COMPETITIONS
2014
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5.
1.6.
1.6.2.
1 Institute
iii
FOREWORD
5th GRADE
Solution. a) The last (and hence, the first) digit of a number from M equals
4 or 9. A direct count shows that M contains 2 one digit numbers, 2 two digit
numbers, 20 three digit and 20 four digit numbers, hence the 50th number is
the 6th five digit number, that is, 40504.
b) The greatest number in M has the maximum number of digits. Therefore,
we put 4 as the first and last digit and complete the decimal representation
1
Solution. a) Assume that such a partition exists. Then the product of all
elements of A must be a square as well. But this equals 31+2+3++2014 =
320151007 , obviously not a square.
b) Observe that 32n + 32n+1 = (3n 2)2 , hence a possible partition is
A = {1, 3} {32 , 33 } {32012 , 32013 } {32014 }.
Problem 4. A 10 digit positive integer is called a cute number if its digits
are from the set {1, 2, 3} and every two consecutive digits differ by 1.
a) Prove that exactly 5 digits of a cute number are equal to 2.
b) Find the total number of cute numbers.
c) Prove that the sum of all cute numbers is divisible by 1408.
Csap
o Hajnalka
But
Problem 3. The points M, N, and P are chosen on the sides BC, CA and
AB of the triangle ABC such that BM = BP and CM =CN . The perpendicular dropped from B onto M P and the perpendicular dropped from C onto
M N intersect at I. Prove that the angles IP
A and IN
C are congruent.
Gabriel Popa
N
I
a
5 as 2a 10b 5a. It follows that the
Solution. Rewrite 2
b
sequence 2a, 2a + 1, . . . , 5a contains 2014 multiples of 10, hence it contains at
least 2013 and at most 2015 groups of 10 consecutive numbers. We deduce
that 2013 10 5a 2a < 2015 10, which leads to a {6710, 6711, . . . , 6716}.
By inspection, we conclude that the required values of a are: 6710, 6712, and
6713.
7th GRADE
Problem 1. a) Prove that for any real numbers a and b the following
inequality holds:
2
a + 1 b2 + 1 + 50 2 (2a + 1) (3b + 1) .
n2 + 1
p2 + 1 + 45 = 2 (2n + 1) (3p + 1) .
Nicolae Papacu
|b c| |a|,
|c a| |b|.
Prove that one of the numbers a, b, c equals the sum of the other two.
George Stoica
A
E
I
B
that m(DIB) = 135 , hence triangles ABE and IBD are similar. It follows
BE
AB
BI
that AB
IB = BD , so that EB = BD . Thus, triangles ABI and DBE are similar
= m(BAI),
we infer that m(BED)
= 45 .
as well and, since m(BED)
M
K
p (n + 1)
/N .
n N n 100 and
p (n)
Lucian Dragomir
S
P
d
A
C
B
60 and m(P AD) = 30 .
Problem 4. Let n 2 be a positive integer. Determine all possible values
of the sum
S = x2 x1 + x3 x2 + . . . + xn xn1 ,
where x1 , x2 , . . . , xn are real numbers whose integer parts are 1, 2, . . . , n,
respectively.
Ion Prse
k+ 1 ,
k+1
xk =
k,
if 1 k n 1 p
if n p k n
9th GRADE
N
E
F
B
M
Solution. First, observe that AD + BE + CF = 0 () . Denoting the areas
of the triangles ABC, BM C, CN A and AP B by s, sa , sb , and sc , respectively,
sa
s+sa
s+sa
AM
AD, and
we have DM
AD = s , hence AD =
s , which implies AM =
s
the analogous equalities. Triangles ABC and M N P share the same centroid
if and only if AM + BN + CP = 0, hence if and only if
s + sa s + sc s + sc
AD +
BE +
CF = 0,
s
s
s
or, equivalently,
sa AD + sb BE + sc CF = 0.
10
(sa sc ) AD + (sb sc ) BE = 0,
and since AD and BE are non collinear vectors, this holds if and only if sa =
sb = sc .
Problem 3. The medians AD, BE and CF of triangle ABC intersect at
G. Let P be a point lying in the interior of the triangle, not belonging to any
of its medians. The line through P parallel to AD intersects the side BC at
A1 . Similarly one defines the points B1 and C1 . Prove that
3
A1 D + B1 E + C1 F = P G.
2
Bogdan Enescu
A
CA
BA
P
CB
AB D
BC
A1
AC C
v = P C B + P B C + P AC + P C A + P B A + P AB .
But P CA + P BA = P A and adding up all similar equalities yields
v = P A + P B + P C = 3P G,
hence the conclusion.
11
Lucian Dragomir
(z + z) (|z 1| + |z + 1| 2) = 0.
We deduce that either z + z = 2 Re z = 0, hence z = ia, for some real a, or
|z 1| + |z + 1| = 2. In this second case, we deduce that, in the complex plane,
the sum of distances from the point z to the points 1 and 1 equals 2, which
is possible if and only if z is a real number, lying on the line segment [1, 1] .
Problem 2. Solve in real numbers the equation
5x
25x
x + log2 1 +
= 4 + log1/2 1 +
.
3x + 4x
7x + 24x
Cristinel Mortici
12
and observe that the left hand side is an increasing function, while the right
hand side is a decreasing one. We conclude that the equation has at most a
solution, and it is not difficult to guess it: x = 2.
Problem 3. Let p and n be positive integers, with p 2, and let a be a
real number such that 1 a < a + n p. Prove that the set
log2 x + log3 x + + logp x x R, a x a + n
has exactly n + 1 elements.
Ioan B
aetu
p
Solution. Let f (x) = k=2 logk x and let M = {f (x) | x [a, a+n]}. It is
easy to show that if k 2 is a positive integer, then logk x = logk x . This
implies that f (x) = f (x), for all x [1, ), and hence M = {f (x) | x S},
where S = {a , a + 1, . . . , a + n} has n + 1 elements. On the other hand,
for s S, s < a + n p, we have s + 1 {2, 3, . . . , p}, and
f (s+1)f (s) =
p
(logk (s + 1)logk s) logs+1 (s + 1) logs+1 s = 1,
k=2
therefore f (s + 1) > f (s), and this proves that M has exactly n + 1 elements.
Problem 4. Find all functions f : Q Q such that
f (x + 3f (y)) = f (x) + f (y) + 2y,
for all x, y Q.
Nicusor Berbecel
Solution. We claim that the solutions are f1 (x) = x and f2 (x) = 2x/3,
for all real x.
Set x = y 3f (y) to obtain f (y 3f (y)) = 2y, y Q. Replacing y with
y 3f (y) in the initial equation gives f (x 6y) = f (x) 2y + 2(y 3f (y)),
hence f (x 6y) = f (x) 6f (y), for all x, y Q. Set now x = y = 0 to get
f (0) = 0 and replace x = 6y to obtain f (6y) = 6f (y), for all y Q.
We derived that f (x6y) = f (x)f (6y), which, for u = 6y and v = x6y,
yields f (u + v) = f (u) + f (v), for all u, v Q. The solution of this classical
functional equation is f (x) = xf (1), x Q. On the other hand, by setting
x = y = 1 in the initial equation we obtain 3f 2 (1) f (1) 2 = 0, hence
f (1) = 1 or f (1) = 2/3, thus proving our claim.
13
2
3
3
2
1 1
0 1
Solution. a) An example is A = 3/2
and B =
.
1 1
1 0
b) If the matrices A and B commute, then A2 + B 2 = (A + iB)(A iB),
hence
14
b) The function f : R R,
1,
f (x) =
0,
1,
x < 0,
x = 0,
x > 0,
Solution.
if X =
A+ I2 , then
a) Clearly,
a1 a2
x1 x2
a2 x1 = a1 x2 ,
(1)
(2)
(3)
x2
a1
X=
A + x1 x2 I2 ,
a2
a2
while in the second case
X=
x1 x2
a1 x2 a2 x1
A
+
I2 .
a1 a2
a1 a2
15
George Stoica
12th GRADE
16
and find
1
n n
lim
fn (x)dx.
0
***
fn (x)dx =
0
k1
i+1
i=0
fn (i)dx =
n1
arctg i.
i=0
Applying Stolz-Ces`
aro theorem, we obtain
lim
***
n
k k
f
n+1
n
k=1
k=1
n
k
k
= f (1)
f
f
n
n+1
sn+1 sn =
k=1
1
= f (1)
kf (xk ),
n(n + 1)
k=1
for some xk ,
k
n+1
k
n,
< xk <
k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
kf (xk )
xk f (xk )
x
f
(x
)
k
k
, k = 1, 2, . . . , n, hence
If f 0, then
n+1
n(n + 1)
n
n
n
n
1
1
1
xk f (xk )
kf (xk )
xk f (xk ). Because 0
n+1
n(n + 1)
n
k=1
k=1
k=1
x1 1/n x2 . . . xn n/n is a tagged partition of the interval [0, 1], it
follows that
1
1
n
1
1
lim
kf (xk ) =
xf (x)dx = xf (x)0
f (x)dx,
n n(n + 1)
0
0
k=1
17
n
k
g
n
k=1
we have
(tn+1 tn )n
and
g(x)dx =
0
f (x)dx +
0
tn+1 tn = sn+1 sn +
M
2
M
,
2
x(x3 1)(x2 + x + 1) = 0.
18
5th GRADE
Problem 1. Prove that the product of every three odd consecutive positive
integers can be written as the sum of three consecutive integers.
Marian Ciuperceanu
Solution. a) Before the last change the number must be (2020 16) : 4 =
501; the previous number must be (501 9) : 3 = 164 and the required number
is (164 4) : 2 = 80.
19
20
4j times
ij times 2014
4j times
and 104j and 2103 are relatively prime, 2013 must divide aij .
Problem 4. One hundred boxes are labeled from 1 to 100. Each box has
at most 10 stones.The difference of the numbers of stones for every two boxes
labeled with consecutive numbers is 1. The boxes labeled 1, 4, 7, 10, . . . , 100
contain a total of 301 stones. Find the maximum possible number of stones
contained by the 100 boxes.
Gabriel Popa
Solution. Since the difference of the number of stones in every two consecutive boxes is 1, two consecutive boxes contain at most 19 stones. We
know the number of stones in the 34 boxes #1, #4, #7, . . . , #100 and if we
group the remaining 66 boxes in pairs of consecutive boxes, we obtain at most
301 + 33 19 = 928 stones.
This value is indeed obtained if we have 10 groups of the form (9, 10, 9, 8, 9,
10), then 6 groups of the form (9, 10, 9, 10, 9, 10) and, at the end, 9, 10, 9, 8.
21
6th GRADE
22
Solution. Let us count the triples (x, y, z) of positive integers such that
x + y + z = n, where n 3 is a given integer. One can assign to x any value
from 1 to n 2. If x = 1, then, taking into account that z 1, y can take
n 2 values: from 1 to n 2. If x = 2, then y can take n 3 values, . . . , if
x = n 2, then y can take only the value 1. This shows that the number of
triples of type n is
s(n) = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + (n 3) + (n 2) =
(n 2)(n 1)
.
2
a) If there exists n such that s(n) = 14, then (n 2)(n 1) = 28, which is
impossible: if n 6, then (n2)(n1) 20 and if n 7, then (n2)(n1)
30.
b) We have to find the smallest n such that (n 2)(n 1) > 4028. Since
(n 1)2 > (n 2)(n 1), n 1 must be at least the smallest perfect square
larger than 4028.
Since 4028 = 22 1007 and 210 = 322 = 1024 > 1007 > 31.52 , it follows that
n 1 64, that is n 65. From (65 2)(65 1) = 4032 > 4028 follows that
n = 65.
Problem 4. In triangle ABC points M, N (AB), P, Q (BC) and
and
S, R (AC) are taken such that AM = CR, AN = CS, M
QB RQC
N
P B SP
C.
Show that if M Q + QR = N P + P S, then triangle ABC is isosceles.
SCP implies R CQ = S CP , whence the points C, R , S are collinear. Also
23
S
R
C
B
R'
S'
BCS
. Now BCS
BCA
7th GRADE
Lucian Dragomir
and
Solution. Isosceles triangles CDM and CBM yield CM
D CDM
B)+
CM B CBM . In triangle M BD, the sum of the angles is 180 = m(DM
24
) + m(DBM
) = m(DM
) + 45 + m(CBM
) =
m(BDM
B) + 45 + m(CDM
B), whence m(DM
B) = 45 .
90 + 2m(DM
Since quadrilateral ADM N is a parallelogram, m(M
P N ) = m(DM
B) =
45 . The point P is on the perpendicular bisector of the segment [CN ], so
M
PN M
P C, whence m(N
P C) = 90 , that is CP AN , implying CP
DM .
A
D
C
P
N
follows m(DP
M ) = 90 .
2
25
+ m(AEP
) = 90 , so m(CEP
) =
+ m(AEC)
= 90 yields m(AEC)
m(BEC)
E) = 45 .
90 . This shows that ECP is a right isosceles triangle, so m(CP
P
Q
E
M
B
F
Also CEQ P EM (AAS), whence EQ = EM , so EM Q is a right
) = 45 = m(EP
C), therefore M Q
isosceles triangle. This gives m(EQM
CP . Menelaus Theorem for the triangle CP E and the transversal N F yields
CN
FP
ME
N P F E M C = 1. If we denote R the orthogonal projection of E onto AB,
E
ER
1
then CBM ERM , whence M
M C = BC = 2 .
FP
From N P = CN follows F
E = 2, hence P E = EF , therefore CE is
altitude and median in CF P , that is this triangle is isosceles. This gives
m(F
CP ) = 90 , that is CP CF , whence M Q CF .
8th GRADE
b ca
c ab
a bc
+
+
0.
a + 2 (b + c) b + 2 (c + a) c + 2 (a + b)
Nicolae Papacu
a b+c
2a b c
a bc
2
=
.
a + 2 (b + c)
a + 2 (b + c)
2 (a + 2b + 2c)
26
D'
C'
A'
B'
D
P
HA
, (D DF )) =
45 . Since F D DD and ED DD , it follows that m((D DE)
m(F DE) = 45 .
27
Theorem, D P = a 2.
Problem 3. Find the smallest integer n for which the set A = {n, n + 1,
n + 2, . . . , 2n} contains five elements a < b < c < d < e so that
b
c
a
= = .
c
d
e
Mircea Fianu
28
one of the other discs, say S2 . Then S2 cannot cover any point from (AD),
therefore (AD) S3 . In this case [AD] is a diameter of S3 , so S3 cannot cover
any point from (BC), therefore S2 must cover (BC). This shows that [BC]
must be a diameter of S2 . But, in this case, no point from (CD) is covered
contradiction.
b) Take M (AC) so that AM = 2. Denote P and R the orthogonal
projections of M onto AB and onto AD. Let T BC and U DC be such
that P T = RU = 2.
R
D
A
P
B
XU
TC
2
yield AP = 2, BP = 2 2, BT 2 = 4 2 2 = 4 2 2. We are left
to prove BT > 1.9, that is 4 2 2 > 1.92 , or 2 > 1.4025, which is true.
9th GRADE
29
a)} = {n (a
a)} ,
a)] = [n (a a)].
Vasile Pop
{n a}.
Two numbers have the same fractional part if and only if their difference is
2
2
< m + n < (N + 1)
.
a1
a1
a1
(m + n) < N + 1, which is a contradiction, because
From here, N <
2
the term in the middle is natural (a is odd).
30
Remark. We could get the problem by using Beatty Theorem, which states
1
1
+ = 1 then the sets
that if and are positive irrational numbers and
GP + k GQ
GB + GD + k(GA + GC)
=
GR =
1+k
2 (1 + k)
and
GA + k GC
.
GS =
1+k
GB + k GC
GD + k GC
+
,
0 = GA + GM + GN = GA +
1+k
1+k
from where, we deduce that (1 + k) GA + GB + 2k GC + GD = 0, whence we
whence
AE AF = AE AD,
AE AF = AF AB,
31
and thus AE AD = AF AB. Equivalently, we have
AD + DE AD = AB + BF AB AD2 + AD DE = AB 2 + AB BF .
But ADE = ABF = 90 , and hence AD DE = AB BF = 0, that is
AB = AD.
10th GRADE
***
Solution. We will get the result by doubly-counting the elements of the set
S(n) = {(k, d) | d divides k, k d2 n2 , 1 k n2 }.
For 1 k n2 , let A(k) be the set of the natural divisors d of k such that
k d2 n2 .
A natural number d {1, 2, . . . , n} belongs to the sets A(d), A(2d), . . . ,
A(d2 ) and only to them.
n2
n2
It follows that the contribution of each d in the sum
a(k) =
|A(k)|
is 1 + 1 + + 1 = d.
d terms
n2
Thus,
a(k) =
k=1
n
k=1
k=1
d = n(n + 1)/2.
d=1
32
i=1
3 log2 n.
If n is a prime number, i.e. k = 1, then n 1 is an even number and
n1
n1
n1
= 1+f (2)+f
= 3+f
.
f (n) = 1+f (n1) = 1+f 2
2
2
2
Then
f (n) = 3 + f
n1
2
3 + 3 log2
n1
= 3 log2 (n 1) 3 log2 n
2
and
f (n) = 3 + f
n1
2
3 + 3 log3
n1
3(n 1)
= 3 log3
3 log3 n.
2
2
33
n(a, b) =
0abn
ba
Cn1
=
0abn
n1
k=0
k
(n k)Cn1
.
k
nCn1
n1
k
kCn1
n2n1
n1
k=1
n2
n1
k=1
k1
(n 1)Cn2
=
(n 1)2n2 = (n + 1)2n2
a0
[0, ).
an
Dan S
tefan Marinescu
a0
[0, ), then
an
34
0.
|w + g()| |w| or |g()|2 + wg() + wg()
k
= 0, k = 1, 2, . . . , n1, we have
g() = 0, whence, summing
As
up,
Un
Un
=
|g()|2 0, which implies that g() = 0,
|g()|2 +wg()+ wg()
Un
Un
for every Un .
1 g()
= 0, k = 1, 2, . . . , n 1.
n
k
Un
Thus, we get |an z n +a0 | |an +a0 | for every complex number z of modulus
a0
and t = z n , we have |t + c| |1 + c| for every complex
1. If we denote c =
an
number z of modulus 1. Let P , M , A be the points in the complex plane with
complex coordinates t, c, respectively 1. Then P M M A, for every point P
on the unit circle, therefore the unit circle is interior to the circle with center
M and radius M A. As the point A belongs to both circles, we get that they
are tangent in the point A, and thus the points M , O and A are collinear and
M A OA = 1. We get that c 0, and thus c [0, ).
11th GRADE
Solution. We shall prove that all such functions are of the form f (x) =
x + c, where c is a real constant. It is clear that such functions verify the
given conditions.
We shall first prove that f is one to one. Let x and y be real numbers
such that f (x) = f (y) and define gn = f 0 + + f n , n N. Because g1 is
increasing, gm is decreasing. As g1 (x) g1 (y) = x y = gm (x) gm (y), we get
35
n/21
g1 f 2k + f n , if n is even,
k=0
gn =
(n1)/2
g1 f 2k ,
if n odd,
k=0
Solution. We shall show that only the identity function and the constant
functions satisfy the conditions of the problem. It is clear that these functions
verify indeed the conditions.
Because f is continuous, its range {f (x) | x R} is an interval I R. If I
is degenerate at a point then f is constant.
If I is non-degenerate, let a = inf I < sup I = b, where a, b R. By the
given condition we deduce that the restriction of f to the interval (a, b) is the
identity:
f (x) = x, a < x < b.
(1)
We shall show that a = and b = +, i.e. I = R and f is the identity
function. Suppose a is a finite number. By the continuity of f in a and by (1)
we get f (a) = a, so
lim
f (a) = fd (a) = xa
x>a
xa
f (x) f (a)
= xa
lim
= 1.
xa
xa
x>a
(2)
36
so, by the Theorem of Fermat, f (a) = 0, in contradiction with (2). We conclude a = . Analogously b = +.
Problem 3. Consider a positive integer n and A, B two matrices in Mn (C)
such that A2 + B 2 = 2AB. Prove that:
a) The matrix AB BA is not invertible.
b) If the rank of A B is 1, then matrices A and B commute.
Leonard Giugiuc, C
at
alin Gherghe
Solution. a) The given relation can be written in each of the two forms:
(A B)2 = AB BA,
(1)
A(A B) = (A B)B.
(2)
a contradiction.
So AB BA is singular; moreover by (1) the matrix A B is also singular.
b) It is known that for a matrix X of rank 1 in Mn (C), then X 2 = (tr X) X
(each row of X is proportional with a nonzero fixed row X). Using (1) we get
AB BA = (A B)2 = (tr (A B))(A B),
so 0 = tr (AB BA) = (tr (A B))2 , i.e., tr (A B) = 0. We conclude,
AB BA = On , i.e., AB = BA.
Problem 4. Let A be an invertible matrix in M4 (R), such that tr A =
tr A = 0, where A is the adjugate of A. Prove that the matrix A2 + I4
is singular if and only if there exists a nonzero matrix B in M4 (R), so that
AB = BA.
Mariean Andronache
37
k N.
()
38
f (x)
has limit at
x
39
1
(ii) The function h : [1, +) (0, +) given by h(x) =
x
finite limit at +.
x
f (t) dt has
1
b) Show that lim 2
x+ x
x
f 2 (t) dt = 0.
Mihai Piticari
Solution. a) Let =
x+
=
=
a
x
1 a
x
1
f (t) dt + f (t) dt
f (t) dt +
t dt =
x 1
x 1
2x a
a
1 a
(x2 a2 )
+,
f (t) dt +
x+
x 1
4x
f (t)dt
=
where = lim h(x), u(x) =
x+
x
1
x
x 2
f (t)dt
f (t)dt
1
1
=
lim
x
x+ x
x
f (t)dt
x1 2
f (t)dt
u(x)
1
lim
,
= lim
x
x+ x
x+ v(x)
f
(t)dt
1
f 2 (t)dt, v(x) = x
x
1
f (t)dt.
u(x)
= 0 we shall use lHospital Rule:
v(x)
u and v are differentiable,
To show that lim
x+
x+
40
relations
u (x)
=
v (x)
f 2 (x)
f (x)
x
(0, g(x)) and
= g(x)
f (x) + h(x)
f (t) dt
xf (x) +
1
u (x)
lim g(x) = 0 imply lim
= 0.
x+
x+ v (x)
SMALL JUNIORS
.
b
b+k
b) Prove that
4
7
148
1
+
+
+ ... +
25.
100 101 102
149
Gabriel Vrnceanu, Ion Cicu
3. Find how many pairs (a, b), with a and b non-nil digits, have the property
a+b
are finite.
that ab is irreducible and the decimal fractions ab and b(b+1)
Gabriel Vrnceanu
41
42
6. Denote O the center of the square ABCD. The bisector of the angle
OAB meets OB in N and BC in P . Prove that P C = 2ON .
George Stoica
7. Find all positive integers n with at least two digits, ns digits are pairwise
distinct and n equals the product of the sum of its digits with one of its digits.
Cosmin Manea, Dragos Petric
a
8. Define an = 18 77
. . . 7 889 for every non-negative integer n.
n digits
43
|x + y + z| = 1
|x| + |y| + |z| = 1
|x y| + |y z| + |z x| = 2.
Dumitru M. B
atinetu-Giurgiu, Neculai Stanciu
44
Ion Safta
SENIORS
2. Find all strictly increasing sequences (an )n of positive integers with the
following two properties:
a) a31 + a32 + + a3n = (a1 + a2 + + an )2 , for every integer n 2014;
b) for every integer k 2015, the number a1 + a2 + + a2014 cannot be
written as a sum of k consecutive positive integers.
Cristinel Mortici
George Stoica
5. Let a (0, 1). Find all functions f : R (0, ) so that f (x) ax and
f (x + y + z) f (x)f (y)f (z), for every x, y, z R.
Traian T
am
aian
6. Let n 2 be an integer
and z be acomplex
number so that z n = 1.
n
n
1 + (1)n
1+ 5
Prove that:
.
(1 z k z 2k ) =
2
2
k=1
Mircea Merca
45
if and only if
lim
a1 + a2 + . . . + a n
= 0.
n
George Stoica
46
7. Let n N and (G, ) be a group with the property that there exists an
endomorphism f : G G, so that
f (xn y n+1 ) = xn+1 y n for every x, y G
Prove that:
a) x2n+1 = e, for every x G;
b) the group (G, ) is abelian.
Traian T
am
aian
Nicolae Bourb
acut
10. Let f : [0, 1] [0, 1] be a continuous function and x0 [0, 1]. Define
the sequence (xn )nN by
xn+1 =
1
n+1 (x0 +x1 +...+xn )
f (x) dx.
0
B'
X
N
C'
M'
M N'
H
A' B 1
B
48
Solution. Notice that, if w1 < w2 < < wn+1 < wn+2 are positive integers
such that
3
3
= wn+2
,
()
w13 + w23 + + wn+1
then the numbers xk = wk /wn+2 , k = 1, 2, . . . , n, and xn+1 = wn+1 /wn+2
meet the required conditions.
We now show by induction on n 2 that there exist integers 3 = w1 <
w2 < < wn+1 < wn+2 satisfying ().
The equalities 33 + 43 + 53 = 63 and 33 + 153 + 213 + 363 = 393 settle the
cases n = 2 and n = 3, respectively.
Finally, for the induction step n n + 2, notice that if 3 < w2 < <
wn+1 < wn+2 are n + 2 integers satisfying (), then 3 < 4 < 5 < 2w2 < <
2wn+1 < 2wn+2 are n + 4 integers satisfying the corresponding condition.
Remarks. By Andreescu, T., Andrica, D., and Cucurezeanu, I., An Introduction to Diophantine Equations, Birkhauser, 2010, Example 5, p. 44, if
n is an integer greater than or equal to 412, there exist positive integers a1 ,
. . ., an such that 1/a31 + + 1/a3n = 1. Now, given an integer n 412 and a
positive real number , choose a positive integer a > 1/ and set xk = 1/(aak ),
k = 1, . . . , n, and xn+1 = 1/a, to obtain n + 1 positive rational numbers less
than such that x31 + + x3n = x3n+1 .
Problem 3. Given a triangle A0 A1 A2 , determine the locus of the centers
of the equilateral triangles X0 X1 X2 satisfying the condition that each of the
lines Xk Xk+1 passes through Ak (all indices are reduced modulo 3).
***
Solution. Erect the three outer Napoleon triangles associated with the triangle A0 A1 A2 , and let k , k = 0, 1, 2, be the corresponding circumcircles.
From any point X0 on 0 draw lines X0 A2 X1 and X0 A1 X2 , where X1 lies
on 1 and X2 lies on 2 . The points X1 , A0 , X2 are collinear, and the triangle
X0 X1 X2 is an equilateral triangle satisfying the conditions in the statement.
49
X1
A0
X
M1 M0
X2
A1
A2
X0
Let Mk be the midpoint of the minor arc Ak+1 Ak+2 of the circle k , and notice
that the triangle M0 M1 M2 is equilateral, since the Mk are the centers of the
inner Napoleon triangles associated with the triangle A0 A1 A2 . The center X
of the triangle X0 X1 X2 is the intersection of X0 M0 and X1 M1 , which must
intersect at 60 . Since the locus of X includes the three points Mk , it turns
out that the locus of X is the circle M0 M1 M2 .
Similarly, another circle is obtained by starting with the inner Napoleon
triangles. The required locus is a pair of circles.
Problem 4. Let k be a positive integer and let m be a positive odd integer.
Show that there exists a positive integer n such that mn + nm has at least k
distinct prime factors.
***
50
51
Solution. Since the problem is of an affine nature, we may (and will) assume
that the triangle XY Z is equilateral. The triangle ABC has at least one vertex
angle, say at A, greater than or equal to 60 , so A is covered by the closed
circumdisc OY Z, where O is the center of the triangle XY Z. Since the latter
is covered by the 4-fold blow-up of the triangle XY Z from O, the conclusion
follows.
Alternative Solution. Suppose, if possible, that none of the vertices A, B, C
is covered by the 4-fold blow-up of the triangle XY Z from its centroid. Then
the distance of the point A to the line Y Z is greater than the distance of the
point X to this line, so the area of the triangle AY Z is greater than the area of
the triangle XY Z. Similarly, the triangles BZX and CXY both have an area
greater than that of the triangle XY Z, in contradiction with the well known
fact that of the four triangles AY Z, BZX, CXY , XY Z, the latter has not the
smallest area.
Problem 7. Let a be a real number in the open interval (0, 1), let n be a
positive integer and let fn : R R, fn (x) = x + x2 /n. Show that
an + a2
a(1 a)n2 + 2a2 n + a3
.
< (fn fn )(a) <
2
2
2
(1 a) n + a(2 a)n + a
(1 a)n + a
n
***
52
n1
k=0
k N,
1/(ak + n), so
()
since the ak form an increasing sequence of positive real numbers. The first
inequality above yields the required upper bound,
an <
an + a2
.
(1 a)n + a
Plugged into the rightmost expression in (), this upper bound yields the required lower bound,
an >
Problem 8. Determine all positive integers n such that all positive integers
less than n and coprime to n be powers of primes.
***
53
Problem 9. Let f be the function of the set of positive integers into itself,
defined by f (1) = 1, f (2n) = f (n) and f (2n + 1) = f (n) + f (n + 1). Show that,
for any positive integer n, the number of positive odd integers m such that
f (m) = n is equal to the number of positive integers less than and coprime to
n.
BMO 2014 Short List
54
M
N
p p1l
(pl )
p
1
<
,
=
p
pl
p1
p1
55
k+1
p
(n)
1
2
l = 2k+1 l < 2k+1 1
.
2
1 1+
p
p
p
p1
By the first inequality, 2k+1 1 (1 + 1/p) < 2k+1 , so p > 2k+1 1, i.e.,
p 2k+1 + 1 since p is odd. On the other hand, p < 2k+1 + 2(p 1)/pl , by the
second inequality, so 2(p 1) > pl , and consequently l = 1 and p = 2k+1 + 1.
To rule out the case n = pk q l , where p and q are distinct odd primes, and
k and l are positive integers, write
2
(n)
(pk ) (q l )
q
2
p
=
=
<
n
n
pk
ql
p1 q1
2
n
k
n
xj c
x2k ,
k j=1
k=1
k=1
Dumitru Barac
56
k=1
2
n
2
k
n
2
1
xj +
xk
<4
x2k ,
k j=1
n
k=1
k=1
2
k
n
1
1
1
>4
24.
k j=1 j
k
k=1
k=1
n
j), to obtain
k
2
2
8
4
4
4
1
1
1
> 2
k+11 >
= .
k j=1 j
k
k
k k k
k
2
1
3 < 3,
n
k k
k=1
and deduce thereby the desired inequality.
Problem 13. Let n be a positive integer, and let An , respectively Bn , be
the set of non-negative integers k < n such that the number of distinct prime
factors of gcd(k, n) is even, respectively odd. Show that |An | = |Bn | if n is
even, and |An | > |Bn | if n is odd.
***
57
Solution. Since gcd(k, n) depends only upon the residue class of k modulo
n, |An | |Bn | = k (1)s(k,n) , where s(k, n) is the number of distinct prime
factors of gcd(k, n), and k ranges over any complete residue system modulo n.
We shall prove that the above sum equals n p|n (1 2/p), p prime, whence
the conclusion; the latter is precisely the number of positive integers k < n
such that k and k + 1 are both coprime to n.
In the above notation, let e(k, n) = (1)s(k,n) and let f (n) = k e(k, n).
We show that f is a numerical multiplicative function that is, if n1 and n2
are coprime positive integers, then f (n1 n1 ) = f (n1 )f (n2 ).
If n1 , n2 are coprime positive integers, then e(k, n1 n2 ) = e(k, n1 )e(k, n2 ).
Further, if ki ranges once over a complete residue system modulo ni , i = 1, 2,
then k = k1 n2 + k2 n1 ranges once over a complete residue system modulo
n1 n2 , and e(k, ni ) = e(ki , ni ), i = 1, 2. Hence e(k, n1 n2 ) = e(k, n1 )e(k, n2 ) =
e(k1 , n1 )e(k2 , n2 ), and
f (n1 n2 ) =
e(k, n1 n2 ) =
e(k1 , n1 )e(k2 , n2 ) = f (n1 )f (n2 ).
k
k1
k2
Problem 14. Let ABC be an acute-angled triangle and let O be its circumcenter. The tangents of the circumcircle ABC at vertices B and C meet at
P , the circle of radius P B centered at P meets the internal angle bisector of the
angle BAC at point Q lying in the interior of the triangle ABC, and the lines
OQ and BC meet at D. Finally, let E and F be the orthogonal projections
of Q on the lines AC and AB, respectively. Prove that the lines AD, BE and
CF are concurrent.
Cosmin Pohoat
a
Solution. The line AB and the circle of radius P B centered at P meet again
at some point R. Standard angle-chasing shows that the angle BRC is the
complement of the angle BAC. Hence the lines AC and CR are perpendicular,
so the lines EQ and CR are parallel, and the angles CQE and QCR are equal.
58
Since the points B, Q, C, R are concyclic, the angles QBF and QCR are
equal, so the angles QBF and CQE are equal and the right-angled triangles
BQF and QCE are similar: BQ/QC = BF/QE = QF/CE. Recall that
AQ is the internal angle bisector of the angle BAC, so EQ = F Q, whence
BQ2 /CQ2 = (BF/EQ)(F Q/CE) = BF/CE.
C
E
Q
A
F
On the other hand, the line OQD is the Q-symmedian of the triangle BCQ,
so BQ2 /CQ2 = BD/CD. Consequently,
1=
BD CE AF
BD CE
,
CD BF
CD AE BF
59
Now take the derivative both sides of the relation in the statement to obtain
f (g(x))g (X) = p (X). Since p (X) is irreducible in Z[X] and its coefficients
are obviously jointly coprime, either f (g(x)) = 1 and g (X) = p (X) or
vice versa as before, the signs correspond to one another. With the same
convention for signs, in the former case, g(X) = p (X)+a and f (X) = X
a, where a is an integer; in the latter, g(X) = X + b and f (X) = p (X b),
where b is an integer.
60
1
(i + (i)).
|I()|
Sn
iI()
***
1
(i + (i)) =
|I()|
Sn
iI()
1
1 1
(i + (i)) +
(i + (i))
=
2
|I()|
|I( )|
Sn
iI()
iI( )
1
1
=
(i + (i) + (n (i) + 1) + (n i + 1))
2
|I()|
Sn
iI()
= (n + 1)! .
FIFTH SELECTION TEST
Solution. Let the tangents at Ak and Ak+1 meet at Ak+2 . We shall prove
that the lines Ak Bk are concurrent, whence the conclusion by Desargues theorem.
We show that the lines Ak Bk are concurrent at the centroid of the triangle
A0 A1 A2 . More precisely, we prove that the line Ak Bk passes through the
midpoint of the segment Ak+1 Ak+2 .
61
A0
A'2
C1
C2
C0
B2
A1
B0
B1
A2
To this end, let the parallel through O to the tangent Ak+1 Ak+2 meet the
tangents Ak Ak+1 and Ak Ak+2 at Xk and Yk , respectively, and notice that:
(1) the angles OXk Bk and OAk+2 Bk are equal, since the points Ak+2 , Bk ,
O, Xk all lie on the circle on diameter OXk ;
(2) the angles OAk+2 Bk and OAk+1 Ak+2 are equal, since OAk+1 = OAk+2 ;
and
(3) the angles OAk+1 Ak+2 and OYk Bk are equal, since the points Ak+1 , Bk ,
O, Yk all lie on the circle on diameter OYk .
Consequently, the angles OXk Bk and OYk Bk are equal. Since the lines Xk Yk
and Ak+1 Ak+2 are parallel, and the latter is perpendicular to the line OAk =
OBk , it follows that Bk is the midpoint of the segment Xk Yk , whence the
conclusion.
2
Alternative Solution. We will show that k=0 (Ck Bk+1 /Ck Bk+2 ) = 1, so
the conclusion follows by Menelaus theorem. To this end, we will prove that
Ak Ak+1 Ak Bk+1
Ck Bk+1
=
.
Ck Bk+2
Ak Ak+2 Ak Bk+2
()
Multiplying the three yields the desired relation, since, by Cevas theorem,
2
k=0 (Ak Bk+1 /Ak Bk+2 ) = 1.
We now turn to prove (). To avoid directed angles, assume, without any
loss, that the triangle A0 A1 A2 is acute-angled, fix an index k and let Ak Ak+1
62
Ak Ak+2 (the case Ak Ak+2 Ak Ak+1 is dealt with similarly). Apply the law
of sines in the triangles Ak Bk+1 Ck and Ak Bk+2 Ck to get
Ak Bk+1 sin(Ck Ak Bk+1 )
Ck Bk+1
.
=
Ck Bk+2
Ak Bk+2 sin(Ck Ak Bk+2 )
Since the angle Ck Ak Bk+1 is the supplement of the internal angle at Ak+1 of
the triangle A0 A1 A2 , and the angle Ck Ak Bk+2 is equal to the internal angle at
Ak+2 of the triangle A0 A1 A2 , the above ratio of sines equals Ak Ak+1 /Ak Ak+2
and () follows.
Remarks. The problem was inspired by the Sharyghin configuration below:
Let ABC be a triangle, let P be a point on one of the bisectors of the angle
BAC, let X, Y , Z be the orthogonal projections of P on the lines BC, CA,
AB, respectively, and let the lines P X and Y Z meet at Q. Then the line AQ
passes through the midpoint of the segment BC.
The proof goes along the lines in the first solution.
Problem 18. Let m be a positive integer and let A, respectively B, be
an alphabet with m, respectively 2m letters. Let n be an even integer greater
than or equal to 2m. Let an be the number of words of length n made of letters
from A such that every letter in A occurs a positive even number of times. Let
bn be the number of words of length n made of letters from B such that every
letter in B occurs an odd number of times. Determine the ratio bn /an .
***
Solution. The required ratio is 2nm . To prove this, let An and B n denote
the sets of words described in the statement, so an = |An | and bn = |B n |,
and think of B as an extension of A = {a1 , . . . , am } by a disjoint copy A =
m }.
{
a1 , . . . , a
63
2m
m
x2k /(2k)! = (ex + ex )/2 1 = 2m ex/2 ex/2
.
A(x) =
k1
B(x) =
k1
2m
2m
= 22m ex ex
.
***
k=1
f (|xk ak |)
k=1
f (a|(k)k|+1 )
k=1
f (a(k) ) =
k=1
f (ak ).
64
3
(x + y + z)
x+y+z
,
and xy + yz + zx
3
3
3
2
s
s
2
putting s = x+y+z, we get that
+ 4. This leads to (s 3) (s + 6) 0,
27 3
so s 3. The equality holds for x = y = z = 1.
Solution. Since xyz
Problem 2. Determine all pairs (a, b) of integers which satisfy the equality
6
a+2 a+1
+
=1+
.
b+1
b+2
a+b+1
Lucian Dragomir
Solution. Obviously,
b =2
and b = 1.Adding 2 in both members of the
6
a+1
a+2
+1 +
+1 =3+
, hence
equality, we get
b+1
b+2
a+b+1
(a + b + 3)
1
1
+
b+1 b+2
3 (a + b + 3)
.
a+b+1
66
Case 2. If a + b + 3 = 0, then
1
3
1
+
=
, which leads to
b+1 b+2
a+b+1
a=
b2 + 4b + 3
.
2b + 3
Solution. Let us split the square into five rectangles, as shown in the figure
above. The sizes of the three rectangles at the bottom are 1 3, so the
length of their diagonal is 2. The sizes of the two rectangles at the top are
2
1.5 3 3 . Since 1.52 + 3 3 < 4, the length of their diagonal is
less than 2. By the pigeonhole principle, there are two points among the six
given which are situated within or on the sides of one of the five rectangles,
so the distance between them is at most equal to the length of the diagonal,
which is at most 2. However, the distance can be 2 only if the two points are
opposite vertices of one of the bottom rectangles, which implies that one of the
six points is not inside, but on one side of the square contradiction.
Remarks. 1. Splitting the squares into three 1 1.7 rectangles and two
1.5 1.3 rectangles, we may prove that the result is still true if the six given
points are inside or on the sides of the square.
2. Let us notice that five points are not enough to draw the same conclusion
(taking the vertices and center of the square, the shortest distance is 3/ 2 > 2).
The strongest result known it literature is that the shortest distance (for 6
67
D'
A'
C
C'
68
H
B
C
N
M
T
and
b2 + a
a2 b
b2 + a
N , hence b2 + a a2 b,
a2 b
which leads to (a + b) (a b 1) 0. Consequently, a = b or a = b + 1.
a+1
a2 + b
=
N if and only if a 1 | a + 1, or a 1 | 2,
If a = b, then 2
b a
a1
which comes to a {2, 3} .
b2 + 3b + 1
a2 + b
= 2
N , if and only if b2 b 1 |
If a = b + 1, then 2
b a
b b1
b2 + 3b + 1, which means that b2 b 1 | 4b + 2, hence b2 b 1 4b + 2. It
follows immediately that b 5. Checking these values, we find that only b = 1
and b = 2 satisfy the given condition.
In conclusion, the solutions of the problem are: (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1),
(2, 3), (3, 2).
Solution. The assumption a b, yields
69
Problem 7. Determine all real numbers x, y, z (0, 1) that satisfy simultaneously the conditions:
2
2
2
(x + y ) 1 z z
(y 2 + z 2 ) 1 x2 x
2
(z + x2 ) 1 y 2 y .
Lucian Petrescu
z2
z
1 z2.
x2 + y 2
Since
z
1 z2 =
z 2 (1 z 2 )
1
z2 + 1 z2
= ,
2
2
z2
2, and therefore x2 + y 2 2z 2 . Writing the other
x2 + y 2
two similar inequalities and adding them together yields 2(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )
equality must hold in all the inequalities above,
2(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ). Consequently,
2
. Clearly this triple satisfies all the requirements.
hence x = y = z =
2
it follows that
into x = y = z = 2/2.
Problem 8. Let ABC be an acute triangle and D (BC) , E (AD) be
mobile points. The circumcircle of triangle CDE meets the median from C of
the triangle ABC at F. Prove that the circumcenter of triangle AEF lies on a
fixed line.
***
70
P
E
F
B
71
and continues with moves similar to the ones described above, will pass through
exactly
2n + 3
< 2n/3 + 2 n
3
squares, hence it will not pass through squares of all possible colors, and this
for both the situations, a) and b);
n 2 (mod 3). The path that starts with
(1, 1) (2, 3) (4, 2) (3, 4) (5, 5) (n, n)
and continues with moves similar to the ones described above, will pass through
exactly
2n + 5
= 2n/3 + 2 < n
3
squares, hence it does not pass through squares of all possible colors, under the
conditions from a).
We have proven a) and we have seen that for all n 0 (mod 3) and all
n 1 (mod 3) (n 6), the statement from a) remains true even if there are
only 2n/3 + 2 colors. We prove that the statement from a) is false if we have
2n/3 + 2 colors and n 2 (mod 3).
It remains to exhibit a coloring with 2n/3 + 2 colors such that any path
(1, 1) (n, n) contains squares of all the colors.
We give several such examples:
Example 1. We use the color 1 of N = 2n/3 + 2 colors (note that N is
odd) for the bottom-left corner; then we use colors 2 k (N 1)/2 for all the
squares to which the knight can get in k 1 moves, but not less. We use color
number N for the upper-right corner; then we use color (N + 3)/2 k N 1
for all the squares to which the knight can get (starting from the upper-right
corner) in N k moves, but not less.
It is easy to see that there is no conflict in this coloring because the squares
that use the first (N 1)/2 colors and the ones that use the last (N 1)/2
colors are separated by the diagonal {(m, n m + 1) | 1 m n}. Finally, we
color with (N + 1)/2 all the remaining squares.
The absolute value of the difference between the color numbers of two consecutive squares in the knights path is at most 1, hence, for getting from the
72
square with color number 1 to the square with color number N it has to pass
through squares of all the other colors.
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
5
5
5
6
5
3
3
3
3
2
1
1
6
5
5
3
5
5
3
2
3
3
5
Example 1 for n = 8, the smallest with n 2 (mod 3). (The squares left
white are to be colored with color number 4.)
Example 2. (given in the contest by Tudor Plopeanu) Consider the sequence (am )m1 given by: 1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 4, 3, 4, 5, 4, 5, 6, . . .. Color row number k,
from left to right, with ak , ak+1 , . . . , an+k1 . It is easy to check the upper-right
corner has color a2n1 = N = 2n/3 + 2. From a square with color aj , the
knight can jump to a square having one of the colors aj3 , aj1 , aj+1 , aj+3 . By
the way the sequence is constructed, aj3 , aj1 , aj+1 , aj+3 {aj 1, aj + 1},
so again, in its path from color 1 to color N , the knight can not possibly skip
a color.
Again, we show the model for n = 8:
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
4
3
4
3
2
3
2
1
5
4
3
4
3
2
3
2
4
5
4
3
4
3
2
3
5
4
5
4
3
4
3
2
6
5
4
5
4
3
4
3
5
6
5
4
5
4
3
4
6
5
6
5
4
5
4
3
7
6
5
6
5
4
5
4
73
2
2
a 2 + b2
c 2 + d2
2
2
2
2
+
= (a + b ) (c + d )
2
2
2
a + b2 + c 2 + d 2 2
(a + b2 ) + (c2 + d2 ).
2
74
1
3
It follows that 4 (a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 ) , i.e. a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 4.
2
Equality holds when a = b = c = d = 1.
Alternative Solution. Adding a2 + b2 2ab with the other five similar
inequalities and using MacLaurins inequality we obtain
a 4
ab
6
abc
4
2/3
4,
n+1
a1 + a2 + . . . + am
.
m
2
***
75
for 1 i
m
,
2
76
C1
H
D
B
A1
Y
b) We may assume that AB < BC; in this case, D is on the minor arc
AB. Let O denote the circumcenter of triangle ABC and let L be the midpoint
of the segment line [BH]. The radical axis of two circles being perpendicular
to the line connecting the centers of the circles, it follows that BD LO.
As BD DH, we get that LO DH. OLHT is a parallelogram, therefore
OL HT , and now it is clear that points D, H, T are collinear.
c) The quadrilateral AT DX is cyclic because
ADT = BDA BDH = 180 ACB 90 = 90 XAB = AXT .
It is easy to prove (in a similar manner to a)) that T Y is the perpendicular
bisector of the segment line [A1 C] . From
CDT = HDB CDB = 90 CAB = 90 BCY = CY T ,
it follows that the quadrilateral CT DY is cyclic. This leads to
XDY + XZY = XDT + T DY + XZY =
= 180 XAT + 180 T CY + XZY =
= ZAT + ZCT + XZY = 180 ,
77
78
***
79
D
B
E
M
N
C
F
80
1
1
1
+ 2 + ... + 2 .
2
x1
x2
xn
Show that for each positive integer k n, there are k numbers among x1 ,
x2 , . . . , xn whose sum is at least k.
***
But n2
n
xk
k=1
n
x1 + x2 + . . . + xn < n.
n
n
n
1
1
1
<n
, so
> n. It follows that
xk
xk
xk
k=1
k=1
n
1
1
xk =
x2k
n
k=1
k=1
k=1
n
1
xk
k=1
2
>
1 2
n = n,
n
contradiction.
Alternative Solution. Suppose that x1 x2 . . . xn ; it is enough to
prove that
xnk+1 + . . . + xn1 + xn k, for each k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
81
If xnk+1 +. . .+xn1 +xn < k, for a certain k {1, 2, .., n}, then xnk+1 <
1, hence x1 < x2 < . . . < xnk < 1. This leads to x1 + x2 + . . . + xnk < n k,
so
x1 + x2 + . . . + xn = (x1 + x2 + . . . + xnk ) + (xnk+1 + . . . + xn1 + xn ) < n.
What remains to be done in order to get the contradiction is to show that
x1 + x2 + . . . + xn n. This can be achieved as follows:
n
n
n
1
1
2
xk =
xk +
3
x2
k=1
k=1
k=1 k
n
n
1
1
1
3
xk + xk + 2
=
xk xk 2 = n.
3
xk
xk
k=1
k=1
3b 2a = 5x
,
3b + 2a = 5y
where x, y N, x < y, x + y = m.
82
A'
E' O
D'
D''
B
Solution. We shall make use of the following:
and
DN
BN
=
.
sin(ABN )
sin(BDN )
83
.
DN
BN sin(ABN )
CM sin(ACM )
EM
=
84
Solution. We shall prove that the admissible values of n (those for which
our goal can be achieved) are all the positive integers that are not divisible by
3.
Obviously, such turning is possible for n = 1. For n = 2, flip each of the
four 1-sided equilateral triangles once and all the coins will be tail-up.
We shall use now induction of step 3. Assume that n is an admissible value.
Flipping the coins of each unit sided triangle of an equilateral triangle of side
length n + 3, the coins from the vertices of the big triangle will turn one time,
those along the sides three times and the interior coins will turn six times each.
Consequently, all the exterior coins are turned tail up and all the interior coins
are heads up. But the interior coins form the net corresponding to an n - sided
triangle, so the induction works.
If 3 | n, then color the coins in red, yellow and blue so that any three
adjacent coins have different colors. Also, any three coins in a row will have
different colors. In this case the corners will all have the same color, say red.
(n + 1) (n + 2)
1 (mod 3) coins, then there will be
Since there are, in total,
2
exactly one more red coin than yellow or blue ones. Thus, at the beginning,
the parity of the number of red heads is different than the parity of the number
of yellow heads. Since each move changes the parity of the number of heads
of each color, we cannot end up with the parity of red heads equal to that of
yellow or blue heads, which would be the case if all coins showed tails. Thus
the coins cannot all be inverted, so n is not an admissible value.
JUNIORS
x1 + x2 + . . . + x n =
1
1
1
+
+ ... +
= 0.
x1
x2
xn
***
Solution. Let M the set of the numbers n that satisfy the conditions above.
We shall show that M = N \ {0, 1, 3} .
We can observe that 2p M, for any p 1, the relations being satisfied
e.g. for x1 = x2 = . . . = xp = 1 and xp+1 = xp+2 = . . . = x2p = 1.
1
1
1
+
+...+
= 0, taking
Moreover, if n M and x1 + x2 + . . . + xn =
x1 x2
xn
xn+1 = 1 and xn+2 = 1, we conclude that n + 2 M, because
x1 + x2 + . . . + xn + xn+1 + xn+2 =
1
1
1
1
1
+
+ ... +
+
+
= 0.
x1
x2
xn
xn+1
xn+2
Therefore, all that is left to be done is to find the smallest odd element of
M.
Suppose that 3 M ; then there exist x1 , x2 , x3 R so that
x 1 + x2 + x3 =
1
1
1
+
+
= 0.
x1
x2
x3
86
Solution. Using the 64 given numbers, there can be formed 2016 pairs (a, b) ,
with a < b; these pairs generate 2016 sums a + b which give 2016 remainders
when divided by 2013. Consequently, there are two different pairs (a, b) and
(c, d) having the same remainder when divided by 2013, hence 2013 | (a + b)
(c + d) .
Assuming that (a, b) and (c, d) have a common component, e.g. a = c,
then 2013 | b d, and, since |b d| 2012, we get b = d, contradiction. The
conclusion now follows.
Problem 3. Find all natural numbers m, n so that 85m n4 = 4.
***
and
(n + 1)2 = 17m 1.
For m > 1 there are many (more than one) perfect squares between 5m 1 and
17m 1 (e.g. 9m and 16m ), therefore m = 1 and n = 3.
Problem 4. Consider ABCD a rectangle of center O with AB = BC. The
perpendicular dropped from O to BD intersects lines AB and BC in E and
F. Let M and N be the midpoints of segments [CD] and [AD] . Prove that
F M EN.
***
87
F
N
P
O
SENIORS
D'
F'
E'
E
a
Z
X B
D
F
b
C
Solution. The lines Aa and bC meet at D, and the lines Bb and cA meet
at D to determine the Pascal line of the hexagram AaBbCc; similarly, the
88
89
Solution. The case r = 2 is clear: Any cycle of even length works. In the
other cases, define a sequence of graphs Gr , r 3, as follows. The graph G3
is a cycle of just 7 edges. (Any larger odd number would do.) When Gr is
defined, with nr vertices say, construct Gr+1 as follows. Consider
rnr r + 1
nr
disjoint copies of Gr . Adjoin rnr r + 1 extra vertices. Set up a one-toone correspondence between the copies of Gr and the nr -element sets of extra
vertices. Join each copy of Gr to the members of the corresponding nr -element
set of extra vertices by nr disjoint new edges (no two have a common end).
The resulting graph is Gr+1 .
The construction ensures that no graph Gr has a cycle of less than 6 edges.
Clearly, G3 is 3-chromatic. If r 3 and Gr+1 has a coloring C in r or fewer
colors, then some nr of the extra vertices in Gr+1 must share the same color in
C, so the corresponding copy of Gr must be colored in r 1 or fewer colors. It
follows, by descending induction, that G3 must be colored in 2 or fewer colors
which is, of course, impossible. Consequently, no Gr can be colored in less than
r colors.
This does not prove that Gr is r-chromatic, but if it is not, deletion of some
monochromatic classes of vertices together with their incident edges yields one
such.
Problem 4. Show that there exists a proper non-empty subset S of the
set of real numbers such that, for every real number x, the set {nx + S : n N}
is finite, where nx + S = {nx + s : s S}.
***
Solution. Let H be a Hamel basis; that is, H is a set of real numbers such
90
()
hH
where the q(x, h) are all rational and vanish for all but a finite number (depending on x) of hs. The existence of Hamel bases can be proved via Zorns
lemma or Zermelos well ordering theorem or any other statement equivalent
to the axiom of choice.
We are now going to prove that the set S of those real numbers x whose q(x, h)
in () are all integral satisfies the required condition.
To this end, fix a real number x. Since the conclusion is clear if x = 0, let x be
different from 0 and let m(x) be the least common multiple of the denominators
of the non-vanishing q(x, h) in (). Finally, notice that m(x) x is a member
of S, to conclude that any set of the form nx + S, where n is a non-negative
integer, must be one of the sets rx + S, r = 0, 1, . . . , m(x) 1.
Problem 1. Given a prime p 5, show that there exist at least two distinct
primes q and r in the range 2, 3, . . ., p 2 such that q p1 1 (mod p2 ) and
rp1 1 (mod p2 ).
***
92
Since p 5, the prime factors of p 1 are all less than p 1; and since 2 is
the highest common factor of p 1 and p + 1, the conclusion follows, provided
that 2 is proper.
Otherwise, look for an improper odd prime in the required range. To this
end, notice that one of the numbers 2p 1 is divisible by 3, so its prime factors
are all less than p 1, for p 5; clearly, they are all odd, and the conclusion
follows.
Alternative Solution. If p = 5, the primes q = 2 and r = 3 satisfy the
required conditions, so let p 7. In the setting of the previous solution,
distinguish the following two cases:
If p2 is improper, it has an improper prime divisor q by (1). On the other
hand, since 1 is proper, setting k = n = 1 in (2) shows that p 1 is improper,
so it has an improper prime divisor r by (1). Clearly, q and r both lie in the
required range, and they are distinct since p 2 and p 1 are coprime.
If p 2 is proper, set k = 1 and n = p 2 in (2) to deduce that 2 is
improper. On the other hand, since (p 2)2 is proper, so is 4p + 4. Setting
k = 3 and n = 4p + 4 in (2) shows p 4 improper, so it has an improper
prime divisor s by (1). Finally, since p 4 is odd, so is s, and it should now
be clear that the primes 2 and s satisfy the required conditions.
Problem 2. For every non-negative integer n, let sn be the sum of the digits
in the decimal expansion of 2n . Is the sequence (sn )nN eventually increasing?
***
s6m+2 s6m+1 + 2,
s6m+3 s6m+2 + 4,
s6m+4 s6m+3 + 8,
s6m+5 s6m+4 + 7,
s6m+6 s6m+5 + 5,
n N.
()
93
Solution. Suppose, if possible, that the conclusion does not hold. Then no
three discs meet, and each disc contains points of the closure of the triangle
determined by the centers of the other three discs, not covered by the latter.
Amongst the four discs, choose one, say 0 , containing the point O where
the diagonals of the quadrangle cross one another. Let A0 be the center of 0 ,
label the other three centers in circular order, A1 , A2 , A3 , so that the opposite
angles A0 OA1 and A2 OA3 be not obtuse, and let i denote the disc centered
at Ai .
Before proceeding, we take time out to state a simple, but quite useful
lemma whose proof is postponed for the sake of clarity.
Lemma. Let ABCD be a convex quadrangle, let be a disc centered at A, and
let E be the point where the ray AC emanating from A crosses the boundary
of . If the orthogonal projection of B on the line AC falls on the closed ray
EA emanating from E, then dist (B, [ACD] \ ) BE, where [ACD] is the
closure of the triangle ACD.
We now apply the lemma to show that O is also covered by 1 . To this
end, let B0 be the point where the ray A0 O emanating from A0 crosses the the
boundary of 0 . Since 0 contains O, the latter lies on the closed segment
A0 B0 , and since the angle A0 OA1 is not obtuse, it follows that A1 O A1 B0 .
On the other hand, 1 contains points of the closure [A0 A2 A3 ] of the triangle
A0 A2 A3 not covered by 0 , so the radius of 1 is greater than or equal to
dist (A1 , [A0 A2 A3 ] \ 0 ), which in turn is greater than or equal to A1 B0 by the
lemma. Consequently, O is indeed covered by 1 .
94
Recall that no three discs meet to deduce that neither 2 , nor 3 contains
O. It follows, for i = 2, 3, that the open segment Ai O crosses the boundary of
i at some point Bi . The open segments A2 B3 and A3 B2 cross each other, so
r2 + r3 = A2 B2 + A3 B3 < A2 B3 + A3 B2 , where ri is the radius of the disc i ,
i = 2, 3.
We are presently going to show that r2 A2 B3 and r3 A3 B2 and reach
thereby the contradiction we were heading for. Only the first inequality will
be dealt with; the argument applies mutatis mutandis to the other. Since the
angle A2 OA3 is not obtuse, the orthogonal projection A2 of A2 on the line
A1 A3 falls on the closed ray OA3 emanating from O. If A2 fell on the closed
segment B3 O, then the image of the line A2 A2 under a slight rotation about
the midpoint of the segment A2 A2 would separate the disc 3 and the closure
[A0 A1 A2 ] of the triangle A0 A1 A2 , in contradiction with the second remark in
the opening paragraph. Hence A2 lies on the open ray B3 A3 emanating from
B3 , so dist (A2 , [A0 A1 A3 ] \ 3 ) A2 B3 by the lemma. Finally, recall that 2
covers points in [A0 A1 A3 ] \ 3 , to conclude that r2 A2 B3 .
Proof of the lemma. Since the quadrangle ABCD is convex, the whole configuration of points lies on one side of the line AB, say H. Let F be the point
where the ray AD emanating from A crosses the boundary of , let denote
the arc EF of the boundary of situated in H, and let r be the ray emanating
from E along the line AC, not containing A.
Notice that, if X is a point in [ACD] \ , then the closed segment BX
meets either or r (this fails to hold if the quadrangle ABCD is not convex
at D), so it is sufficient to consider only points X in r.
Now, as a point X traces from E to F , the length of the segment BX
varies increasingly by the cosine law in the triangle ABX (this fails to hold if
the quadrangle ABCD is not convex at A or at B), so BX BE.
Finally, since the orthogonal projection of B on the line AC is not interior
to r, the length of the segment BX varies again increasingly, as X runs along
r away from E, so BX BE again. This ends the proof of the lemma and
completes the solution.
Remarks. Since the distance to the empty set may take on any value, the
conclusion of the lemma still holds if covers [ACD].
Under the conditions in the lemma, it may very well happen that
95
dist (B, [ACD] \ ) > BE, in which case C is certainly interior to . Such
configurations are easily produced.
Finally, it is not hard to see that the conclusion of the lemma may fail
to hold if the quadrangle ABCD is not convex at one of the vertices A, B,
D or the projection of B on the line AC does not fall on the closed ray EA
emanating from E.
Problem 4. Given a triangle ABC, a circle centered at some point O meets
the segments BC, CA, AB in the pairs of points X and X , Y and Y , Z and
Z , respectively, labeled in circular order: X, X , Y , Y , Z, Z . Let M be the
Miquel point of the triangle XY Z (i.e., the point of concurrence of the circles
AY Z, BZX, CXY ), and let M be that of the triangle X Y Z . Prove that
the segments OM and OM have equal lengths.
***
A
Y'
Z
Z'
M'
O
M
B
C
X'
96
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