel aside to cool,and, when
quite cold,
make

hole

in the

of

cake

fattymatter,

allow the

and

the fication
solidiescape into another vessel. To hasten
and
of the fat acids,add 100 grainsof white wax
littlewater, and then apply heat until the whole is well

liquidto
a

melted

again

washing

the

remains

in

set

cake
the

aside

and
cool,-

to

until

several times

last water

proceed as

when

no

tested

by

trace

before,
of acid

litmus

paper.

remove
carefully,
Finally,run
and
and
place it upon a piece of white blotting-paper
thoroughlydry it, taking care not to allow any particles
of the combined
in the
and wax
to remain
fattymatter
capsule. After carefullyweighing, and deducting the
100 grainsof wax,
the result will show the proportionof
fat acids in the sample of soap
under
examination.
If,
when
the soap is first dissolved in boiling water, oily
floats on the surface,
it indicates that saponification
matter
has not been complete.

the cake

off all the water,

III.
be

To

ascertain

the

percentage of alkali.

effected

This

may

all the
volatilising

fatty
roughly by simply
matter
by heat,and then weighingthe residuum.
Having
weighed out 100 grainsof the soap, placethem in a porcelain
crucible and
heat
either
clear
fire
over
a
or
a
apply
Bunsen
has burnt off,
burner
until all the fattymatter
when
on

the

residuum, which

is carbonated

weighing,the percentage of

the

however,

has

alkali,will show,

alkali in the

been

adulterated

sample.

If

with

earthy
matters, as
or
example, the
proportionof real alkali must be determined by the alkalimetric test before described.
100
grains of the soap
being dissolved in about 2,000 grainsof boilingwater,
soap,

silicate of soda

the

solution

is then

quantityof

this acid

of alkali

china

neutralised
used

will

clayfor

with

test-acid,and the
givethe exact percentage

present in the soap.

If the soap contain

dextrine,fecula,
clay,chalk, silica,
pumice-stone,ochre, plaster,salt,gelatine,
"c., dissolve
100 grainsof the suspectedsoap in alcohol ; with the aid
"

METHODS

OF

ANALYZING

of

gentleheat the alcohol

all these impurities
in an

soap

should

leave

not

matter, and white

ASSAYING

OR

203

will dissolve the soap and leave

mottled
Good
insoluble state.
than

more

of insoluble

1 per cent,

less still. All

yellowsoap

or

SOAPS.

soap

to

earthyor silicious matter has been added is opaque

instead of being transparent on the edges,as is the case
with all genuinefitted soap.
The drier the soap the more

which

transparentit is."

Normandy.

"

There

is

better

no

a
given weight
dissolving
"

alcohol.*

After

be

been

be

used

sometimes

be obtained, however,
solution of the soap with a
which

point will

float on

by

which

have

difficult and

result
approximate

first saturatingan

aqueous
solution of tartaric acid ; the
the surface may, when
cold, be

and
porcelaincapsule,

is

of soap
task.
An

very laborious

transferred .to
water-bath.
a

it should

alcohol,after which

weighed.
nature
of the fattymatters

may

fattyacids

the residual matter

in the manufacture
a

subsided,the

have

and

the

determine

"

and
pouredoflF,

several times with

dried
carefully
To

100

say

the insoluble matters

clear solution should

washed

than
impurities
grains of soap in

for insoluble

test

heated

gentlyover

By applying a thermometer, the fusing

givesome idea of the nature of the fattymaterial,

the soap was

made from tallow or oils,
or a
combination of both.
Again, if the fattyacids have been
separatedby dilute sulphuricor hydrochloricacid, if a
to whether

as

little bo

in the

rubbed

of the hand

palm

indicate the nature of

frequently
Soft soaps ai-e assayedin the
is somewhat
but the manipulation
therefore involves

littleextra

soap

has been

in water.

dissolved

for awhile

film of

(andwhich

makes

of the fat has not

*

Good
methylated
than alcohol.

same

will

fattymaterial.
as

way

hard

soaps,

troublesome, and

more

caution.

properly-madesoap is
If,therefore,after a sample of

UnsaponifiedFatti/Matter.
entirelysoluble

the

the odour

"

in hot water

fattymatter

Bpiritanswers

allowed

appears

greasy stain upon

been saponified.
a

and

on

to

rest

the surface

paper),that portion

equallywell, and

is mxich

cheaper

204

Since

pure

THE

ART

soap

is

OF

SOAP-MAKING.

soluble
entirely

in

soluble
alcoliol,
any in-

colouringmatter which may have been introduced

into the soap may
and, if desirable,
readilybe separated,
examined
by ordinarychemical tests.
of Assaying
Bampel's Uethod
Soaps.-^l. The analysis
of soaps does not present any more
and may
be
difficulty,
done in as little time and with as much
precisionas that
of alkalies. 2. There is no necessity
marbled
for analyzing
of water
soap, for it cannot be adulterated;an excess
the marbling,and the introduction
of
precipitate
substances
or

unicoloured

Marseilles
the usual
to

would

prevent its formation.

soaps, i.e. manufactured

method,

The

process.

temperature

before

and

after

the
of

quantityof

water

soap in thia

212"

drying, the

3. For

would

foreign

the white

accordingto
is determined

the

by

shavingsis submitted

is weighed
soap
difference in weight giving

F.

The

the

proportionof water. One drachm dissolved in 2 ounces

of hot water
indicates,by the limpidityof the solution,
if the soap has been manufactured
If the
by liquefaction.
solution is muddy, this effect is due to the presence
of
resin.
Liquefiedsoaps do not requirefurther analysis,
for they can contain neither insoluble nor
inert substances.
4. Unicoloured, white, or
other
liquefiedsoaps mixed
with resin,manufactured
and evaporaby saponification
tion,
solutions.
5.
To
ascertain
always produce muddy
the presence
and
tained
conquantityof insoluble substances
in soap, the process is simple and easy.
Introduce
into a small test-tube a few grainsof soap, and heat it
with about ten times its weight of alcohol.
The solution
is soon
completedif there is no insoluble impurity; if,on
the contrary, a depositis left,it is to be well washed
several times with alcohol,
and weighed after drjdng. Its
weight indicates the quantityof insoluble substances in
the soap.
the
When
has

been

water

and

insoluble

matter

ascertained,the

determined
has

proportionof

given 30

the value

of

operator has approximately

the soap.
Indeed, if the soap

34 per cent, of water, and 1 or 2

per cent,
of insoluble matter, it is certain that the
soap contains 6
or

METHODS

OF

ANALYZING

OR

ASSAYING

SOAPS.

205

cent, of

and 60 per cent, of fattyacids,which

alkali,
the constant
are
proportionsof the marbled and pure
white liquefied
If,on the contrary,the proportion
soaps.

per

of water

exceeds

2
35 per cent., or the insoluble matter
per cent., it is a certain proof that the soap has been
adulterated.
In either case it is useless to determine the

of fattyand
proportions

that the soap

inert substances

contains.
small

By burning a

quantityof

and

soap

assayingthe

in the same
as
manner
by the alkalimetric
process, the real quantityof alkali and inert substances
is determined
time.
The alkalimetric assay
at the same
residuum

is not
necessary;
residuum
obtained

indeed, when

soap
contains all the fixed

is burned, the
of the
principles

Boap, but instead of havingthe soda in a caustic state,as

in the soap, it exists in the form of a carbonate.
6. To ascertain the value of the soap as to the proportions
of fattyacids and base it contains the following
18

recommended

"

givenweight of
acids
; the fatty

soap

in solution is

float on the surface

decomposedby an acid
of the liquid,
and it is easy to collect them and determine
their weight. When
they do not collect easily,
they are
mixed
with a known
of
white
wax
weight
(previously
hastens
their
A
cake
is thus
solidification.
dried)which
obtained .which,when
cold and dried, is weighed, the
used being deducted from the gross
weight of the wax
of the cake.
To obtain the proportion
of afisali
wei^fht
calcine a given weight of the soap in an iron iadle ; all
the soda becomes transformed
into carbonate,and the real
quantityof the alkali is determined
by the alkalimetric
test.
D'Arcet's

be

Method.

adopted,which

If

D'Arcet's system may

preferred,
of
consists in dissolving
3^ drachms
"

of
of hot water ; from 1 to 2^ drachms
soap in 2 ounces
then added, and the whole
are
pure and dried white wax
boiled until the wax
posed
is melted,when the mixture is decommetric
by the normal test-acid as in the ordinaryalkalithe weight of the fattyacids
After cooling,
process.

is determined

by deductingthe weightof

wax

-used.

By

206

THE

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

submittingthe fatty acids to pressure, the solid and

be recognisedby their consistency,
liquid acids may
odour, "c.
the soap
rich in

When
materials
be

not

cake.

hard

stearine,the
since

necessary,

When,

on

addition

fatty acids

the

other

form

cold
solidify
slowly,and
oils have
indicates that liquidvegetable

wax

will set

hand, the

when

from

made

been

of white

the

acids
it

has

examination

under

been

may

into

separated
soft cake,

employed

in the manufacture.

quantityof resin in soap, Dussauce

One ounce
of soap is decomposed
:
suggeststhe following
of sulphuricacid.
The fattyacids obtained
by an excess
acidulated water.
after cooling are
washed
with slightly
The cake of fattyacids is divided into small equalpieces
and well dried.
A certain quantityis dissolved in five or
the solution
six times its weight of alcohol at 90". When
is added
is made, boilingwater
to it ; the proportionof
diate
immebe largej
than that of the alcohol. An
water
must
and the fattyacids float on the
takes place,
separation
surface of the liquor,
which becomes limpid if the soap does
not contain resin,and, on the other hand, becomes
milky
After
if resin is present.
the solidification of the fatty
dried
acids by cooUng,the cake is divided again into pieces,
difference in weight from
that of the
and weighed. The
acids before the treatment
by alcohol gives the proportion
To

determine

the

"

in the soap.

of resin contained
Kichardson

plan

for

water-bath

System.

at 212"

F., and

ounces

water-bath.

of

They givethe

"

ing
follow-

a
soap is dried over
is then dissolved in alcohol (100

analyzingsoap

grainsrequire3
over

Watt's

and

:
"

The

and
alcohol),

The soap, resin,and

heated

to

boiling'

free fat enter

into

solution,leaving the miaeral constituents,glue,starch,

The
dextrine,"c. imdissolved.
liquidis filtered and the
residue

washed

the filtrate

free any
a

with alcohol.

The

alcohol is expelled
from

by evaporation.Addition

resin

or

uncombined

fat.

of water

These

dried and weighed. The filtratenow

filter,

the fat soap

and

resin soap if any,

and

must

are

then

sets

collected

on

onlycontains
be treated by

XXV.

CHAPTER
PURIFYING

Bleaohiag Palm-oil
Bleaching

"

Dunn's

"Watt's

Palm-nil

Method.

"

CJhrome
with

Process.

Chromate

"

FATS.

ANB

OILS

BLEACHING

ANB

Eecovery of the Chrome.

Purifying Oils.

of Lime.

"

"

Justice's Method.

soap-maker'sart is that of
decolouringor bleachingoils or other fattymatters previous
to their introduction^with other and superiorgoods,
into the soap-pan.
The
most
important of all saponifiable
materials
possessinga colour natural to itself is palm-oil;
but its deep orange-redcolour, except for special
purposes,
would render it comparativelyvalueless
as
a
soap-making
of
if
there
material
no
means
were
depriving it of its
In the
characteristic colour.
early part of the present
made
to destroy,
modify, or
century many
attempts were
in some
degree to reduce the intensityof the red colour of
this oil.
It was
subjectedto a high temperature, which
found
changed the red to a brown tint ; nitric acid was
red to yellow ; it was
to change the colour from
subjected
influence
of the air,which
to the oxidising
greatlyreduced
its objectionable
other
redness, and numerous
processes
devised
it
to render
chlorine)were
(includingof course
for tallow ; but it was
serviceable as a partialsubstitute
A

VERT

necessary

not

imtil

his

now

the

of the

1836,

year

when

Mr.

C. Watt

introduced

well-known
of chromic

means

branch

material

for bleaching palm-oilby

process
acid, that the useAilness of this oil as a

could be

fullyenjoyed. By all the previous

of the oil,though modified,
matter
processes, the colouring
neither removed
variably
nor
was
actuallydestroyed,for it was infound that,in contact with caustic alkali,
the colour
soap

more

or

less returned, and

therefore

affected the

idtimate

AND

PURIFYING

BLEACHING

colour of the soap.

the

By

OILS

of the oil

the

oil rendered,

white

The

importance of

was

as

209

however,
process,"
removed
and
entirely
finest English tallow.
time when
a
palm-oil

was

the

as

this process at
"32 per ton and tallow

about

worth

FATS.

chrome

"

colouringmatter

the

AND

about

"56

can

imagined, and

readilybe

although some
years elapsed
before the trade fullyrecognisedits importance,
it was
eventuallyadopted by all soap-makers in every part of
The process is conducted
the Kingdom.
follows :
as
"

Falm-oil

Bleaching

Watt's

Chrome

palm-oilmelted by
tub
settle is placedin a wooden
ton

of

raw

wooden

or

even

crutch

lower

until it has

Process.

heat

steam

and

"

One

allowed

vat, and is stirred with

or

temperature of about 120"

in hot weather

to

; 28

lbs. of bichromate

F.
of

then dissolved in

and the solution

water
boiling
continued ; 60 lbs. of
poured into the vat and the stirring
acid are then added, and the stirring
hydrochloric
vigourthe oil assumes
a dark
ouslykept up. In a few moments
brown
colour,which in a few minutes
changes first to a
dark
and then
quickly to a lightergreen, with
green
slightfoaming,when the operationis complete. If small
samples are taken from time to time and placed upon a
piece of glassor porcelain,the rapidchanges of colour

potassa are

remarkable,

appeaf

very

reached

(which is

sometimes

after the acid has been

will be

and

when

the

case

within

the

introduced)the

free from
perfectly

colour.

last

is

five minutes

oil upon

If

stage

the

palette

drop or two
of the bleached oil be treated with a drop of soda ley,the
mixture
will be quitecolourless if the operationhas been
A current
of steam
few pails
or
a
properlyconducted.
of boiling
wa.ter are
now
introduced,with brisk stirring,
the oil is allowed

after which

to repose.

now

In about

twelve

liquor,"as it is called,is drawn ofi' by

the bottom
of the vessel,and the
a plugged opening at
The green
bleached oil is then ready for the soap-copper.
in solution,
is
which contains oxide of chromium
liquor,
carefully
preserved,and may be treated for the recovery
will be described
of the chrome by a process which
hours

the

hereafter.

"

green

ART

THE

210

Instead

of

OF

SOAP-MAKING.

acid,40
using hydrochloric

lbs. of

sulphuric

be used.
The
may
acid is diluted with about twice its bulk of water,
sulphuric
dissolved in cold water, is mixed
and the salt,previously

acid

and

60

lbs.

of

salt

common

with the solution of bichromate

given.

Some

process, have

bichromate

persons, in
been known

to the

ton,

an

of

potassain

the

bleachingpalm-oilby
to
excess

use

as

not

much

as

proportion
the above
40 lbs. of

onlyextravagant but

unnecessary.
In bleaching
by the above
palm-oil

process it is of great
of the oil should
be
not

importancethat the temperature

takes
120"
action which
above
F., since the chemical
placeafter the introduction of the bichromate and acid
greatlyaugments the temperature of the oil,and when this
latter stands at a higherpointthan we
have indicated the
bleached oil is liable to assume
a brown
or
foxy colour.
author has most successfully
bleached
The
palm-oilwhen
it has been almost at the point of congealing.
of the Chrome
Recovery
Although the recovery of the
most
costlyingredient
employedin the process of bleaching
palm-oilwith chromic acid is not now, owing to the greatly
of potassa,of such paramount
reduced priceof bichromate
there will be little difficulty
importanceas it was formerly,
where
this salt is used extenin showing that even
sively,
now,
in moderate
it will pay to save
it
or
even
quantities,
the gutter. The
from
was
originatedby
process, which
Charles "Watt, jun.,may
be described
follows :
Mr.
as
from the bleachingof palmThe "green liquor"resulting
oil,and which is rich in oxide of chromium, is placedin a
A quantityof slaked lime is worked
wooden
vat or tub.
into what is termed milk of lime,
small quanup with water
tities
with continual stirring,
of which are added cautiously,
until all the free sulphuric
to the green liquor,
or
chloric
hydroacid is saturated.
be added, otherISo excess
wise
must
will be precipitated.
the oxide of chromium
When
the saturation of the acid is completethe vessel is allowed
the liquid
is transto rest for an hour or two, after which
ferred
and milk of lime again added and
to another vessel,
well stirred in,until the supernatant liquoris colourless.
"

"

"

"

PURIFYING

After

AND

BLEACHING

OILS

AND

FATS.

2U

few hours' rest the clear liquor

is run
off and fresh
water added,which, after a further repose, is again run off',
this operation
of washingbeing continued
until the clear
a

liquoris

tasteless.

After ahout twelve hours'

repose,

the

of the liquoris run

which
is a
off,and the deposit,
and lime, after being well
mixture of oxide of chromium
with a furnace tire beneath
drained,is spreadover an iron plate,
to the depthof about two inches. The firebeingkindled,
the pasteis firstallowed to dry,when the heat is graduallywhole

When

increased.

the

a
plateacquires,
cherry-redheat
colour nearest
a yellow
the^reymass will graduallyassume
will break up into irregular
the plate,
and the mass
cakes.
When
these have become
roasted about half through they
be turned over
continued
must
one
by one, and the roasting
the yellowtint of chromate of lime.
until the whole assumes
be found that the lumps will fall into a
It will generally
coarse
powder,in which case, in order to ensure
uniformity
be
and to prevent over-heating
must
(which
strictly
avoided)
turned
the substance should be constantly
over
by means
of a trowel or shovel,a long-handled
trowel being a most

It is advisable in practool for the purpose.

tice
of the plate those portions
the centre
to shift from

convenient

roasted* and to replacethem with

which
are
sufficiently
those' which
less done ; the finished material may
are
be shovelled into an iron box or barrow, and there allowed
to remain

until

requiredfor

it may

cold, when

be

put

into

cask until

use.

Bleacliingf Falm-oil

with

G^Tlbs. of the

chromate

sprinkledinto

vat

of

Chromate

lime

containinga

of

Lime.

prepared as
ton

of melted

"

About

above

are

palm-oil,

the whole has

stirred in ; and when
or
acid are added, and
been introduced 60 lbs. of hydrochloric
continued until the usual reaction takes place
the stirring
and

well crutched

and

the oil is

water

may

usual

time

bleached.
completely

now

then

to say that the green

*

few buckets

of hot

with brisk

and the
agitation,
for settling.It is hardlynecessary
from
this
liquorresulting
opera-

be introduced

allowed

should he only of a dull red.

It is,
very importantthat tlieheat
this point the product heoomes deoompoaed and useless.

yond
Be-

THE

212

be

tion may

ART

treated

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

chrome

the

before,and

as

again

recovered.

ing
purified
by first boiltbem with a weak caustic soda ley about half a pound
of the alkali dissolved ia half a gallonof warm
to
water
each ton of oil. This being well stirred into the oil,half
acid diluted with six times its weight
a pound of sulphuric
of water
is then added, the whole
being boiled by steam
Oils.

Purifying

Fish oils may

"

be

"

for about

quarterof

an

After

hour.

about

liquidis run off from the bottom

operationof bleaching commenced.
potassadissolved

is

immediatelyfollowed by adding 2

diluted
the
1

in hot water

is first introduced,and

lbs. of

for half

is

water

longer. The

hour

an

introduced,and

boilingcontinued

oU is then

to be well washed

boilingwater, and then allowed

liquidmatters have subsided.
All fixed vegetableoils and also
and decoloured by means
of chromic
effective when

more

potassa and
acid

either

mixed

are

attacked

by

dilute

to rest

until

fats may

be

solution

of

sulphuricacid

improved, both in smell

with small quantities
of
in order

to

which

hydrochloric
alkali,being

or

apt

Melted

fattymatters may be greatly

treatment
colour,by judicious

bichromate

and

the traces

remove

are

and

purified

the tion
operabichromate
of

the
process, when
the acid,sets the chromic acid free.
other rank

all the

acid,but

during the

kitchen-stuff and

but

diluted with

the

with

is

this

acid
sulphuric
blown through

before ; and after steam has been

oil for a short time 1 lb. of nitric acid
as

quart of

rest

of the vat, and the

4 lbs. of bichromate

the
of

hour's

an

to remain

in

mineral

any

of green

oxide

fattymatters

acid,

of chromium

containing

considerable amount
of stearine,it is advisable to well
a
the bleached
wash
fat by the free use
of steam
or
by
means

of

boilingwater,

have

sacking so
thus

been
as

to

and

conducted
retain

the

facilitatethe subsidence

the vessel in which

should
heat

be
as

well

the operations

covered

with

and
long as possible,

of the green liquor.

In the purifying
of fish and other oils chloride of lime,
made
into a thin
has frequently
been employed,
creamy mass,
with the addition of dilute sulphuric
acid.
About

chloride

1 per cent, of the

acid diluted with

OILS

BLEACHING

AND

PURIFYING

and

IJ

twenty

weight

of

213

sulphuric
water

are

oil is first gentlyheated,

The
the rightproportions.

about

FATS.

cent, of

per

its

times

AND

the chloride of lime is then added and well stirred in,after

which the dilute acid is introduced,and the agitation
kept
until a sample exhibits a satisfactory
appearance.
up
in or hot water
Steam
is then blown
appliedto thoroughly
wash

The

it is allowed

oil,when

the

clear oil is then

ofi"into

run

hours.

to rest

for

proper

receptacle.

some

Solutions of tan, or tannic acid,followed by chloride of

used in
lime and dilute sulphuricacid have also been

purifyingfish
Dunn's

oils.

nXethod.

them

with

Mr.

"

steam

Dunn

to

temperature

F., and then forcinga

after which
the oil was
-oil,
200"
and

afterwards

filtered.

oils

these
purified

stream

washed

of hot

by

steam

to

through the
hot water

or

of

strong solution

ing
heat-

180"

of from
air

by

common

sulphateof copper (bothin

and the whole
well agitatedfor some
time, is
solution),
another
method
has been
of purifyingfish oil which
adopted. The oil is afterwards filtered through
frequently
fresh charcoal,or is allowed to clarify
by restingfor a few
salt,or

mixture

of salt and

hours.
Palm

other

and

contain
oils frequently

foreignmatter
chemical

the

of which

remove

bleachingagent ; it is better,therefore,to
by first heatingthe oil and then
impurities

presence
action of the
these

allowingit to
may

is

retard

likelyto

rest for several

hours, so

that

the

these

matters

subside.

Justice's

method

of

purifying

and

bleaching

oils and

mixing with these substances,while in

and
then
melted
state, pulveriseddry fuller's-earth,
a
the earth from the oil or fat by allowingit to
separating
The fattymatter
is placedin any
to be purified
subside.
consists

in

vessel suited

to

fats

the. purpose,

until it is

The

sufficient that the material

state.
liquid

is heated

temperature requiredof course

different kinds of oil or fat,but it is simply

perfectlyliquid.
varies with the

and

When

the fat

to be treated be

broughtto the
is thoroughlymelted a quantity

THE

214

is

spread

after

which

fat,

or

in

being

other

freed

the

portion

earth

and

earth

to

oils,
to

in

be

only

say

be

The

refuse
desired

any
used

from

to

treated.

one

15

per

or

more

which

or

to

settling

of

an

warm

tanks.

the

it

oil

be

can

away

or

of

fuller's-

of

fats
fat

the

and
or

vessel
or

fat,

oil
the

needed,

are

ordinary

the

from

kinds

machinery

being

fat

amount

weight

into

put

thrown

different

by

cent,

oil, after

where

be
The

the

stills

required
in

then

The

be

or

top,

but

use.

with
may

oil

the

to

may

with

No

apparatus

the

manner.

varies
1

rise

to

off,

the

matter,

for

mixed

The

vessel,

the

ready

drawn

separates
it

capacity
desired

been

permits

recovered.
utilised

has

subside.

to

of

fuller's-earth

of

which

water,

is

clay,

agitation,

by

colouring

and

unchanged,

consisting

vrithit

bottom

impurities

from

residuum,

boiling

the

at

of

equivalent

an

allowed

is

now

respects

clear

or

mixed

and

fuUer's-earth

the

fuUers'-earth
oil

surface

its

over

earth,

fuller's-

finely-powdered

of

SOAP-MAmNG.

OF

ART

of
and

able
suitif

THE

216

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

soap-liquor.The solution of sulphuricacid is added

to the waste
soap-liquorin its originalbiilk,or when it is
perheate
reduced to about one half that bulk by evaporation.Suis then passedthroughthe coils
or ordinarysteam
and the waste
of pipeconnectingwith the evaporating-pans,
liquoris concentrated to about one-tenth of the original
"waste

If any resin or fat is contained

liquorit is admissible to add a slightexcess

in the

volume.

acid, and

to

the

remove

same

the resin

"

waste

of the dilute
fat

or

by

"

ing
strain-

concentrated

the

liquorthrough cloth or any other

into bags or otherwise,after it has
suitable material made
of its original
been evaporatedto about one-tenth
volume.
A small quantityof carbonate of lime is then added
to the
strained Hquor,and it is further concentrated
by evaporation
until upon
the consistency
of a
cooling it assumes
or
paste,which
syrup
of soda
and sidphates

of

consists
and

such

is used

as

of chlorides

entire

of the evaporating

contents

then
for

molasses, which

mixture

potassa,sulphateand carbonate

lime,and glycerine.The
vessels are

of

placed in a centrifugal
machine,
causingthe separationof sugar from

is then

set in motion

and

caused

to rotate

rapidlyon its axis, thereby causing the removal

the greater portionof
glycerine.By this means
of soda, potassa,and lime are
the centrifugal
machine, the
the

by

rapid rotation

obtained

thus
these

holds

in the

glycerinebeing
machine.

certain

As

the salts

interior of
thrown

the

quantityof salts in

off

glycerine
solution,

separatedby distillation.

are

Payne's

George

Mr.

of the

retained

of the

Process.

The

"

inventor

takes

the

of soap and
spent ley resultingfrom the manufacture
saturates any free alkali present with an acid.
He prefers
to

sulphuric,hydrochloric,or

use

solution

of tannin

nitric acid.

tannic

takes

to the

spent ley after being neutralised

solution should
or

The
it

tannic

contain

acid

to

or

about

about

ten

one

matter.

to

precipitate
any

then

adds

this

by the acid. This

part by weight of tannin

parts by weight of

addition of the solution to the

ceases

acid, and

He

ley is

albuminous

continued
or

water.

until

gelatinous

OF

RECOVERY

The

which
precipitate

THE

GLYCERINE.

is thus

formed

217

is

by
separated
filtration,
or
remaining liquid
and chloride
consists chiefly
of raw
or
impure glycerine
of sodium.
The solution should be warmed, as experience
shows that heat facilitatesthe formation and separation
of
In some
the precipitate.
instances the solution may be
found to be slightly
acid ; if so, it must
be neutralised by
is
the addition of milk of limo.
The clear liquor,
which
mixture of glycerineand spent ley,is next heated to
a
and
the mixture
expel the water, therebyconcentrating
a
removing from the same
large quantityof the salts,
which will crystallise
out during the process of evaporation.
is allowed

to settle.

The

For

this purpose heated air,superheated steam,

the direct heat of the fire may
be employed.

or

By

this process a concentrated solution of glycerineis

obtained containingabout 10 per cent, of salt,and the

glycerinemay

be

separatedby

usual way.
The inventor
obtained by this process may
the

distillation than
Versmann's

that obtained
Process.

"

The

the recovery of glycerine

from
less completeseparation
from

distillation and refined in

says

be

that

more

"

the

glycerine
by
process."

easilyrefined

by any known
objectof this
and
soap leys,

invention
its more

is
or

nate
chloride of sodium, carbocaustic soda.
A large percentage of

of soda, and
these salts is separatedby

ley

and

The

raking

concentrated

which

out

the

simplyboilingdown
salts as they become

solution is then

allowed

to

the soap
insoluble.

cool, after

carbonic

acid gas is passed through it until the

whole of the carbonate and caustic soda is converted
into
bicarbonate of soda, which
being much less soluble in

glycerinethan either the carbonate of soda

be removed
soda, may readily
by filtration or

or

caustic

other

venient
con-

means.

by passingcarbonic
acid gas through the original
soap ley,but he finds it
convenient
to first reduce the bulk of the liquidby
more
of the
boilingdown, therebyseparatinglargequantities
the liquid
and then treating
with carbonic acid. The
salts,
liquid from which the bicarbonate of soda has been
The

inventor

sometimes

commences

2i8

THE

removed

of
quantities

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

rich

is very

sensible
the

ART

in

salts

hot

cold,to

or

known

salts,

quent
in the subseinjuriously
glycerineto certain purposes.
separatedby submittingthe liquor,either

are

the

other

act

may
of
the
applications

These

and

of sodium

chloride

of which

presence

it still retains

but
glycerine,

the process

of

"

Osmose,"

such

in

apparatus

an

in the tion
separasolutions of beet-root sugar.

is used

Osmogene,"
compounds from
By this process nearlyall the salts are separatedfrom the
glycerine. But as the latter becomes diluted with water
it may
be concentrated
by evaporation,when it will be
ready for the market as crude glycerine.
OTarrell's
The
Process.
spent leys are
evaporated
off
from
the
drawn
immediatelythey are
by fire
soap-pan
heat or dry steam
appliedby any suitable apparatus,till
as

"

of saline

as

"

saturated aqueous

and

this saturated

the
of soap,
returned

the

second

salt is obtained,

common

solution is used

from
glycerine

when

portionor

solution of

for the purpose of separating

fresh portionor second charge

spent ley obtained

from

charge is evaporated,and

for the purpose

soap-copper
the glycerine
from a third charge,and the
to the

this

fresh

this is
of

again
separating

ley obtained is
evaporated as before. The process is repeated until the
quantityof glycerine
present in the solution is sufficiently
concentrated
to be economically
separated.
obtained
the maximum
amount
Having by this means
of glycerine
in the minimum
volume
of spent soap leys,
the inventor
proceeds to evaporate the solution till as
much
salt as possible
out, when the glycerine
crystallises
is dissolved out from the residue by means
of methylated
spiritor other suitable liquid,or the glycerinemay be
separatedby distillation in vacuo.
Thomas

and

Fuller's

Process.

"

The

spent

or

tially
par-

first evaporateduntil

spent leys
nearlyall the
salts are deposited;
the resulting
which is strongly
liquor,
are

is then boiled with

impregnatedwith glycerine,
of fat or fattyacids, which
readilycombines
soda

salts,and
in the

removes

liquor. The

all salts which

solution is then

an

excels

with

the

be in sion
suspenfiltered and sub-

may

OF

RECOVERY

THE

GLYCERINE.

219

the glycerine.Or
jeoted to distillation to recover
to convert
spent leys may be treated with quick-lime

the
the

after filtration
carbonate
of soda into caustic soda, and
and then fat or fat acid may
be
boiled to concentration,
added
the soda and such salts as may
be in
to remove

described above, however, is

suspension. The method
preferred,
using simplyconcentrated
leys and a fat acid
of clearingthe liquorof
the more
effectual means
as
salts.
Allan's

Process.

spent leys with

"

any

The

inventor

mineral

first neutralises

acid with

the

agitation.After

he adds a solution of alum, chloride of lime, or

settling,
crude
pyroligneousacid, stirringthoroughly. If preferred,
he evaporates to nearly saltingpoint
before
allows
adding any of the substances mentioned above, and
the precipitate
he draws
off
to deposit. After settling
the clear liquorand evaporates it to a concentrated
dition
conin pans (towhich
the heat is onlyappliedat the
in shallow
or
sides),
pans with slopingbottoms, to which
the heat is applied. The
liquoris then distilled in a
from within,
retort heated by superheatedsteam
glycerine
and
provided with an exit pipe at the bottom, which
salt as it accumulates.
carriesoff the precipitated
"

"

and

Lawson

the

consists in first rating

evapo1'14
of
from
to
1'16, and
density

Salman's

leys to

Process

allowingthe solution to cool.

The

salt

liquorbeing thus

remaining in
solution are rendered
insoluble,and, risingto the surface,
by skimming or otherwise for
readilybe removed
may
concentrated,the

further

use.

To

residual

remove

soapy

matters

the albuminous

matters

ing
remain-

liquorit is first heated,after which a salt of

chromium
is added, which is capableof tanning
sesquioxide
insoluble.
The
or
quantityof the
rendering albumen
chromium
salt added will depend upon the percentage of
albuminous
matter
existingin the ley. The albuminous
insoluble by the addition of the salt
matters
thus rendered
and removed.
are
precipitated
of these matters
The removal
at this stage prevents
and thus a
their decompositionby further evaporation,
in

the

THE

220

and
purer
than
usual
at the

The

The

is obtained.
time

neutralised

remark,
invention, so

inventors

effectingour
i.e. the

glycerineof
of
alkalinity

concentrated

more

same

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

tanning

of

the

"

by
A

as

colour

better
the

liquoris

suitable acid.

of
method
very convenient
these two results,
to obtain

albuminous

matters

and

the

is to iise the waste liquor

alkalinity,
from the bleachingof tallow or other fats or oils
resulting
(chrome liquor?). For a ley such as the above we may
add the bleachingliquor in the proportionof, say, 1 to
of original
3 gallonsfor every 100 gallons
ley ; but this
must
depend entirelyon the strength and colour of the
leys,we add a protreatinghighly-coloured
ley. When
portion
neutralisation

of

the

acid

of free chromic

by

the oxidation

is reduced

removing

to

and

to

destruction

salt of chromium

the albuminous

matters

liquor,which,
of the colouring
matters,
sesquioxide capableof

the waste

as

above."

quantityof chromic acid will necessarily

vary, but
should say about half a
for the above quantityof ley we
of
of potash added
to a mixture
pound of bichromate
acid in 2 lbs. of water,
of a pound of sulphuric
three-quarters
and add this mixture
in the proportionof 5 lbs. to 20 lbs.
to every 100 gallonsof ley,accordingto circumstances.
small excess
of calcium
"We now
treat the Kquor with
a
of
carbonate
(say, for example, 1 to 2 gallons"cream
and maintain
of ley),
at a boiling
whiting to 100 gallons
the whole
This precipitates
temperature for a short time.
of the chromic
and neutralises any slightproportion
salts,
chromic
oxide contained
in the
of acid remaining. The
for another operabe recovered
can
resulting
-precipitate
tion
The

"

in

suitable and

any

liquor obtained
subsidence
colourless.
which

or

well-known

by removing

filtration will be

found

The

manner.

the

sultant
re-

precipitate
by

clear and

almost

It is then concentrated

causes

the

by further evaporation,
which can
gradualseparationof the salt,

of soap.
The crude glycerine
obtained is of greaterpurity
finally
and better colour than usual.

be

again used

M,

Victor

in the manufacture

ClolTis's

Method.

"

^To effect

of
separation

OF

RECOVERY

THE

GLYCERINE.

221

the various bodies for commercial

purposes, and especially

the inventor first
spent leys,

from
glycerine
the ley,when
acid. The
saturates
cold,with hydrochloric
and collected;the neutral clear
solids are
precipitated
liquidis evaporated in any suitable heating apparatus.
the salt is preciBy degrees,as the evaporationproceeds,
pitated
bine,
and is removed, subjectedto the action of a turto extract

the

In most

and washed.

cases

this salt is sea-salt in

is arrested when
the
nearlypure state. The evaporation
liquidhas arrived at a densityof about 32" B. At this
contained in the ley stillcontains considerable
point the glycerine
in
the
salt
of
solution,
quantities
greaterpart of
which is eliminated by the following
treatment
; that is to
32" B., is poured into
at about
say, the glycerineliquid,
hot

suitable vessel and

any

liquidis otherwise

heated

and

air

is blown

into

cold air blown

it,or

the

into it. The

heated, or heated by the glycerineitself,

gradually
in the glycerine,
and
eliminates the last traces of water
air

so

the latter is very slightly

as
constantly
precipitated,
soluble in anhydroiisglycerine.To eliminate the water
but would
be
evaporationin vacuo might also be effected,
more
expensive. As the final result,highlyconcentrated
A turbine
glycerinemixed with salt crystalsis obtained.
the salt,which
is systematiis used for eliminating
cally
used
for
the
and
the
water
washed,
washiag is again

salt is

treated.

The

thus purified
by one
glycerine,

or

the other of these

processes, contains only a very small quantityof seabe distilled. The inventor also
and
salt in solution,
may

two

caustic

or

of

means

evaporates the
as

to convert

salts

of

he desires to obtain the

soda

the caustic soda into carbonate.

introduces

about 25",he allows

of carbonic
an
excess

of soda
in
especially

the

condition

of

of

liquorindicates
he

in

bonated
car-

transformingthem into chlorides

this purpose
acid. For
he
hydrochloric
ley and introduces into it carbonic acid,so

carbonates,instead

by

when

method

adoptsanother

is
a

formed, which

is

solution
glycerine

"When

the

the

leyto cool,when
bonate
acid,whereby bicarsoluble,
only slightly
of salt.

The

greater

THE

222

part

is

OF

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

and
precipitated

is eliminated

The

is transformed

bicarbonate

calcination.
is

before.

as

it

into

is

bine.
tur-

carbonate

by

leaves
desired

the
to

bine
tur-

obtain

salt,the operation is performed

free from

glycerinemore

If

of

means

glycerineliquidwhich

The

treated

by

by air blown into

glycerineconcentrated
in
it,or in vacuo, is treated with hydrochloricacid added
either in a gaseous
state
or
as
a liquid. Sea-salt,
excess,
almost
insoluble
in
of
an
excess
being
hydrochloricacid,
will be precipitatedin fine crystals,
and
is eliminated
by
The
of hydrochloricacid then
of a turbine.
means
excess
in the glycerineis eliminated
either by blowing
contained
air into the same
of oxide
of lead.
or
by an excess
Co.'s
SEethod.
Japp^, and
Benno,
According to this
do not use common
salt for separating
process the inventors
the soap
from
the ley, but
employ in lieu thereof an
alkaline
alkaline
sulphates, especially
sulphate. The
the
the
sulphate of soda, act upon
liquor in
soapy
as

follows

"

^The

"

the

same

manner

as

common

salt,but

in subsequentlyseparating
difficulty
the glycerine. The
spent ley obtained
of sulphateof sodium
soap by means
and
of

is,therefore,

there

such
in
has

first neutralised

will

be

no

sulphate from
eliminatingthe
an

by

alkaline
the

action,
re-

addition

hydric-sodicsulphate ; it is then filtered and ultimately

evaporated. In the process of neutralisingthe spent ley
the hydric-sodicsulphate is transformed
into sulphate of
soda
in the spent ley.
by the caustic soda contained
When
the liquidis evaporated the sulphateof soda
rates
sepaand
is thus
in crystals,
recovered
as
a bye-product.
which
has
of
been
The
introduced
for the
soda,
sulphate
of separatingthe soap from
the ley,is also
purpose
rated,
sepaif properly purified can
and
be used
again for
eliminating soap from the ley. The liquid remaining
is glycerine containinga slight
after the
crystallisation
and
be further
can
proportion of impurities,
purified in
for instance by distillation.
the usual manner,
as

soap which
the latter method

of
whilst

SOAP-MAKING.

millingrequireslonger time

the

method

OP

^^^

^^^

224

the

and

ployment
em-

dissolve too quickly,

which does
a soap is wanted
Among the soaps which do not
does

not

by
not congealtoo quickly.
reckon those which are preparedfrom
dissolve quicklywe
wards
it is afterwith soda ley,from which
tallow or palm-oil
separated.A soap which dissolves the quickestis
tion
with an addihas been boiled from olive-oil,
that which
olein soap ; in a word, the
of tallow, then
some
genuine soap. It is,however, true that green or brown
fit
; nevertheless it is not
soap always dissolves quickest
that
for millingheavy cloth with the stocks,because
on
account
Although the
they do not thicken sufficiently.
of cloth will not easilydecide on using any
manufacturers
should not be led
other sort of soap, yet the soap-boiler
artide
by the opinionthat every maker of the same
away
make

can

of the

use

sort of soap,

same

alreadyobserved, not only the

and the method
employed in
taken

be

into

of the

because, as

different
their

of
qualities

consideration,but also the different properties

It
used.
water
is,therefore, the duty of

his material.

will for that

We

Superior
tallow

Unsalted

and

or

quality.This
"

of

soap
whitened

tallow should

palm-oilor the
grainedsoap with a

The

when

kind

oil,and in the

addition of cocoa-nut

cool, and

the

is
opinion,
qualityof
fullydescribe

more

Soap for

oil,or

cocoa-nut

the soap shows a

of the hand, and

reason

with

the different sorts of soap.

of
preparation

"Hard

cloth

should

manufacture

to supply each manufacturer

every soap-boiler
kind of soap which, in that manufacturer's
own
and
for the
the best adapted for his purpose

the

have

we

caustic soda

Cloths

of

either

of

is made

palm-oilwith
manner
following

be boiled

into

ley,*which

strong grainand
the

Milling

bears

shows

good

"

firm-

is added

a
sample
the
still
which
ley,
leaves a sharpishtaste on

when

an

till

pressure

sufficient firmness
remains

im-

salted in the soap,

the tongue.
"We
have then a soap, it is true, but it is not
fit for
because it does not yet possess a sufficient scouring
milling,
*

Mr.

Kiirten is in

error

in

recommending

soda

soaps for these purposes.

MISCELLANEOUS

SOAPS.

will not

cleanse the cloth from

therefore
quality,
glue,and grease.
effect that

to

To

give the

for

and
requisite,

that

soap

the

reason

unsalted

poured

dirt,

power
oil is

ley

which

be got rid of, and

soap must
again into the boiler,but without any
in the

remains

its

the necessary
addition of cocoa-nut

an

purpose

225

palm-oilor

lbs. of
every 100
25 lbs. of cocoa-nut

oil must

the soap
ley. For
for this soap

tallow used

be added, which

is mixed

with

cold in small quantities,

is more
the soap when
or, which
to
advisable,when in a state of solution,and then made
it is intended
to make
When
boil afresh.
a
soap of a

superior quality and to diminish the ley,in order

saponifycocoa-nut oil a caustic ley of soda of 38" or

to

30"

required. The ley is added till the soap has acquireda

good firmness, and, when tried,a taste rather strong of
ley remains on the tongue. As soon as this is foufld,
is

be allowed to boil for half an hour to

the soap must
the same
taste yet remains
ascertain whether
; if not, a
little more
ley musl; be added till the taste returns.
then

yet separatedfrom the ley,to effect

salt must
be used, and
continued
till
that purpose
some
the soap on the spatula
separatesfrom the ley. The soap
hours in the boiler to cool,and be afterwards
will remain
some
"When

the soap

is not

it is desired to
"When
poured into the frame.
obtain a largerproduce,althoughwith the conviction that
will not be so good, instead of a ley at 28" or
the quality
for the saturation of the cocoa-nut
oil,one 22" to 24"
be used, and the soap poured into the frame in the
must
must
care
state of paste,and not unsalted ; but in this case
30"

that

be taken
of

the

cocoa-nut

is not

Reaumur

brought to a higher degree

(152"),otherwise the soap

oil would

stick to the

soap

25"

than

heat

from

the

bottom

of the

boiler."
Oil

Cocoa-nut

White

into
*

The

soap-pan

"

Cristiani

lowing
gives the folin a simpleand

this soap
100 lbs. of "this soap, introduce
To prepare
way:
200 lbs.
200 to 250 gallons,
kettle* holding from

directions for

quick

Soap.

making

"

term
or

"

kettle

copper.

"

is

generallyused

in America

in

preferenceto

226

ART

THE

of pure

white

colourless

perfectlylimpid ley

the

kettle,and

influence of the

All

30".

being

accelerate the combination

the

Under

from

the

heat

to

at

lbs. of

200

time to time.
material,which was

stir weU

of the substances

add

oil ; afterwards

cocoa-mit

and

ready,heat

SOAP-MAKING,

OF

at

first in

softens and becomes

grains,
liquid. Contiaue
the heat gently and
graduallyuntil the combination of
takes place
the oil and
which
alkali is efiected,
generally
when
the ebullition begins. When
properlymade, the soap
of a fluid,
has the appearance
homogeneous,and syrupj'
the

of

form

paste of
stop off
when

an

amber-white

the

heat, and

the

mixture

oil swims

with the
of cocoa-nut

by adding

of the

After

contain

any

for toilet

by adding 10

five

Cocoa-nut

to the frames

quantitiesgiven

obtained, accordingto

The

operationlasts about

from
the

one

oil

to

quantity

hour.

3,520 Its.
1,100 "
'.'."..:

Eesin

880

ley,28"

353

togetherthe

takingcare

396

Soap.

(crude)

to

as

days the

the

are

Palm

Palm-oil

Melt

lbs. to 12 lbs.

soap is firm enough to

process the soap is very white, does not
of alkali or oil,and may
be employed

From

uses.

Dresden

six

or

excess

soap
added.

Soda

bined
com-

established
homogeneity of the soap is recombination
perfected.The heat is

the

lbs. of

of water

be

may

the

minutes

the above

By

quantityof

certain

paste, it

If,

frames.

the

withdrawn, and the soap transferred

usual.

400

surface

mass
saponified

and

cut.

into

oil soap ; or, the same

be obtained
result may
from 2 to 2\ gallonsof pure
After
water.

a few
stirring

then

the soap

run

beginsto boil,a

the

on

It is useless to boil it ;

colour.

add

fats and
the

resin

saponifythe
soap

resin

before

"

"

separately,

it becomes

too

thick to stir.

Alteubnrge's

Besin

Soap.

oil

Cocoa-nut

220 Its.

Resin

Soda

Make

220

ley,28"

by

the

24" B. before

cold process, and

framing.

,,

297,,
cut

with

salt

ley of

MISCELLANEOUS

SOAPS.

227

Ox-gall Soap.
Purified
White

ox-gall

curd

soap

part.
parts.

the ox-gall
soap is cut into shavingsand melted in
until of proper consistency.
at a moderate
heat,evaporating
is prepared by boilingit with 10 to 12 parts
The ox-gall

The

of wood

and straining.
spirit

Sconring-Balls.
White

curd soap
Pearlash

Oil of

33 lbs. 2
6

juniper

ozs.

,,

"

"

"

Mix
the
heat

added a littlewater to
together,
having previously
and
pearlash to dissolve them by a moderate
soap
into balls.
; add the oil of juniperand mould

Borax

Soft

White

Soap.

fats

100

ley, 15" B
Potash ley, 10" B

100

Soda

Solution

The

till it forms

ley and

"

60
"

of horax, 10"

ley is added

soda

clear

borax

IS

to

liquidor

solution

translucent

the

melted

grease
is combined, when

added.

are

paste,and

is

It

heated

the

potash

should

usuallysold

"

and

be

in quart

solid
semicans.

Soap-powder.

Borax

soap in powder
ash
Silicate of soda

Borax, crude

Curd

Soda

parts.
"

ingredientis thoroughly dried

togetherby sifting.
Each

and

"

part.
all mixed

Soap-powder.

London
Yellow

Soda

Ihs.

soap

crystals

parts.

"

1| part.
1J

Pearlash

Sulphate of soda

"

Palm-oil

1
,,

These

ingredientsare

combined

water, and

as

well

as

possible
dry and

they are spread out to

then ground into a coarse
powder. Thus in an infinite
the varietyof soap-powders be multiplied.
degree can
of alkali
They are adaptedfor hard waters, as their excess
without

any

neutralises the lime.

"

Gristiani.

CHAPTEE

N0TJE8

USJEFUL

Soap.

Pickling

The

"Oleometer.

Soap.-

in

Eesin

"

XXYIII.

Detection

"

of

"

AND
Aluminate

of

Soft

TABLES.

Kesin

of
in

Soda.

Soap.

"

betermination
"

Cheap

Almond

of

Soap.
fication
Saponi-

Soft
Potato-flour
in
Soaps.
Soap.
TwaddeU's
Fatty Bodies
ty Soap.
JeUifying.
Soda
Soda.
Soft
Half-palm
Causticising
Soap.
Hydrometer.
Soap.
of
Soda
^Adulteration
of Commercial
SUioate
Soaps for CalicoTable
of Soda
the
Fulling Soaps.
printers.
showing
Percentage
Tahle
Caustic
in" Caustic
Ley.
showing the Percentage of Anhydrous
in
Caustic
Potash
French
and
mometer
TherLey.
English
Comparative
Table
Scales.
the Specific Gravity
showing
corresponding
with
Baume's
Table
than
Hydrometer
(Liquids denser
Water).
the
of
with
the
showing
Specific Gravity corresponding
Degrees
of
Table
Baumfe's
than
Hydrometer
(Liquids lighter
Water).
Essential
Oils.
and
Fats
and
Oils.
Points
ot
Fusing
Congesting
Table.
Kiirten's
Volatile
Oils.
BoilingBoiling-points of some
Table
of
Alkaline
the
Leys.
Quantity
points of Caustic
showing
Caustic
Soda in Leys of different Densities
(Water 1000). ^Table of

Analyses

"

of

"

"

Neutral

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Mechanical

the

PicMiug

Power

Soap.

of Steam.

Under

this

attractive

Leading we
may
have
some
competitive soap-makers
sionally
occavery
of
the
adopted a plan
hardening
artificially
of soap
surface
containing an infinitesimal
proportion of
in a strong
by soaking it for a few hours
fatty matter
of common
salt.
The
hars
solution
(which require
soap
careful
handling !) are
gently deposited in the strong
until the surface
to remain
brine, where
they are allowed
is sufficiently
indurated, after which
they are
qvdckly
and
then
submitted
rinsed
to the
drying-room for a short
the
time.
it
virtue which
By this method
a
assumes
soap

state

does
The

"

that

not

possess.
Oleometer.

the

"

density

This

very

of fixed

"A
delicate
Cooley :
weighted and graduated
of the leading fixed oils.

useful

oils,is thus

areometer

"

as

As

instrument,

to

or

for

described

taining
ascer-

by
hydrometer,

itself to the

adapt
the difiierences
of

the

Mr.
so

densities

specific

USEFUL

NOTES

AND

TABLES.

229

of these substances are inconsiderable,

to render
gravities
it more
the ball of the instrument
is prosusceptible
portionate
and
the
tube or
stem
narrow.
large
very
in generaluse
The
scale of the oleometer
(Gobby's)is
and it floats at 0 or zero
in pure
divided into 50 degrees,
oil ; at 38

poppy

olive-oil.

pure

made

The

country is

54*5" F.

this normal

the

in pure almond
oil,and at 50 in
ments
standard
temperature of the instru-

in this

the Continent
to

38

or

The

oil must

temperature

as

the

case

be

densitymust
the

from
the

instrument,
Thus

the

and

the

the

suppose

into

hot

either

cold

or

normal
for

temperature
60" F.

degreeof
temperature of the

instrument

the

adding

experiment is

then

of

above

thermometer

on

be ; or a correction of the observed

The last is done by deducting 2

may
made.

indication

m^de

brought
testingit,by plunging

before

glasscylindercontainingit

water,

60" ; those
therefore be

now

for

each

degree below
every
of the oil at the time

and the oleometer

indicates

it.
of

60",

"

60"0"

Actual

54'5

Normal

temperature.
temperature.

Difference.

5-5

of
The difference
5-5X2=

the oleometer

Indication

Eeal

61'0
11-0

density

Suppose the temperature observed

experimentis 52" and the oleometer

60'0

at

the

indicates

54'5

Normal

Temperature.

52'0

Actual

Temperature.

time

of the

45",then

"

Difference.

2-5

of the oleometer
The difference
2-5x2=

Indication

Eeal

density

45"0
5-0
50-0

oil is therefore" presumed to be pure.

of Soda.
It has been proposedto employ
Alnmiuate
ture
this salt as a substitute for caustic soda in the manufacThe

"

of soap.
an

aluminate

Aluminate
of

iron, and

of soda is preparedfrom
double
from cryolite,
a

bauxite,
fluoride

ART

THE

230

of sodium

formed, and the

the resulting
separatedby lixiviation,
of soda

aluminate

an

of iron

is calcined with soda

Bauxite

aluminum.

and

ash, whereby
oxide

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

is

is

nate
alumiliquorsbeing evaporated until a dry commercial
is
of soda is obtained,the compositionof which
from
the
and impurities
soda, 43 ; alumina, 40 ; water
soda
ash employed, 9.
Cryolite(powdered)is mixed
of lime
and
boiled
with
six equivalents
with
water,
"

when

alumina
If

insoluble

an

an

fluoride

dissolved in the

becomes

of lime

excess

is used, the

leavingcaustic
that soap

from

making

parts of lard
not

way,

but

the

aluminate

determine

Sutherland

alumina

will be

in solution.

United

and

the

of caustic soda.

excess

tated,
precipi-

We

States

stand
under-

to

siderable
con-

of soda.

aluminate

of

soda,about

equal

are

materials

combination

at which
To

the

is formed

and these should

preferred,
greater extent than is justnecessary to

The

liquefythem.

in

soap from
and tallow

be heated to

alone

soda

is made

extent

For

of calcium

they can
the

are

boiled

not

in the usual

is effected at the lowest

be

mixed.
intimately

Qnantity

recommends

perature
tem-

of

Besin

in

Soaps.

"

the

followingprocess, which
results :
300 grainsof
is said to give very satisfactory
into a capsule
introduced
soap cut into small pieces are
concentrated
and
covered with
hydrochloricacid, the
contents
are
gentlyboiled till the soap is dissolved and
of hot water
are
added,
entirelydecomposed
; 4 ounces
When
and the capsuleis set aside to cool.
cold,the cake
of fattyacids and resin is removed
and
washed
several
After coolingit is dried and
water.
times with warm
gently remelted,and kept for a few minutes at 212" to
Mr.

"

evaporate all

traces

of water.

containingthe fattyacids and the resin

is carefully
weighed.
100 grainsof the mixture
are
placedin a capsuleand
This

covered

cake

with

strong nitric

raised to the
with

acid

and

the

temperature

boiling-point;powerfulreaction takes place

violent evolution of nitrous vapours.
The heat is

withdrawn

tillthe violence

of the

action subsides,and

is

THE

232

Cheap
almonds

ART

Almond
to

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

Soap.

To

"

impart the

nii/ro-benzol has

soap,

been

of bitter

odour

employed.

much

fore
perfume,and must thereIt is largelyused in some
be used in moderation.
cheaptablet soaps. In small
parts of England for scenting
agreeabl
the disit has also been
employed to disguise
quantities
It is

powerfulas
exceedingly

of cocoa-nut

odour

Analyses
be useful as

of

Soft

oil.
The

followinganalysesmay
of several well-made
composition

Soaps,

showing the

"

soft soaps :
8'5 -f oil and
Good
make
soft soap of London
: Potash
tallow 45 +
46-5 in 100 parts. Ure.
water
"

"

givesthe compositionof soft soap

100.
9-6; oil 44-0; water 46-5
Belgiansoft or green soap : Potash 7 -f oil
Thenard

as

Potash

57

100."

Scotch
water

45

Potash

-|- oil

well-made

soap

Potash

42

tallow

47

fat 34

9 -1- oil and

100.

soft soap
(Gallipoli)
'of potash with a good deal of

48, water

and

Z7re.

olive-oil

An

soap
100."

57

water

-h water

Ure.

soft

Another

36

rapeseed oil

Scotland

carbonic

acid

sisted
con-

10, oils

C/re.

100."

from

Scotland

from

consisted

of

potash

10

oil 61-66

-I-water 38-33.
semi-hard soap from Verviers,for

savon

consisted
iconomique,

water

M.

parts
in 100

26-5

Juncmann
of soda

100."

Fotato

Flour

C/re.
to make

proposes
ash in 100

parts of oleic

of

cloth,called
fulling
62
potash 11-5 -|-fat (solid)
a

parts of

28
by dissolving
molasses, and stirring
soap

acid.

in Soft

In the year 1838 Sheridan

of silicated soap)obtained a patep.t

Soap.

"

(theoriginalinventor
for making soft soap with potato flour. The
were
:
potato flour,16 lbs. ; potashleys,100
270 lbs.

How

times

many

with

has

the

same

proportions
lbs. ; water,
process

been,

!
slightmodifications,
re-patented
such as have water
are
Liquored soaps
(with or
without silicateof soda)added to them after removal from
"

"

USEFUL

the pan.
water

NOTES

Watered, or

or

weak

"

AND

TABLES.

"

run

leysadded

and

those

are

soaps
mixed

233

which

have

with the soap in the

soap-pan.
of

Saponification

By

M.

J. Pelouze.

candle-makers

in

STeutral

One

"

France,

Bodies

Fatty

much

M.

Milly,made a series of
of fatty
saponification

smaller

de

and

from

15

effect the

Having

to

or

most

strated
he demon-

which

percentage

ordinarily
employed would
of the fattymatter.
of lime

skilful

oldest

important experiments on the

matters, and especially
suet, by lime, in
that

Soaps:

by

of the

of lime

than

was

complete saponification
the

reduced

cent.,he

centage
persubsequently

per
4
reduced
proportionto
per cent, of the fatty
suboperated upon, the condition being that of jecting
the

matter

elevated
to an
lime, water, and fattymatter
was
performed in a metallic
temperature. The operation
the

perature
boiler,which was maintained for several hours at a temto a pressure of 5 to 6 atmospheres.
corresponding
It is easy to understand
the economy
of an
operation
enables
diminish
half
the
to
to one
which
us
quantityof
sulphuricacid necessary for' the decompositionof the lime
It appeared to me
to subjectto an
interesting
soap.
attentive examination
a
performedwith so
saponification
small a quantityof a base as one
twenty-fourthpart of
the acidified fattymatter.
I prepared a lime soap by double decompositioiij
pouring a solution of chloride of calcium into an aq^jreous
The
wbren well
solution of commercial
precipitate,
soap.
with
washed, was introduced into a small Papin'sdigester,
of olive
nearlyits own weight of water and 40 per cen^oil. The vessel was
kept for nearlythree hour^ ii ^^ oil

bath

at

temperature

above

the

of

from

\F. The
evaporated,an^ left a

311"

to

329"

was
precipitate
of glycsrine.
all
the
presenting
properties
syrupy
acidulated^
boiled in water
^ith
The
when
precipitate,
hydrochloricacid,furnished a completelyacidified fatty,
soluble in alcohol \
and entirely
matter
directly
; for it was

water

residue

and

the alkalies.

the characters

In

of the

one

word, the

reaction

showed

ordinarydecompositionof

the

all \
neu-

THE

ART

fattymatters

by

234

tral

hardness

of the

difference in

The

tlie free alkalies.

lime

new

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

(itwas

aside

being set
supposed that
soap

not

the saponification
hard),one might have
had been performedwith caustic lime.
made
Another
by mixing Marseilles
experiment was
and
its weight of water
one
quarter of its
soap with
weight of olive-oil. The temperature and operationwere
so

the

acid soap : it was

solution of
aqueous

of
properties
in

and

an

reaction,had

all the

soluble in cold

alcohol

matter, after the

The

same.

an

separated from

it

alkaline

entirely

solutions.

experiment,which

double

the

Acids

soda.

or

likewise

fatty substance

soluble in cold alcohol and

It results from

potassa

just

has

alkalies of

capable as
glycerineand fattyacids ;
it will thus be understood
why I have given to this note
the apparentlyparadoxical
title,
Sapomficationof Neutral
Fatty Matters by Soaps.
been

described,that

as

soaps are
decomposing fattybodies into

I
of

329"

them

F.

does

water

that

ascertained

have, moreover,

act

not

on

it is necessary that the mixture

should attain and be maintained

water

at

the
To

oils.
of

temperature

decompose

fattymatters

for

long

and

time

at

assigned by M. Berthelot for

this latter saponification.
In England, where Price's, house manufactures
immense
is perquantities of stearine candles,the saponification
formed
the
stni
of
steam
at
action
a
superheated
by
highe^ temperature. Thence result fattyacids and free
which
is nearlypure, and whence
glycerih*a
factures,
arts,manuthe

temperature of

and
and

428" F.

tages,
alreadydrawn great advanbe much
increased.
will,probably,
reactions of which
we
speak it will be

medicine

which

In

have

the new
understood that water, at
329"

F., decomposes a

very basic soap, and

manner

on

manner

that

M.

fresh

a
a

temperature

311"

and

soap into an acid soap and

the latter acts in a secondary

quantityof fattymatter

free alkali would

with this

of from

neutral

that

Chevreul, relative

accord

to "the

do.
action

explanation.

The

in

the

same

observations of

of water

on

soaps,

USEFUL

The

NOTES

experimentof

AND

TABLES.

235

M.

tion
Milly,which served as a foundafor my work, may be explainedin an analogous
manner.
It must
be admitted
that the saponification
of suet by
of 4 per cent, of its weight of lime presentsseveral
means
distinct phasesin which a basic or neutral soap is formed
at first and is'then changed into a relatively
acid soap.
The observations of which
I have been giving a summary
find a simple interpretation
in M. Chevreul's works
on
fattybodies. They lead us to look forward to fresh
and important
developmentsin this class of numerous
substances.

"When

the elements

of water

alone

cause

the

of neutral fattybodies into fattyacids and

decomposition
we
glycerine,
expect that science and industrywill
may
multiplyand vary the phenomena of saponification.
Jellifying is a term appliedto soap which, after being
dissolved in a certain quantityof water, sets into a jelly
when
cold. Soap-makers frequently
test the jellifying
fully
property of their soaps in this way : After having careof
weighed 1 ounce
soap, this is cut up into thin
and these are placed in a porcelaincapsule; 7^
shavings,
of water
ounces
(by measure) are then added, and the
whole
gentlyboiled over a spirit-lamp,
constantlystirring
Cold
with a glass rod until the soap is all dissolved.
"

and
the solution
up 16 ounces,
If the soap is of
of soap is then set aside to cool.
in half an
hour.
In
good qualityit should gelatinise
water

is then

added

to make

large laundries also,the character of

by its congealingor jellifying
perties.
prosoap is determined
For this purpose
1 cwt. of soap is boiled by
When
heat in 80 gallonsof water.
steam
thoroughly
dissolved,cold water is added to make up 170 gallonsin
cloth

and
factories,

the solution of soap

if the soap has been of good quality.
will have set into a jelly
is used in England for liquids
Twaddell's
hydrometer

all.

At

the end

hours

of twelve

or

so

degreesare converted into specific

gravitiesby multiplyingthem by 5, adding 1,000, and
dividingthe sum by 1,000. Thus :

heavier than water.

Its

"

20 Tw.

20

1000

5--H

1000

1100

236

THE

Twaddell's

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

ART

5" in each

advance
figures

number, thus

gravityis No.
specific

1000

1005
1010

"

"

"

"

"

"

1
2
3

1020
so

"

1015

and

"

"

on.

Soda.

Cansticising

Mr.

"

Parnell's

plan for causticising

to have
proved very-

liquorunder pressure appears

successful in practiceand to have effected a considerable
in horizontal
savingin fuel. The operationis conducted
and 30 feet long,proabout 7 feet in diameter
cylinders
vided
and
for
with a revolvingshaft or agitator
cages
holdingthe lime. Each chargeis about 400 cubic feet of
soda liquor,
and takes about three and a half to four hours
soda

"

"

to causticise under

pressure

50 to 60 lbs. to the

of from

It is stated that 90 or 92 per cent, of the

square inch.
soda is causticised by this method, and the caustic liquor
"
The " mud
contains from
up to 32" Twaddell.
Each
of 70 per cent,
3 to 4 per cent, of free lime.
ton
15 or
16 per cent, of lime.
One
caustic soda requires
apparatus turns out about 70 tons weekly. The patentee

out

comes

"
1. I treat the
says :
carbonates
mixed
with

alkaline

"

greater
obtain

than

caustic

alkaline

carbonates, or
lime, under
a

pressure

the

ordinaryatmospheric pressure,
sufficiently
high temperature to cause the

carbonate

and

caustic lime

as

to

alkaline

each other.
upon
Thus
it is possible,
under
pressure of 50 lbs. per square
inch, to efiiectthe reaction with a solution of 1*200 specific
the mixed
2. I agitate,
alkaline carbonates
gravityor over.
and
described

the

so

lime

in order

completion. 3.
maintain

during

the

to react

in

treatment

After

the

reaction

alkalies and
Soda

Soft

and

hasten

taken

its

place I
keep the

the products,and
upon
until I have separatedthe caustic

temperature constant
soda or potassa,or both, from the
reduction

has

above

manner

to facilitatethe reaction

pressure

in order

the

that the reaction

carbonate

may

not

be

of lime
reversed

duced,
pro-

by

of

temperature takingplacewhilst the caustic

the carbonate
of lime are in contact.
Soap

may

be made

from

mixture

of soda

USEFUL

and

NOTES

AND

potash leys,but the leysmust

proportions recommended

TABLES.

237

be

quitefree from salt.

Tie
Soda ley, 1 part ;
are
:
potash ley,4 parts; oleic acid, 100 lbs.; tallow,50 lbs. ;
hempseed-oil,3,750 lbs. This is said to make a good soft
soap.

Half-palm

Soap

formulae

be made

may

from

either of the

Wiite tallow
Palm-oil
Cocoa-nut oil
Yellow resin

900

Its.

400

"

200
100

Lard

550 lbs.

TaUow
Cotton-seed

400
"

oil

"

450

TaUow

700

Palm-oil

300

oU

Cotton-seed

Eesin

200

"

,,

1600
"
"

200

oil

,,

1600

Cocoa-nut

lowing
fol-

400

"
"

1600

The

followingformulae, recommended
useful

prove

by Ott*, may

"

Palm-oil

300'lliS.

TaUow

200"

Eesin

20

Palm-oil
Cocoa-nut

"

450 lbs.
oil

50

.....

"

"

600
520

Tallow

500

Palm-oil

300

Eesin

Lard

550

Palm-oil

150

"

Coooa-nut oil
Clarified resin

"

200
"

60

50

1000

Adulteration

in

sample
Jean

"

Silicate

of

Soda.

analysis,
accordingto

on

The

"

M.

F.

"

Soda

combined

Carbonate
Soda

8'54

with. sUica

6'36

of soda

2-00

soap

silica
Perric

21-40

".

oxide, alumina, and

Alkaline

chloride

and

traces

of lime

0-74
0-66

sulphates

60-05

Water
Matter

The
2

"
"

800

of Commercial

questiongave

"

not determined, and

sample
cent,

per
*

"

Art

of
of

of

silicate of

anhydrous

0-25

loss

soda

soap,

but

Manufacturing Soap," "o.

contained, therefore,
as

such

By Adolphe Ott.

solution

238

THE

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

cooling, tKe

object of its introductioi^

the silicate,giving it the appear;
evidently to thicken
was
its
of a
concentrated
to prevent
product, and
ance
very
strength being taken with the hydrometer.
used
for
The
Calico-printers.
Soaps
by calico-'
soap
be
must
work
printers for
clearing alizarine
very
in
the
alkali
down
neutral,
quantity,
being not only kept
the
but
its thorough
with
combination
fatty acids secured
superiority of the madder
by very careful
boiling. The
Sons
the
firm
of Hoyle and
long
purples for which
were
the
best
famous
due
of
their practice
to
re-melting
was
procurable with an additional
quantity of palm-oil.
soaps
forms

jelly

on

"

Fulling

Soaps.

For

"

in

use

so

must

also

injures

the

manufacturer

natural

used

follows

of
a

bare

trace

To

and

called

machinery

This

consists

of

touch

the

which
Small

injures
the

prevent

instead

and

mint,

of

in

so

of

is

of

the

the

must

cess
pro-

grates

is used

at

piece
soap-works.

Copper,
some

revolving paddle furnished

top of the boiling matter.
may
of

of silver, which

being cheaper, harder,

costly metal.

potash

also

and

be
the

made

from

Crown
possesses

less

fusible

blades

with

bismuth

of

SiKcates

soda.

The

Nature.
kind

it

discarding

its lustre.

"fan"

jacket-pans

aluminium

wool,

Soda

used.

be

account

teachings

boiling-over
a

to

superior
of

fibre

the

in
they are decomposed
deposit free silica,which

; if

fibre

the

wool, called

present
of fulling,"c., and

the

of

practice

harshness

any
the

on

suppleness

containing
be

on

of

the

lubricant

soap,
not

therefore

not

in

found

genuine potash oil-soap has been

Resin
to all others.
gives
wool,

manufacture

woollen

the

alloy

Aluminium
the

pany,
Com-

advantage

than

of

the

more

of

THE

240
Taslb

showing

Let

A
KAT

the
at

BE

60"

SAPONIFIED

COHPABATITB

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

Pekcentage

Fahs.,
BT

FbEKCH

and
XT.

AND

op
the

"

Caustic

Anstdrous

Quantity

of

Mixed

Potash
Fats

Tunnermann.

EnGUSE

TeEBMOMETER

ScALES.

which

NOTES

USEFUL

Comparative

Frbnoh

and

French, 01 Centigrade65 Cent, or 0.

Table

showinq

the

Degrees

TABLES.

AND

Enghsh

Theemombtbr

241

Scales

English,

01

equals

149 Pahr.

Specific G-batity
op

BAUMfi's

or

corresponding

Htdromeiek.

"

[continmS).

Fahrenheit.

P.

with

the-

THE

242

Table

showing

the.

ART

OF

Specific

Deosees

SOAP-MAKING.

Gkavitt

Bauii"'s

of

Liquidslightertlian

Taele

of

correspondino

Htdsometee.

Essentiai,

"Water.

Oils.

with

the

USEFUL

NOTES

Table

Fusing

of

Essential

Congealinq

and

AND

Oils

Points

Substance.

"Walnut-oil

Oil of beechnuts freezes

Almond-oil congeals
fat fuses
Cocoa-nut
oU solidifies

fuses

Lard

Palm-oil melts

Dammara

36"
55"

"

,,
,

fuses
"

fuses
,,

Stearine melts
Eesin

30"

"

fuses

-wax

becomes

"

soft

resin fuses

or

15"

"

Bees'

Fahrenheit.

29"

at

Spermaceti fuses

Oils.

and

melts

Tallow

Fats

"

oil of cedar-wood

and

roses

Margarine

op

Horses'

Oil of

(continued).

"

Degrees

Olive-oil freezes

Lard

243

oils freeze at
poppy
freezes
,

and

Castor

TABLES.

"
"

at
solidify

70"
74"'5
79"
97"
107"

117J"
120"

127"
150"
158"
160"
164"

Zero.

THE

244

ART

SOAP-MAKING.

OF

KTJRTEN'S
Showing
CKSS
WITH

Composition

the

PBOM

and

Labd,

and

Points

Boiling

Pboduct
LeT

OONOENTEATED

Palm-oil,

TABLE

AND

Soap

of

]yllXT0BE

by
OP

thb

Tallow.

op

some

Volatile

Snlistaiice.

Oils.
Degrees EaJuenlieit.

Oil of sassafras hegins to hoil at

tar (creosote)
begins to boil at
"
amber

boUs

at

223
....

280
284

"

"

hyssop

"

grass

"
"
"

garlic

289-4
"

297

"

302

"

coriander "
elemi
,
bitter almonds

302
345

boils at

350

"

"

"

thyme

Cols

CoOOA-NDT

boils at

orange-peelboils at

356

356

Pbo-

On.

USEFUL

BoiLiNO

Tablb

shotino

NOTES

Points

the
DippERENT

of

AND

Caustic

Quantity
Densities

op

TABLES.

Alkaline

Caustic

(Watek

24s

Lets.

Soda

1000).

in

Lets

op

\S

^46

THE

Tablb

ART

op

the

OF

Mbchanicai.

SOAP-MAKING.

Powek

of

Steam.

248

INDEX.

Antlinonial soap, 173

Bink's

of,173
Antimony, golden sulphniet
16
Apparatus and appliances,

Binoxalate

190
alkalimeter,
of

soaps, ISO
almonds, oil of,150

barring,23
re-meltingthe soap, 140
tincture
Archil,
of,170
Areometer,228
Arsenical soap, 174
Arsenjous acid,174

Black ash, 41

Ash, black,41
soda,29, 93
Assay, of soap, 201
194
alkalies,
194
alkalies,
Assaying
B'Arcefs method, 205
Bampel's method, 204

Bleached

for

Bichardson

and

Wattes

44
garden poppy oil,
167
ivory,
resin,177
soap, 172, 174
49
palm-oil,

Bleaching, Watfs
208, 209

palm-oilwith

72
"strength,"

of,241
Balm mint, oil of,242
Balsam of Peru, 162
Tolu, 162

Bole,163
Bone-fat,123

156
Balling,

Borax, 139

BADIANE,

grease, 28
Boracic acid,181

Balls,sand, 164
scouring,227
wash, 161

soap, 180

soap-powder,227
soft soap, 227
toilet soap, 175
Bordhardt's herb soap, 174
Bran, 69, 175
soap, 175
Bromine, 175
Brown
ochre,157

Bankmann's

process, 184
2,29, 93
Barilla,

Barium, chloride of,199

Barringapparatus,23
Baryta,carbonate of,199
Bauxite,229
Beech-nut
oil,28,242

oil,85
soap from, 85, 139

Beef

83
marrow,
Bees'-wax,f using-point
of,242

Spanish,ISO
Windsor

136
green

Burette,189

soap, 231

soap, 150
"

Bink'e,190
Mohr's, 190
Burnt sienna,153
Butter,cocoa, 73

acid,175

soap, 175
Benzoin soap, 153
tincture of,153

Benzole,nitro,86
Cribbs'sprocess, 117
Benno, Japp", and Co.'s method of

Bennett

and

222
glycerine,

oil of,149, 242

Bernardet's process, 124
Besson and Remy's process, 182
Bicarbonate of potassa,176
soda,93
Bichford's process, 187
Bichromate of potash,26,92
200
potassa,

Bergamot,essential

lime,

Blue,Prussian,52
Boiling,56, 64
over, to prevent,238.
243
pointsof caustic alkaline leys,
224
volatile oils,
pointsof some
to

oil

or

of

soap in the pan, 115

met'

soaps, 201

Benzoic

chromate

process,

powder, 112

Assays,commercial, 195
Australian tallow,.
26, 53

soft

chrome

211

206

Belgiansoap,

potash,139

Bitter almond

covering
re-

oil of,166
pACAO,
^

Cadmium

yellow,158

Cajeput,oil of,"242
Calcined

98
flint,

quartz, 98

soda.111
carbonate,220
Caldron,81
Calcium

Camphine, 180
Camphor, 162
and

ammonia

soaps, 180

INDEX.

Camphor,

savonnettes

of,162

ice soap, 175

t Caramel, 151
I

Carbolic acid,124, 175

of batyta,199
lime,23

oil of,157,242
Citronella,
Clarified resin,
237
Clay,China, 31, 105

potash,100
'

soda,28
Carbonated

pipe.111

28, 92
alkali,
leys,121
of potassa,12
Carbonic acid,8
Caraway, oil of,150,242
oil of,242
Cascarilla,
Castile soap, 8,36, 161
27
Castor-oil,

60
Cleansing,
"
Cleaver's process, 186
Clolus'smethod of recovering
glycerine,
220
Cloth manufacture, soap used in,223
Cloves,essential oil of,149,242

oil soap, 175

Cassia,86

powdered, 151
Caostic alkali,
9, 44
alkaline leys,boiling-points
of,
244

ley,strong,82
leys,32, 121
lime,233
potassa,12

almond

Coleseed oil,
42, 130
Colophony, 28, 177
Colza oil,
28, 130
Combined
soaps, 115
Commercial
assays, 195
197
soda,
Common
salt,10
and
Comparative French

soap, 231

thermometer

Composition of

olive-oilsoap, 50
of making yellow

Coolingworm, 68
Copper or soap-pan, 17
Copperas,green, 41
Coriander,oil of,242

potassium,198
Chloride of barium, 199

lime,112
13
potassium,

Chromate

pure

soap, 62
Continental soaps, 135

in soap, 109

112

soap, 113
of lime,208

with,211
bleachingpalm-oil
Chrome, recovery of,210
Chromic acid,27, 208

Corn-meal soap, 175

Corrosive sublimate,172
28
Cotton-seed oil,
Cream, almond, 165
of whiting,220

Creams,soap,

166

Creme' ambroisie,166
de

cacao

English

239
scales,

Continental method

Chlorate of potash,181

Chlorinated

79
(Hawes's),

soap, 133
soft ley,46

Cheapened soaps, 96, 105

Chervil,oil of,242
oil of,242
Cherry laurel,
3
Chevreul's discovery,
theory,7
China clay,31, 105

soda,85, 112,114
sodium, 13
Chloridised sanitarysoap,

powder of,150
Cochlearia,oil of,242
Cocinic acid,8
Cocoa butter,73
nut oil,
27, 73, 75
soaps, 71,74,75, 77
oU, 75
Cocos nucifeira,
27
Coction,43
leysof, 63
Coke,ground, 100
"Cold process

soda,8, 29
Causticising
soda,236
Cedar wood, oil of,242
Cerates,36
Chalk, 29
French, 180
prepared,173
Chamomile, oil of,242
Charcoal,ground, 100

Cheap

oxide,220
Chromium, oxide of,210
sesquioxideof,219
Cinnamon, essential oil of,149, 242
Chromic

soap, ISO
tincture of,162

soap, 173

Carbonate

249

mousseuse,

124
Creosote,

Crevel's process, 126

166

INDEX.

250

Crispmint, oil of,242

Croton

Essence of soap, 1C9

Essential oil of bergamot, 149, 242

oil,175

cinnamon, 149,2^
cloves,149, 242
oil of rose, 149, 242
oils,table of,241
Ether,232
oil of

soap, 175

Crude

218
glycerine,
soda,43
soft soda,43
Cratch, steam, 16,20
Crutches,16,20
"
Cratehed in,"20
Crntching-pot,20

oil of

soaps, 140
FANCY
Farina, 161

21
spindle,

Farriers' soap, 174

229
Crysolite,
Crystals,
soda,88
oil
Cumin,
of,242
17
Curb,
iron,132

Curd

Fat acid,87

bone, 123
hogs',26
242
horses',
Wakefield,86
Yorkshire,28
Fats,26
Justice'smethod
and oils,

soap, 39

white,53
101
stiff,
Cuttingmachine, 24
soap, 127, 146
into shavings,156
"
Cuttingthe pan," 38

of

fying,
puri-

213

Dunn's

method, 213
fusing and congealingpointsof,
242

Fatt^' acids,8, 41
TVALTON'S

202
FeciiJa,

theory,189

-L'

Dammara
resin,242
of assaying,205
D'Arcet's method

Davis's process. 111

of the
Descroizelle's invention
meter, 188
Detection of resin in soap, 232

alkali-

Detergentmixture,98
Dextrine, 160, 174
8
Diachylon plaster,
Dill,oil of,241
Disinfecting
mixture, 112
soap, 112, 124
Dittany,oil of,242
Improvements, 109
Douglas's
Dresden
palm soap, 226
white
Dry
soap, 170
Dunn's

method

of

213
purifyingoils,

Felspar,ground, 100
Fennel, oU of,162,242
Ferric oxide,237
Finishingthe soap, 39, 61
First ley,129
soap patent,2
Fish-oils,
8,28, 212
Fitted soaps, 14, 61
Fitting,55,64, 71
the soap, 91

Flint,calcined,98

Floating
soaps,

savonnettes, 163
11
FIoccuIk,gelatinous,
187
Flour,potato,
Foam
or fob,black,47

Frames, 19

process, 105
of marking soaps', 187

oil,42
Effloresced soda,93
Elaine,25, 27
Elaiodic acid,27

EARTH-NUT
Elais

iron,16, 19
soap, 20

wooden, 16, 19
34
alkali,
French chiQk,180
Free

oil soaps, 77
formulse for soaps, 49
marbled soaps, 42
system of making toiletsoaps, 154

cocoa-nut

27
guineaensis,

melanococca,27
Elder-flower

soap, 160

Elecampane, oil of,241

English soft soap, 135
tallow,209
Essence de savon
Corinthe,170
de savon
Vienne, 169

11

toilet soaps, 154

Fresh

vat, 32
Fuller's earth soap, 109
Fullingsoap, 138, 238

Fusing
and

and

congealingpointsof

oils,242

fats

251

INDEX.

'J

oil

ALANGAL,

Hogs'fat,26

of,242

lard,151

Gall,ox, 227

Holland

Gamboge, 153
24
Gauging stick,
Gelatinous floccalffi,
11
Genista,oil of,242
Gentsle's process, 137
Geranium, oil of,157
Gilliflower,
powder of,150
Ginger grass, oil of,162
oil

of,242

Glass liquor,114
30
soluble,
31
Glauber's salt,

Gluten, 122
in soap, 122

TCELAND
moss, 139
J- Indigo,134

7, 10, 14
Glycerine,
219
Allan's,
Benno, Japp6, " Co.'s,222
220
CIolus's,
218
crude,
Lawson

and

Intestines^
soap made from, 124
Iodine,174
soap, 175

Sulman's,219

Irish
Iron

soap, 160
and

sulphuretof antimony, 173

Goose-fat,8
Gossage'sprocesses, 99
Grain, soap, 11
189
assaying,

rake,51
salts of,46
sulphateof,41
sulphuretof,41
Ivory black,157

JACKET-PANS, 238

Grease,bone, 25,28
horse,25, 28
recovered,28

process, 137
169
Jeyes's
process, 185

"

Jennings'sprocesses, 176
Juice,lemon, 178
Juniper,oil of,242

copperas, 41
44
vitriol,

charcoal,100
coke,100
100
felspar,

Ground

tar,173
Justice's method

158
tragacanth,
106
Guppy's process,
Gum

Hand
Hard

176, 183
Hampel's shaving soap, 178
soaps,
or

22

8, 29,36,58, 71

unsalled
cloth,224

soaps

for

Higgins's
process, 183

fats,213

Kettle,17,225
28
Kitchen-stuff,
waste, 28
Kottula's soaps, 94
243v
Kurten's table,

milling

79
(coldprocess),
130
28,
Hempseed oil,

Hawes's system

purifying and

31, 109
EAOLIN,
Kelp,29, 93

soap,

pumps,

of

bleaching oils and

suet,161

-'-'-

Jacobson's

Jasmine pomade,

soap, 69

TTALF-resin

16

pumps,

215

Golden

Green

soap, 175

curb,132
frames,19
oxide,45
peroxideof,41

Versmann's,217

Gravimetric

moss

pans, 17

218
Fuller's,

Young's process,
oxide of,10
Glyceryl,

soap, 94

Instantaneous

218
O'Farrell's,
216
Payne's,
recovery of,215
Thomas

soft soap, 134

Honey, 163
162
savonnettes,
2
8
Horse-grease,
OH, 8
Horses' fat,fusing-point
of,242
196
of
potassa,
Hydrate
soda,189
Hydrochloricacid,203
Hydrometer, Baum^'s, 37, 240
235
Twaddell's,
27
acid,
Hyponitrous
242
oil
of,
Hyssop,

ADLES,

16

-L', Lard, hogs',26, 161

soap
with

by cold process, 83
amberette,159

INDEX.

252
Laid

with

159
lettnce,

London

Lumbarton'a

water, 169
and

Crown

Salman's

process

for

178
juice,
oil of,153,242
soap, 160
Lettuce,lard with, 159

barring,23
MACHINE,
cutting,24
for slicingsoap, 142
for stamping soap, 147
Magnolia,oil of,174
Maize flour,
175
oleic
Making
soaps, 93
oxide
Manganese,
of,94
Manufacture

of hard soaps,
of soft soaps, 128, 136
of toiletsoaps, 140
Marble savonnettes, 163

soap, 159
Levafs process, 178
Lewis's process, 179

Marine

soap, 73

Marjoram, oil of,162, 242

Marrow, beef,83
Marseilles soap, 36
Marsh's,Sir H., sulphur soap, 171
Marshmallow
soap, 153

Materials used in

soap-making,25

Matters,membranous, 124
Meat, residuum of,125
Medicated

soaps, 172

tar soap, 173

waste, 22

Mercury, 105
bath, 119
Metallic soap, 8, 40
Methods
of analysing

and

assaying

soaps, 201
205
D'Arcet's,

of

making,

of

preparing leys,Tennant
33
Co.'a,

Rampel's,204

waste, 23

Richardson

Liniments,36
Linseed oil,
28, 130
Liquid ammonia, 177

glycerine
soap, 173
186
Schar^s,

Liquor,lime,94
Liquored soaps,
Litharge,8
Litmus,197

Medicinal soft soap, 172

Meinicke's process, 68
Membranous
matters, 124
Mercurial ointment,175
soap, 172, 175

sulphateof,84

soaps,

36,58, 71

Margarate, 10'
of lead,8
Margaric acid,8
Margarine,25, 37

9
Ley, alkaline,
9
caustic,
46
cold soft,
13
potassa,
soda,33
soft,44
strong,129
tank^16, 19, 32
32, 121
Leys,caustic,
of coction,
63
potash,128
46
salted,
soda,33
spent,38, 215

116

process, 124

covering
re-

219
glycerine,
Lead, margarate of,8
oxide of,8
red,145
Leblanc's process for making soda,3
Lemon
grass, oil of,160

Lichen, 178
10
Liebig'sresearches,
Lime, 8, 33
carbonate
of,23
chloride of,112
chromate
of,208
94
liquor,
milk of,129
slaked,23, 33
soap, 84, 116
Lunge's method
"

soap,"133

mottled,50
soap-powder,227
tallow,26

raniUa, 1S8
Laundry soaps, 82
Lavender, oil of,150, 242
Lawson

"

232

and

Watt's,206
203, 218
Methylatedspirit,
Milk of lime,129
Mineral,orange, 153
Minium, 159
Mint, oil of,153
Miscellaneous processes, 176, 223
Bastetfs process, 181
Besson

and

Bemy's

process, 182

Bichford's process, 187

INDEX.
Cleaver's process, 186
Cooper and Smith's process, 180
Sunn's process, 187
Hampel'sprocess, 178
Higgins's
process, 183

Jennings's
processes, 176

Nut, cocoa, oil,

8,27
palm,oil,8,25, 26
242
Nutmeg oil,
soap, 175
OATMEAL
Ochre, 202

Jeyes'sprocess, 185
Levat's process, 178
Lewis's process, 179
Lorbury'sprocess, 186
Macltay and Sellers's process,
181

Marriott's,
Mrs.,process, 179
Payne's process, 184
Eowbottom's

process, 180

brown, 150,157

yellow,157
O'Farrell's process for

recovering'
cerine,
gly-

218

Oil,almond, 242
animal,130
28
lieechnut,
black garden poppy, 44
bleached palm, 49

Scharr's process, 186

brown,

Symons's process,

castor,27
cocoa-nut, 8,27, 75

124

Tardani's process, 182

Varicas's process, 185
Violefs process, 178
Waller's process, 179
M. Loch's soft soap, 139
Mohr's alkalimeter,
190

Molasses,232
Morfit's steam

16
series,

86
system of soap-making,

Moss, Iceland,139
125
soap, Irish,
oil
Motherwort,
of,242
Mottled soap, 8, 50
Mottling,47
notes

on, 48

Mrs.

Marriott's process,179
Mugwort, oil of,241
Muriatic acid,92
Musk

soap, 150
tincture of,158
Mustard, oil of,242
.

tallow,160

Mutton

Myrtle,oil of,162
soap, 165
NAPLES
Naphthalinevellow,160

Neroli,oil of,162,"242
savonnettes
of,162
Neutral

of,
fattybodies,saponification

232

Neutral soap, 88,233

120
process of saponification,
40
Niger,or Nigrp,

84

cod, 130
coleseed,
42, 130
colza,28, 130
28
cotton-seed,croton, 175
42
earth-nut,
fish,
8, 28
hempseed, 130
horse,8
linseed,
28, 130
olive,8,25, 130
palm, 8,25, 26
palm-nut,161
petroleum,175
poppy, 28, 130
rapeseed,26,130
raw
palm, 75
red,83
seal,130
sesame, 26, 161
28
sesamum,
133

sperm,

taUow, 25, 161

68
turpentine,
1
30
vegetable,
243
volatile,
242
walnut,
whale, 130
yellowcocoa-nut,158
241
of absinthe,

Nigers,treatment of,71

241
of ache or parsley,
of ambergris,150
of angelica,
241

Nitric acid,26, 178

of

86
Nitro-benzol,

of

New

acid,130
mottling,48
228
and tables,
useful,

Nitrous

Notes

on

196
Normandy's method of assaying,
process, 96

anise,241
badiane,241
of balm mint, 242
of beechnuts,242
of bergamot,242
of bitter almonds, 150
of cacao, 166

INDEX.

254
Oil of

242
cajeput,
of caraway, 152, 242
of cascarilla,
242

of cedar-wood,242
of chamomile, 242
of cheny laurel,
242
of cherril,
242
of

cinnamon, 242
157
citronella,
2^
cloves,
of cochlearia,
242
of coriander,
242
of crispmint, 242
of cumin, 242
of dill,
241
of dittany,
242
of elecampane,241
of fennel,162,242
of
of

of

242
galangal,
242
of genista,
of geranium, 157
of
of
of

ginger,242
gingergrass,
hyssop,242

of

242
juniper,

162

of lavender,150,242
of lemon grass, 160
of magnolia,174
of marjoram, 242
of mint, 153
of motherwort,242
of mugwort, 241
of mustard,242
162
of myrtle,
of neroli,
149,242
of nutmeg, 242
160
of orange-peel,

Oil of yarrow, 242

25
Oils and fats,

of,243
congealing-points
table of,242
essential,
fish,212
212, 213
purifying,
Oleate of soda,7, 84
Oleic acid,8, 50
soaps, 93

Oleine,8, 28
Oleometer,228
Olive-oil,
8,25, 130
Orange mineral,153
flower soap, 149, 150
powder, 162
soap, 160

Orangine, 178
1
Origin of soap-making,
Orris root,158, 161
Osmogene, 218
Otto of roses, 172
Ox-gallsoap, 227

Oxide, chromic,220
237
ferric,
of chromium, 210
of glyceryl,
10
of iron,45
of

lead,8

Oxidisingagent,181
soap, 60
PALE
Palmine, 27
Palmitic

acid,8
Falmitine,7
Palm-oil,26, 130
bleaching,by

of

242
pennyroyal,

of
of

242
peppermint,

Palm

pimento,242
Portugal,241
rhodium, 242

Pans,iron,16

of
of

of rose, 242
of rosemary, 242
of rue, 242
242
of saffron,
of sage, 242

242
of sassafras,
of savin,242
242
serpolet,
of sweet almonds, 152
of

of tansy,242
of thyme, 242
of
of
of
of
of

242
turpentine,
242
valerian,
verbena,153
wild thyme, 162
wormwood, 162

94

of manganese,

C.

Watt's process,

209
soap, 157
Violef s, 178
238
jacket,
,

soap, 17

Papin'sdigester,
62,233
Paraffin soap, 175

139
Parchment, vegetable,
Paris toiletsoaps, 156
Paste,lime,32

shaving,168
Pasting,129

Payne'sprocess,

84

process for recovery of

216

Pearlash,111
198
Pearlashes,
testing,
Pearl soap, 166
oil of,242
Pennyroyal,
Peppermint,oil of,242

glycerine,

INDEX.

256
Rose, essentialoil of,149
leaf soap, 158
oil of,242

water, 163

Rosemary, oil of,242

Eoses,otto of,172
powder of,150
Bhodium, oil of,158
Bicinic acid,27
Kicinus communis, 27
River-sand,164
Root,alkanet,172
158
orris,
Rouge, 163
Rue, oil of,242
33
Runnings, first,
second,33
Russian potash,186
soft soap, 137
tallow,26

SAFFRON,
oil of,242

8age,oil of,242
Salad-oil,
virgin,25
Sal ammoniac, 94
acid,175
Salicylic
soap, 175
Saline ley,40
Sal soda,93

Salt,anthracine,185
10

31
Glauber's,
139
of sorrel,
truck,39
Salted leys,46
soda,42
Saltingpoint,219
Salts of iron,40
sulphur,40
193
Sampling alkalies,
164
Sand-balls,
river,164
Sanitarysoap, 112
139
Saponaria officinalis,

7
explained,
Saponification
of

process

of,120

bodies by soap,233
neutralfatty

under

pressure, 117

Saponifying,9
Sassafras, oil of,242
Savin, oil of,242
152
Savon a la cannelle,
a la MarSchale,159
a
au

157
fleurs d'ltalie,

ameres,

150

de,170

de Corinthe,essence

Crimie, 157
de gnimauve, 166
de palme, 157
de Vienne, essence

de, 169

vert,135
Savonnettes or Washballs,161
162
a la vanille,
au
miel,163
163
floating,
163
marble,.
of camphor, 162
of neroli,
162
of sweet herbs,162
Sawdust in soap, 179
Scented soaps, 140
Scharr's process, 186
Scotch soft soap, 231
227
Scouring balls,
Screw press, 148
130
Seal oil,
Second ley,129

169

new

aux

d'amandes
de

soap, 77, 149

common,

Savon

la rose, 149

bouquet,152

runnings,33
Seed, cotton,oil,28
Semi-hard

soap, 231

Separation,43
oil of,242
Serpolet,
Sesame
oil,26, 161
Sesamum
oil,28
Sesquioxide,chromium, 219
Shaving paste,168
soap,

Hampel's,178

Shoots,23
Sienna,burnt,153
105
Silica,
Silicate of alumina, 109
of potash,100
preparationof,100
of soda,30, 98
preparationof,30, 100
adulteration
of,237
Silicated soaps, Sheridan's

process, 98

Gossages processes, 99, 101,103

Skin soap. 111
soaps, 175
Slaked lime,23, 33
Sliced soap, 146
Soap,almond-oil,152
41
alumino-ferruginous,

ambergris^159
ammonia

camphor, 180
201
analysing,
animal, 125
antimonial,173
140
apparatusfor re-melting,
and

INDEX.

174
arsenical,

257

Soap,household,82

assay, 201

94
instantaneous,
175
iodine,

assaying,201

Belgian,136

Irish moss, 175

lard,by cold process, 83
laundry,82
lemon, 160
159
lettuce,

green, 231

soft,
benzoic,175
benzoin,153
bitter almond, 150
black,174
bleaching in the pan,
Iborax,180
soft,227
175
toilet,
Bordhardt's
herb, 174
bran, 175
brown oil,85, 139
Windsor, 151
or

lime,by Lunge's method,

186

173
glycerine,
75
liquored,

crown," 133
mottled,50
grey mottled,113

machine

medicated
medicinal

Castile,
8, 161
36
oil,

chlorinated,113
cinnamon, 150
73
cocoa-nut
oil,

cold,133
Continental,135
or

orange,

Dresden,226
178
Violet's,

166

pans, 17

175
paraffin,
2
patent,the first,
pearl,166
petroleum,175

Symons's,124
palm, 226

dry white,170

Bastet's process, 181

160
elder-flower,

of, 169
factory,its apparatus and
essence

pliances,
ap-

228
pickling,
potash,8,13, 128

potato-flour
in,108
powder, London, 227
powdered, 168
36
pure olive-oil,

16

fancy,140
174
farriers',
14
fitted,
frames,19
French marbled, 42

compositionof,50
144
re-melting,

formulae
fuller'searth,109

for,49

fulling,138

resin,58
226
Altenburge's,
o
f,
preparation 64
62
resinous,
149
rose, 77,
158
rose-leaf,

gluten in,122
160
glvcerine,

237
half-palm,
183
half-resin,

hard,manufacture

160

227
ox-gall,
palm,157

pan, 17

oil,175
cutting,1?7, 146
112
disinfecting,
Dresden

153

tar,173
soft,172

150
orange-flower,

corn-meal,175
creams,
croton

142
slicing,

mercurial,172
metallic,
8, 48
mottled,50
musk, 150
Naples,165
neutral,88
oatmeal,175
oleic acid,88, 93

175
Castor-oil,
cheap almondj 231
cheapened,96, 105
112
chloridised sanitary,

copper

for

marine, 73
36
Marseilles,
marshmallow,

ice,175
carbolic acid,173
olive

"

London

camphor, 180

or

116

Iiquid,"Schar?s,

115

of,36,58,71

Eussian soft,137
175
salicylic,

258

INDEX.

Soap" sawdust in,179

Scotch soft,132
shaving,Hampd's, 1TB
silicated,
96, 98, 101, 103
1T5
skin,
soda,S
borax, 227
English,135
medicinal,172
M. Loch's,139
potato-flour
in,232
resin in,134
Russian,137
Scotch,132
soft,236
166
toilet,
146
stamping,
sulphur.Sir H; Marsh's,172
tallow,53
tannin,175
"

tar,174
186
terebene,Cleaver's,
175
124,
thymol,
140
toilet,
tooth,173
transparent,8,9, 170
turpentine,174
unsalted,224
used in cloth manufactories,223
vanilla,153, 158

violet Windsor, 151

(yeUow),158
A^olers palm-oil,178
wax, 175
white and rose, 77
cocoa-nut

oil,225

curd,53
166
soft,toilet,
to prepare, 82

Windsor, 150
brown, 151
yellow,or resin,58
for silks and printedgoods, 138,
238
for washing dogs,174
from recovered grease, 84, 85

Soaps,camphor and ammonia, 180

cheapened,96, 105
combined, 115
French cocoa-nut oil,77
of, 36, 58,
hard, manufacture
71
94
Kottula's,
made

from animal

marking, 187
medicated,172
potash,8, 128

124
refuse,

of neutral fatty
Soaps, saponification
bodies by, 233
scented,146
98
silicated,
128
soda,
of,231
soft,analysis
manufacture
of,128, 136
French
toilet,
system of
154
[154
making,
manufacture
toilet,
of,140,149,
soft,165
French
formulae for,156

yellow,to

make

with

cocoa-nut

oil,75

Soap-making by
materials

cold process, 79
in,25

used

originof,1
Soapstone,187
Soapwort, 139
Soda, aluminate of,222
anhvdrous, 189
ash,"
29,93
bicarbonate of,93
calcined.111
carbonate
of,28, 93
caustic,
8, 29
236
causticising,
chloride of,85, 112, 114
crude,2, 43
soft,43
88
crystals,
93
effloresced,
hydrate of,189
oleate of,9, 84
sal,93
42
salted,
silicateof,30, 98
adulteration of,237
mi^ng with soaps, 101
of,100
preparation
soaps, 8, 128
soft,42

of,7
sulphateof,31,96
Sodium, chloride of,13
Soft borax, 227
English,128, 135
stearate

ley,44
medicinal,172
M. Loch's,139
in,232
potato-flour
resin in,134
Bussian,137
Scotch,132
soap,

Bel^um,

136

166
toilet,
Soft soaps,

analysesof,231

INDEX.
Soft soaps, manufacture
lesin

of,128, 136

in,134

166
toilet,
Soluble glass,98
Sorrel,salt of,139
South American
tallow,26,
Spanish brown, 150
192
Specificgravitybottle,
tables,
240, 241
Spent leys,
38, 218
Sperm-oil,133
Spermaceti,151, 159
methylated,203, 218
Spirit,
pyroxylic,174
172
rectified,
wood, 227
Stamping the soap, 146
Starch,161
Steam
crutch,20
17
series,
Morfit's,
26
Steaming tub,
Stearate of potash,132
of soda,7
10
Stearates,
Stearic acid,10
Stearine,7
187
Steatite,
Stick,gauging, 24
Stiff curd, 101

Still-head,68
16
Stirrer,
Stockholm

tar,174

Strength,"boilingto, 72
Strong caustic ley,82, 129
Stuff,kitchen,28

"

Sturtevant's process, 74
Sublimate,corrosive,172
Sublimed sulphur,172
85
Sud oil,
Suds of fullingmiUs, 28
Suet,ground,161

Sugar, burnty 151

Sulphateof alumina, 69, 177
of iron,41
of lime,84
of soda,31, 96

Sulphur,172
40
salts,
soap. Sir H. Marsh's,172
sublimed,172
Sulphuretof iron,41
sodium, 45
Sulphuricacid,26
Sweet almonds, oil of,83
Swimmer, 22
soap, 124
Symons'sdisinfecting
"

Syphon, 34

259
243
rpABLE, Kiirten's,

fusingand congealingpoints

of

of fats and

242
oils,
oils,
241, 242

of essential

the

of

mechanical

of

power

steam, 246

showing
hvdrous
239

percentage
caustic

of

an-

potash in ley,

showing percentage of soda in

caustic ley,238
showing the quantityof caustic
soda

Tables

in
245

leysof

ties,
different densi-

responding
showing specificgravity cor-

degrees of
hydrometer,240, 241
Tables,useful notes and, 228
Tallow,8, 26
26
Australian,
English,209
London, 26
with

the

Baum^'s

mutton, 160

rancid,58
Kussian,26
South American, 26
"
town," 26
white,49
Tank, ley,19, 32
Tannic
acid,175
Tannin, 216
'

soap, 175
Tansy, oil of,242

Tar, juniper,173
soap, 174

medicated,173
Stockholm, 174
Tardani's

process, 182

acid,203
Terebene,186
186
soap. Cleaver's,
Terebic acid,231
189
Test-acid,
acid or standard
solution,preparation
of,192
198
pearlashes,
Testing commercial
Thermometer
scales, comparative
Tartaric

French
Third

and

English,239

ley,129

Thomas

and

Fuller's

process

218
glycerine,
Thomas's

process, lb7
oil of,242

Thyme,
Thymic acid,124

Thymol, 175
soap, 124, 175
170
Tincture of archil,

for

covering
re-

INDEX.

"260

Volatile oils,
of,243
boiling-points
189
Volumetric analysis,

of benzoin,153

Tincture
of

cinnamon, 162
musk, 158
of vanilla,
153
Tissues,animal, 124
the quantityof resin
To determine
of

WAKEFIELD
fat,86
'^' Walnut-oil,242

Washballs,161
161
violet,
Waste leys,22
from,
leys,recovery of glycerine
215
23,
lime,23
Water, lavender,169

in

soap, 230
Toilet soap, fuller'searth,110
soaps, French, f ormulie for,154
system of making,
soaps, French
154
manufacture

of,140,149,154

rose, 163

soft soaps, 165

Tolu, balsam of,162
Tooth soap, 173
Town

Watt's

Twaddell's

sanitarysoap,
process for
210

Wax,
'

white,158
Whale-oil,130

ULTRAMARINE,
Umber, 151

White

soap, 39
soap, 224

Unsaponifiedfattymatter, 203
228
Useful notes and tables,

soft,toiletsoap, 166
tallow,49
tallow soap, 157

oil of,242

68
turpentine,

with,158

soap, 153, 158

tincture of,153
Varicas's process, 185
Various processes, 123

Windsor soap, 150

Wood
227
spirit,
Wooden
frames, 19
Wormwood, oil of,162

Vauquelin'ssystem of estimating the

188
value of alkalies,
130
Vegetable oils,
parchment, 139
Venice turpentine,
174
Verbena, oil of,163
Vermilion,145
process

for

'

oil of,242
YARROW,
Yellow,cadmium, 158

oil,158

cocoa-nut

soap, 75

recovering

green

pigment, 150

160
naphthaline,

217
glycerine,

ochre, 145

Villacrose's process, 126

Villart'sprocess, 125
158
Violet soap, yellow,

resin soap, 58
resin,28
or

turmeric,170

washballs,161

violet soap, 158

Yorkshire fat,or recovered grease, 28

Windsor soap, 151

Violefs palm-oilsoap, 178
25
Virgin salad-oil,

Ypung's

process

for

cerine,
recoveringgly-

215

Vitriol,
green, 44

I'RINTED

158

wax,

of,220
Whiting, cream
Wild thyme, oil of, 162

implements,22

Versmann's

oil soap, 225

oil soap, to make, 74
curd soap, 36, 53, 162
soap, 82,77, 160
cocoa-nut

cocoa-nut

Uncombined

Vanilla,lard

158
soap, 175

hydrometer,228,235

"yALERIAN,

1 12

recoveringchrome,

242
bees',

94

Unsalted

palm-oil,

209

tallow,26

Transparent soap, 170

Turmeric,yellow,170
Turpentine,oil of,68
Venice, 174
white,68

'

fuller'searth soap, 109

process for bleaching

BY

J.

S.

VIRTDE

AND

CO., LIMITED,

CITY

BOAD,

LONDON.

London, Dtcmkr,

INCLUDING

MANY

NEW

AND

STANDAKD

WORKS

1883.

IN

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MECHANICS, SCIENCE,
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the profession,
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Survey

ETC.,

SURVEYING,

ENGINEERING,

IN

WORKS

Practice.

for Reference in Surveying,

Surveys of Travellers by Land
and Records.
By Lowis
With
and Sea.
Tables, Illustrations,
"
and
Manual
Author of
Hydraulic
D'A. Jackson, A.-M.I.C.E.
TO

AID

PRACTICE

SURVEY

and in Route
Levelling,Setting-out

"c.
Statistics,"

Large

8vo, \2s. 6d., cloth.

crown

ledge
knowin fieldwork and some
and varied experience
Mr. Jackson has had much
useful
with
a
viity
both
Acse
has
utilised
of bookmaking, and he
acquirements
the graund'it
result. The volume
occupiesvery t\uaQ\i^y.""Engi"ieemtg.
covers
'*
wanted^ and we are able to speak with confidence of
A generaltext book was
who knows
recommend
to the student
We
cannot
Mr. Jackson'streatise. ,
than
to
better
course
the
mathematical
of
subjecta
something of the
principles
with a study of Mr. Jacksons
his practice in the field under a competent surveyor
The field records illustrate every kind of survey, and will be found
useful manual.
essential aid to the student." Building News.
an
"

fortify

"

Sanitary Work.
WORK
SANITARY
IN
VILLAGES.

IN

TOWNS

SMALLER

THE

Comprising: I. Some
and their Remedies
;
"

of the

more

AND
Common

2. Drainage ; 3. Water
of Nuisance
Supply. By Chas. Slagg, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition,
Revised and Enlarged, y. 6d., cloth boards.
\yust published.
is
be expected to contain, and
"This book contains all that such a treatise can
sound and trustworthy in every particular."Builder.

Forms

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Gas

Gasworks.

and

AND
THE
OF
GASWORKS
COAL-GAS,
OF
DISTRIBUTION
OriginallywrittenbyS.Hughes, C.E. Sixth Edition. Re-written

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AND
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With extensive
of Smoke."
By C. W. Williams,- A.I.C.E.
and Economy of
additions on Recent Practice in the Combustion
Fuel" Coal, Coke, Wood,
Peat, Petroleum, "c. ; by D. KiNM. Inst. C.E.
Second Edition,revised. With
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Clark,
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boards.
i2mo.
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FUEL,

of

"

"

should buy the book and read it,as one of the most completeand satisfactory
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treatiseson the combustion and economy
Engineer,

Students

"

and

Roads
THE

Streets.

CONSTRUCTION

OF

ROADS

AND

STREETS.

In

Farts.
I. The
Two
Art of Constructing
Conmion
Roads.
By
Revised and Condensed.
Henry
II. Recent
Law, C.E.
Practice in the Construction
and Streets : including
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Pavements
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and Asphalte. By D. Kinnear
Clark, M. Inst. C.E. Second Edit, revised. i2mo, S^- cloth.
*'

A book which

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and

engineermust

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possess, and
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BuildingNews.

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Locomotives.
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Rudimentary Treatise on.

ENGINES,

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ing
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"

The
"

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Iroil and Coal Trades

Field-Book
THE

largelyby adoptingthis as
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his

textbook."
preliminary

Review.

for Engineers.

Consistingof

and

CONTRACTOR'S
C.E,
FIELD-BOOK.
Haskoll,
By W. Davis
Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanationsof
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SURVEYOR'S,

MINING

ENGINEER'S,

and Plotting
Use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying
the Work
with minute accuracy by means
of Straight
Edge and Set
ducing
Square only; Levellingvrith the Theodolite,Castingout and Re-

Systems,and

and PlottingSections in the ordinary

Curves
with the Theodolite
by Tangential
manner;
and
Left-hand
and
Readings of the
Angles
Midtipleswith Right
the System
Instrument ; Settingout Curves without Theodolite
on
work
of Tangential
Angles by Sets of Tangents and Offsets;and EarthTables to 80 feet deep, calculated for every 6 inches in depth.
Levels

to

Datum,

Settingout

With

Woodcuts.

numerous

4th Edition,enlarged,Cr. 8vo. I2J. cloth.

The book is very handy, and the author might have added that the separate tables
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of sines and tangents to every minute will make it useful for many
Athenaum,
same,"
tables
allthe
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existmg
genuine
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MANUAL
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on
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work
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will find a great amount
information very admirablyarranged,and
of practical
calculations
exact
available for generalor rough estimates,as well as for the more
contractor'sofiSces." Artisan.
requiredin the engineers'
A

"

"

Drawing for Engineers.

ENGINEERIN.G

OF

MANUAL

WORKMAN'S

THE

in Engineering
By John Maxton,
Greenwich, formerlyof R. S. N. A.,
Dravidng,Royal Naval College,
Instructor

DRAWING.

"

revised. With upwards

S outh Kensington. Fifth Edition,carefully
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bound, 4J.
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A copy of it should be kept for reference in every drawing ofl"ce." Engiwering,
"

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for teachers
Indispensable

Wealds

of

engineeringdrawing," Mechanics^ Magazine.

"

Dictionaryof

Terms.

ARCHITECTURE,
METALLURGY,
MINING,
ENGINEERING,
BUILDING,
"c.
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ARTS,
By John Weale.
ARCH/EOLOGY,
Fifth Edition,revised by Robert
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of
Ure's
Editor
Dictionaryof Arts." l2mo, 6x. cl. bds.
Records,
A

of

DICTIONARY

TERMS

used

in

"

in the language,"Architect.
dictionary
The best small technological
of a work of this character can
absolute accuracy
only be judged of afler
and from our examination it appears very correct and very
extensive consultation,
"

"

"

The

complete,"Mining
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youmal.

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ETC.,

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METALLURGY,
t

"

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A Practical Treatise on the Metalliferous
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Mines and Minerals of the United
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British Mining Industry. Super royal 8vo.
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By Robert
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"
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BRITISH

[/" the press.

Coal

and

THE

Iron.

COAL

UNITED
OF THE
Descriptionof the Coal Fields,and of

IRON

AND

INDUSTRIES

KINGDOM
: comprising
a
the Principal
Seams of Coal, with returns of their Produce and its
and Analyses of SpecialVarieties. Also, an Account
Distribution,
of the occurrence
of Iron Ores in Veins or Seams ; Analyses of
each Variety; and a History of the Rise and Progressof Pig Iron
duced
introsince the year 1740, exhibitingthe economies
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and Improvement.
By RiCHAijD Meade, Assistant Keeper of Mining Records. With
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Manufacture

8vo.,;^i %s.

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cloth.

Minerals
Metalliferous
A

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"

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seen

Second

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; the amount

Mining.
MINERALS

METALLIFEROUS
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given is

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AND

Wood
Numerous
6d.
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Cr. 8vo, \2s.
With

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practically

enormous,

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Earthy
EARTHY

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Minerals

Mining.
MINERALS,
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AND
OTHER
C. Davies, F.G.S.
volume
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Mining."

Slate and
A

and

With

Slate

TREATISE

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Uniform
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"

AND
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Minerals and

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Quarrying.
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By
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VALUER'S
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proved
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Villa Architecture.
HANDY
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giltedges, i/. is.

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and with the precisionof architectural measurea large scale,
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A

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"

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chapteron Dilapidations,
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[In the press.
'*
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much
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Beaton's Pocket Estimator.

THE

POCKET

TRADES,

being

ESTIMATOR
easy method

an

THE
FOR
BUILDING
of estimatingthe various parts

more
especially
appliedto Carpenters'
Buildingcollectively,
Edition.
Second
and Joiners'
work.
By A. C. Beaton,

of

size.
Waistcoat-pocket

l.r, ftd.

Technical
Surveyors'

Beaton' sBuilders' and

THE
FOR

POCKET

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SURVEYORS;

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used in BuildingConstruction, Directions for
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Edited by F. T. W. Miller,
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Crown 8vo, 3J. 6d.,cloth.
Third Edition,Revised.
HOUSE-OWNER'S

THE

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"

In two

to

ESTIMATOR

Build, Alter, or

years

it will repay

Repair?

its cost

hundred

times over,"" Field-

i6

IN

WORKS

CARPENTRY,

CARPENTRY,

TIMBER,

ETC.,

ETC.

TIMBER,
""

"

and

Tredgold's
Carpentry,new

cheaperEdition.

THE
OF
ELEMENTARY
PRINCIPLES
CARPENTRY
;
Treatise
the
Pressure
and
o
f
Timber
the
a
on
Equilibrium
Framing,
the Construction of Floors, Arches,
Resistance of Timber, and
Bridges,Roofs,UnitingIron and Stone with Timber, "c. To which
is added

the Nature
and Propertiesof Timber, "c.,
on
the
of
Wood
used in Building; also
o
f
Kinds
Descriptions
the
Timber
for differentpurposes,
Tables
of
of
numerous
Scantlings
of
the Specific
Gravities
"c.
Mateii^s,
By Thomas
Tredgold,
C.E.
Edited by Peter
F.R.S.
Fifth Edition,corBarlow,
rected
and enlarged. With 64 Plates,Portrait of the Author, and
Woodcuts.
4to, publishedat 2/. 2x., reduced to l/. 5^'.cloth.

Essay

an

with

"

timet

work whose monumental

excellence must
it wherever skilful carcommend
pentry
is concerned.
The Author's principles
rather confirmed than impaired
are
by
The additional platesare of great intrinsicvalue.""* ^"2^i"^ News,

Grandy's

Timber

Tables.

TIMBER
TIMBER
THE
IMPORTER'S,
MERCHANT'S,
" BUILDER'S
STANDARD
GUIDE.
By R. E. Grandy.
2nd Edition. Carefully
revised and corrected. i2mo, 3^, 6"/.cloth.
*'
it leads one from a forestto a
Everythingit pretends to be ; built up gradually,
and throws in,as a makeweight, ahost of material concerning
treenail,
bricks,
columns,
cisterns,"c, all that the class to whom itappealsrequires.''"
"^7mA Mechanic,
"

Timber

FreightBook.

THE
FREIGHT

IMPORTERS'

TIMBER

SHIPOWNERS'
for
BOOK
: Being a ComprehensiveSeries of Tables
the Use
of Timber Importers,Captainsof Ships, Shipbrokers,
and Others.
Crown 8vo,6r.
Builders,
By W. Richardson.

Tables

for Packing-CaseMakers.

PACKING-CASE
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TABLES

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"

AND

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Richardson.
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j

Invaluable labour-saving
tables." Ironmonger,
"

CarriageBuilding,"c.
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BUILDING:

Practical Treatise, Historical

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Descriptive,
containingiiillinformation
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"c.

involved,with Hints on
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S7

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i2mo,

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Measurer.

THE

COMPLETE
ment
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Round
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Woodworking Machinery.
WOODWORKING
Construction.

its Rise,

MACHINERY}
With Hints
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Progress,and

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the Economical
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information that his book is all-sufhcientfor buHders and others engaged in the conversion
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A rchiteci.
"'
The
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comprehensive
The author is a thorough master of his subject." BuUding News.
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Mills.

Saw

MILLS,

SAW

AND

THEIR
THE

(Being a
Machinery.") By M.
TIMBER.

Illustrations. Crown

AND
ARRANGEMENT
MENT,
MANAGEECONOMICAL
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OF
to ' Woodworking
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'

Powis
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8vo, \os. 6d.,cloth.

With

numerous

\yustpublished.

nery,*
by his former work on * Woodworking Machiable
to
which
of
speak approvingly. This is a companion volume,
we
were
in which the adTninistration of a largesawing establishment is discussed,and the
Hence
the size,shape,order, and
subjectexamined from a financial standpoint.^
into in detail,
of the
and the course
saw-mills and the like are gone
dispositionof
We
could
to its deliveryin its converted
state.
timoer is traced from its reception
treatise." Builder.
not desire a more
completeor practical
Mr. Bale's work to the attention and perusalof all those
We highlyrecommend
conversion,or who are about buildingor remodelling
who are engaged in the art of wood
""^KzVrfzK^-iVk'ii/i'.
saw-mills on improvedprinciples.
class of readers for whose information
"Will be found of much value by that special
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**

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A theiKsitvt.
C

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IN

employed

Turning. By

N. Has-

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TURNER'S
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N.
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Building News.
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PUBLISHED

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SCIENCE
Gold

and

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CO.

ART.

AND

Gold-Working.

THE
GOLDSMITH'S
HANDBOOK
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tions for the Alloying and Working of Gold.

full instruccontaining

Includingthe Art of
Alloying,Melting, Reducing,Colouring,Collectingand Refining.
Chemical and Physical
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E. Gee.
Enamels, "c. By George
Mixing its AUoys ; Solders,'
Second
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Edition, enlarged. i2mo,

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its subject for a reasonable price." yewelUr.

and
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on
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practicalman

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Silver and
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l2mo,

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The

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OF

HALL-MARKING

PRACTICALLY

JEWELLERY

of all the different Assay

CONSIDERED,
comprising
with
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Kingdom ;
the
Standards and Hallemployed ; also the Laws relatingto
Marks
at the various Assay Offices ; and
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an

account

Suggestionsconcerning the Mixing of Standard

Ci-own 8vo, 51. cloth.
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George

Alloys,"c.

By

"c.
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Practical Handbook.
By J. W.
cloth.
C.E.
Crown 8vo, S^.
Urquhart,
become
an
adept in electro-deposition
intelligent
"Any
may
ordinarily
person
with a very littlescience indeed,and this is the book to show the way." Builder.
A

ELECTROPLATING:

"

"c.
Electrotyping,
ELECTROTYPING
PrintingSurfaces and
Metals.
"A

By J. W.

guideto beginnersand

Reproductionand

The
Works

of Art

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those who

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by

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Iron.

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PRACTICALLY
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Including the ElectroDepositionof Copper, Silver,Gold, Brass and Bronze, Platinum,
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treatise for the use of those who desire to work in the art of electro-" A practical
as a business."" ""g/w/4Mechanic.
deposition
"

From

WORKS

22

IN

ETC.,

ART,

AND

SCIENCE

Dentistry.
the
Practical Treatise on
A
prising
Comof ArtificialDentures.
also Useful Formulae, Tables, and
Receiptsfor Gold
Second
Hunter.
Plate,Clasps,Solders,etc.,etc. By Charles
of
Celluloid.
the
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a
on
use
new
chapter
Edition,
; including
DENTISTRY.

MECHANICAL

of the various kinds

Construction

With
"

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loo

over

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authoritative treatise,
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Electricity.
MANUAL

of ELECTRICITY

includingGalvanism, Mag.

and
Magneto-Electricity,
netism,Diamagnetism, Electro-Dynamics,
M. Noad, Ph.D., F.C.S.
the Electric Telegraph. By Henry
Fourth Edition, with Joo Woodcuts.
8vo, l/.4r. cloth.
*'

The accounts
sense, but,which

of electricity
and galvanismare
|;iven

Text-Book

of Electricity.

is a

rarer

thing,

are

not

onlycompletein

scientific

ZawtA
popularand interesting.""

ELECTRICITY.
OF
By
New
Henry
M. Noad, Ph.D., F.R.S., "c.
Edition,Revised.
With an Introduction and Additional Chaptersby W. H. Preece,
M.I.C.E., Vice-President of the Societyof Telegraph Engineers,
With 470 Illustrations. Crown
"c.
8vo, \2s. "d. cloth.
"A
reflex of the existingstate of ElectricalScience adapted for students.""
Introduction."
W. H. Preece, Esq.,vide
Dr. Noad's
book for clear style,
We can recommend
a
great range of subject,
Such collectionsas the present are indispensable."
good index, and a plethoraof woodcuts.
STUDENT'S

THE

TEXT-BOOK

"

"

Athenavm.
admirable text-book for every student"
"

"

An

beginneror advanced"

"
of electricity.

^EngineeriTtg.
Recommended
to students as one
qf the best text-books
have. Mr. Preece appears to have introduced all the newest

"

can

of

the subjectthat they

inventions in the shape

on

and electric-lighting
apparatus." Enelisk Mechanic,
telegraphic,
telephonic,
"

Under the editorial hand of Mr. Preece the late Dr. Noad s text-book of electricity
Westminster Review,
has grown into an admirable handbook."

"

"

Electric

Lighting.

ELECTRIC

Its Production and Use, embodying plain

for the Treatment
of Voltaic Batteries,Electric Lamps,

LIGHT

Directions
and Dynamo-ElectricMachines.
By J. W. Urquhart,
C.E.,
Author of "Electroplating."Edited by F. C. Webb, M.LC.E.,
2nd Edition, Carefully
M.S.T.E.
Revised,with Large Additions
and 128 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, ']s.
dd, cloth.
The book is by far the best that we have yet met with on the subject." A thenaunt,
An
important addition to the literature of the electric light. Students of the
subjectshould not failto read it." CollieryGuardian,
* '

"

"

"

Lightning.
THE

ACTION

of LIGHTNING,
AND
PROPERTY

and

the

of DEMEANS
FENDING
ITS EFFECTS.
Parnell, R.E.
By Major Arthur
'i2mo, 7j. dd, cloth.
Pamell
has
written
w
ork
an
rest
on
a scientific
original
Major
subjectof unusual inte; and he has prefacedhis arguments by a patientand almost exhaustive citation
of the best writers on the subjectm-the Englishlanguage." A ihenteum,
The work comprisesall that is actually
known
the subject." Land.
on
based
the results of experience. A valuable
are
on
Major Parnells measures
iarm, "BuililineNews,
repertoireof facts and principles
ananged in a scientific
LIFE

FROM

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PUBLISHED

The

Alkali

BY

CROSBY

Trade

LOCKWOOD

"

CO.

23

SulphuricAcid^ "c.

"

MANUAL
THE
ALKALI
OF
TRADE,
includingthe
Manufacture of SulphuricAcid, Sulphateof Soda, and Bleaching
Powder,
trations
With 332 IllusBy John Lomas, Alkali Manufacturer.
and

Working Drawings,and containing386

Super-royal8vo, 2/.

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This work provides (i)a Complete Handbook for mietidingAlkali and Sulphuric
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and for those already in the fieldwho desire to improve their
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of the trade ; {2)a Handy Volume which Mamtfacturers canput intoihe hajtds 0/
their Managers and Foremen
as a usefulguide in i/ieirdailyrounds ofduty.

Synopsis

Chap.

of

I, Choice

of Site and General

Plan of Works"
II. Sulphuric Acid"
III. Recovery of the Nitrogeu Compounds,
and Treatment
of Small Pyrites
The Salt Cake Process" V. Legis"IV.
lation
upon

the^Noxious

Vapours Question

^VI. The
Hargreaves' and Jones'
Processes" ^VI I. The
Balling Process
VIII, Lixiviation and
SaltingDown
"

"

"

Contents.

Carbonatingor Finishing X.
Crystals XI. Refined Alkali

Soda
XII.
of
Caustic
Soda
XIII. Bi-carbonate
XV.
Soda
XIV.
Bleaching Powder"
XVI.
General
Utilisationof Tank Waste"
Remarks
Four
Appendices,treating of
mometers,
AneYields,SulphuricAcid Calculations,
and Foreign Legislation
upon
the Noxious Vapours Question.
IX.

"

"

"

"

"

"

"The
author has given the fullest^
most
practical,
and, to all concerned in the
alkali trade,most valuable mass
of mformation
that,to our knowledge, has been
publishedin any language." Engineer.
"
for manufacturers.
The working details
This book is written by a manufacturer
of the most approved forms of apparatus are given,and these are accompanied by
less than 232 wood
struction.
no
engravings,all of which may be used for the purposes of conEvery step in-the manufacture is very fullydescribed in this manual, and
into
each improvement explained. Everythingwhich tends to introduce economy
fullestattention." Athenteum.
the technic^details of this trade receives me
**
will ' read
The author is not one of those clever compilerswho, on short notice,
in
the
best
of
the
word.
We
but
conceivable
a
man
sense
practical
subject,'
up' any
of
find here not merely a sound and luminous
explanationof the chemical principles
which
have a most
matters
the traderbut a notice of numerous
importantbearing
of alkali works, but which
the successful conduct
generally overlooked by
are
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Third Edition. Cr. 8vo, S-fGrounds, "c.
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The

directions are
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excellent." Athemsttm^
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Gainful Gardening.
One
to make
JfULTUM-IN-PARVO
GARDENING;
or, How
Acre of Land
produce ;"^620a year, by the Cultivation of Fruits
Glass
in Three
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clear Profit. By Samuel
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