May 2007
Contents
Ammonia Diffusion______________________________________________________________3
Enthalpy of Crystalisation________________________________________________________7
Viscous Goo Challenge___________________________________________________________9
Reactivity Series and Corrosion___________________________________________________13
To determine a reactivity series for a range of metals using a voltmeter___________________15
Passivity Demo / A level________________________________________________________17
An Electrifying Experience_______________________________________________________19
Tensile Testing_________________________________________________________________21
Hardness Testing_______________________________________________________________33
Creep________________________________________________________________________37
Ferrofluids____________________________________________________________________43
These experiments are intended as a framework to be adapted for the specific needs of a class.
All teachers should carry out their own safety assessment for all experiments.
Ammonia Diffusion
This Sc1 should follow a demonstration of the diffusion of ammonia and hydrogen chloride along a tube.
The position and shape of the smoke ring so produced indicates
Different gases diffuse at different speeds. This links in to the rate of diffusion being related to molar
mass.
The shape of the ring shows ammonia to be less dense than hydrogen chloride, since it slants in such a
way as to indicate that ammonia floats over the top of the hydrogen chloride. Leaving the ring to
develop illustrates this clearly.
Also, observing the ring closely shows small convection currents which can be stimulated by holding
two fingers below the ring and waiting for heat to diffuse through the glass.
This gives pupils imagination to tackle the Sc1
Does Ammonia gas diffuse equally fast in all directions?
The question prompts a discussion on the density of gases brighter pupils can calculate that ammonia
is less dense than air (approximates to nitrogen or oxygen nitrogen mix?) Others can look up data in a
book, or simply be told.
Diffusion works well in boiling tubes, typically taking 5 to 15 minutes to cover the distance from the neck
to base, depending on conditions.
Progress of the gas is measured by using thin, pink litmus sensors. (Long litmus strips give a diffuse
boundary which makes taking measurements harder.)
Diffusion (boiling) tubes can be set up along Cartesian axes, and brighter pupils may want to further
divide the angles. This should not be encouraged too much, especially initially.
There is scope for a reasonable, simple theory and prediction. Complicated or Simple plans to suit
pupils abilities are soon ready allowing lots of results and graphs to be produced for examiners. As
differences are random and not directional, there is plenty of scope for evaluations, explanations and
suggested improvements.
Some considerations for key factors include, amounts of ammonia solution used, water inside the tube
reabsorbing ammonia gas, holding the tubes and making one warmer than another, ammonia already in
the air
In spite of the difficulties, this Sc1 provides a short simple assessment that even the most challenged can
attempt and the brightest can score maximum marks in 2 3 weeks. It also teaches that experiments do
not always work the way you expect, but for GCSE that does not matter providing it is realized that the
experiment has not worked as expected ideally with an explanation.
Pupils will assume the ammonia advances down the tube with a flat diffusion front perpendicular to the
direction of diffusion. This is clearly not so. When difficulties arise, a demo of dropping a few cm 3 of milk
into a 250 cm3 of still water illustrates the misconception and answers some of the more confusing
anomalous results.
The following represents a distillation from a few bright (A* grade) pupils - for your ideas.
0.8 x MN + 0.2 x MO
0.8 x 28 + 0.2 x 32
28.8 g mole-1.
Therefore the molar mass of ammonia is much less than the average molar mass of air.
The molar volume of any gas
0.71 g dm-1.
1.2 g dm-1.
Because ammonia gas is less dense than the surrounding air, I predict that flotation will assist diffusion in
the vertically upward direction, oppose diffusion in the vertically downward direction and have no
noticeable effect on the horizontal directions.
That is I predict diffusion upward will be faster than diffusion downward and that horizontal diffusion will be
an intermediate speed.
Method - Plan
Ammonia can be detected using damp, pink litmus paper that turns blue on contact with ammonia.
Ammonia can be controlled conveniently by using 0.1M ammonia solution on cotton wool. The gas
escapes from the solution and diffuses through air to the litmus paper turning it blue. The time taken for
the litmus to turn blue is recorded. By placing at least five papers at measured intervals in a boiling tube,
the speed (or rate) of diffusion can be measured along the tube.
The ammonia is made to diffuse upwards, downwards and horizontally in separate experiments, each
experiment being repeated to check measurements and to obtain an average value.
cm scale (graph
paper) taped to the
glass
Upward
Diffusion
Downward
Diffusion
Horizontal
Diffusion
Method Procedure
A boiling tube was cleaned with a paper towel to make sure it was dry.
Thin pieces of damp, pink litmus were placed at approximately 1.5 to 2.0 cm intervals inside the boiling
tube using a glass rod.
The tube was clamped in position and four drops of ammonia solution were placed on a piece of cotton
wool that had been glued to a rubber stopper. The stopper was placed firmly into the boiling tube.
As soon as the first litmus turned blue, the stopwatch was started and the times taken for other papers to
turn blue were recorded.
This method was repeated for diffusion in vertically up, vertically down and horizontal directions.
Measurements for each direction were taken three times each and an average was calculated.
A graph of distance versus average time was plotted.
Distance
/cm
Predict Upwards
Predict Horizontal
Predict Downwards
Enthalpy of Crystallisation
Thermodynamic terms can be difficult for sixth formers to understand, especially when they are not directly
measurable. This experiment does not provide an accurate method for determining the enthalpy of crystallisation of
sugar, but does offer an (edible) illustration of it.
Boiled sweets are essentially amorphous sugar and very soluble in water with an accompanying increase in
temperature. Granulated sugar, being crystalline requires that enthalpy of crystallisation is added to the system to
enable dissolution. Consequently, granulated sugar dissolves endothermically in water.
Method
Using a measuring cylinder, measure 100cm3 of water and leave it to reach an equilibrium
temperature.
Crush about three Foxs Glacier mints in a mortar and pestle. Take care as large pieces take
longer to dissolve and too much crushing may compact the mint into the base of the mortar.
Weigh an empty polystyrene cup.
Add the crushed mint to the cup.
Reweigh the polystyrene cup and obtain the mass of the mint used.
Take the temperature of the water using a 0 to 50C thermometer (easily readable to 0.2C).
Add the water to the mint, in the polystyrene cup, and stir vigorously to dissolve the mint.
Take care not to let any solution splash out of the cup.
Record the highest temperature reached.
Repeat the experiment using granulated sugar.
For the purpose of approximation, assume that both materials are chemically identical and the
mint is both anhydrous and completely amorphous.
Questions
1. Explain the observed difference in the change of temperature.
2. If left exposed to the atmosphere, the mint becomes sticky on the surface, but granulated sugar
does not. Explain this observation.
3. Of the two forms of sucrose, which has the highest energy level?
4. Make an estimation of the difference in energy of the two forms of sugar.
5. You may make very precise measurements in this experiment, but it cannot be accurate.
Explain the meaning of the terms accuracy and precision in this context.
6. Briefly discuss the accuracy of this experiment.
Assume specific heat capacity, s, of the solution is 4.3 J g-1 C-1.
Thermal energy change = ms(T2-T1),
Where m = mass of solution and (T2-T1) = Temperature change of the system.
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Viscosity
Discussions about accuracy and precision of data and what level is appropriate
Hydrogen bonding
10
11
Your challenge:
Design and test:
The slime with the greatest bounce.
The slime that can stretch the most without breaking.
Investigate the viscosity of slime as a function of the amount of borax used
Your
Procedure
Use the scale on the side of the 100ml beaker to measure 20m1 of the P.V.A.
solution. You may need to estimate from the scale. Ask for help if you are not
sure about this.
1. OPTIONAL you can stir in one (or two) drops of food colouring at this point.
2. Add between 1 and 10ml of the 4% borax solution. (Note: Its best if each
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Stopclock
Optional extras?
Magnetic stirrer / glass rod
Thermometer
15
Metal on (+ve)
terminal (Black)
10
15
More reactive
metal
20
30
60
Voltage Measured
/V
Observations
You will notice at least two important features about the voltage reading
1. The values jump about a lot, and
2. The values decrease, quickly at first but then more gradually.
This poses a problem of how to take an accurate measurement. In fact it will be impossible to get
measurements which give the same value each time the experiment is repeated (except by
chance). There are many variables which are affecting your results so we have to be very careful
with our method so as not to disturb the system more than necessary and to make our
measurements as consistent as possible.
Always start with freshly prepared, clean electrodes.
Keep electrodes as far apart as possible.
Possible further preliminary investigations
You have seen that the measurements decrease quickly. How can you make readings from
separate tests compatible with each other? (Note: Do not expect them to be the same
what, in your opinion constitutes consistent results for this experiment?)
Does stirring have any effect?
The process is temperature dependant. What reasonable precautions should you take to
make sure that measurements are as consistent as possible?
What if you connect two electrodes of the same metal?
Investigation
You are to select pairs of metal electrodes and determine a series for the metals. Compare this
series with that of the reactivity series obtained from displacement reactions.
In your evaluation, comment on difficulties experienced in taking measurements and how you
tackled them.
How accurate do you think your measurements are, and with this in mind, how precisely should
they be recorded? Try to justify any assumptions made.
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An Electrifing Experience
Aims:
1. To show that an electric current can flow when different metals are connected via an
electrolyte.
2. To show that this leads to corrosion of the metals involved.
Apparatus:
Zinc foil, copper foil, powdered gelatine, 0.5M copper sulphate solution, 0.5M zinc sulphate
solution, filter paper, multimeter, leads
Zinc electrode
Filter paper containing
zinc sulphate gel
Moist filter paper
Multimeter
Copper electrode
4 cm
Method:
1) Preparing the metal electrodes.
Each group will need 5 copper electrodes (cut from GP grade copper foil
approx. 0.1mm thickness) and 5 zinc electrodes (cut from GP grade
1.0cm
zinc foil approx 0.3mm thickness). Each electrode should be 3.5 cm
square with a 1.5cm x 1cm tab.
5.0cm
3.5cm
1.5cm
3.5cm
4.0cm
4.0cm
V
Cell 1
V
Cell 5
Cell 4
Cell 3
Cell 2
Cell 1
Results:
A)
table
Connect the multimeter to the electrodes of the single cell and record the readings in the
Q.5)
Q.6)
Q.7)
Q.8)
Q.9)
Q.9)
Q.9)
Sketch a graph showing the number of cells against the voltage read on the multimeter.
What is the relationship between the number of cells and the voltage output of the battery?
Explain why the output from the cells is not exactly the same.
How could the design of the battery be improved to obtain a better output?
What is happening at the interface between the copper electrode and the copper sulphate?
What is happening at the interface between the zinc electrode and the zinc sulphate?
What would you expect to happen to each of the electrodes if the cells were left connected
for a long period of time?
Q.10) Suggest two practical uses of the chemical reactions taking place in this experiment.
Reference:
You may find this link helpful: http://www.creative-science.org.uk/sea1.html
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Tensile Testing
Notes
This refers to stretching a specimen at a constant strain rate and recording the measured load
required for that strain.
A perfectly elastic material would be expected to produce a graphical plot of stress v strain which
is a straight line, ending suddenly with a brittle failure. This occurs as bonds between
neighbouring atoms are stretched to the point of breaking. When a bond does break, it puts extra
load on the remaining bonds, making them more likely to break. A crack starts to run across the
material at this point and the material fails.
A ductile material produces, by contrast a curve due to plastic deformation taking place. As load
increases, atomic planes slide past each other causing physical distortion of the specimen and
simultaneously relieving the stress. Thinning of the specimen in one position (called necking)
occurs. In this localised area, however, the stress does continue to increase (due to reduction of
cross sectional area) which concentrates the plastic deformation in this area.
Most materials experience a combination of the two behaviours, with an elastic region followed
by a plastic region. Variations can be introduced through different heat treatments and alloying.
The following describes a simple experiment which can be used at any age from an investigation
at KS3 to an introductory demonstration at higher levels.
An excel Spreadsheet is provided for a number of metal samples. Although there is one
workbook in this spreadsheet determining the Stress / Strain characteristics, it is expected that this
workbook would be deleted for sixth formers so that they can calculate this for themselves from
the data provided.
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Approx 6 cm
Approx 1.5 cm
Grip the ends of the cylinder firmly and pull the ends of the plasticine test pieces apart, slowly
and steadily care is needed or you may find your hands flying apart! This will constitute a failed
test. You may find that you have to ease off a little once the specimen starts to break.
Repeat for each specimen in turn, pulling with about the same force.
Examine the fracture surface of the plasticine using a magnifying glass.
The diameter of the test pieces started about the same size. Are the fracture surfaces about
the same size or is there a pattern?
Use a magnifying glass to look closely at the surfaces. What do they look like?
Predict what would happen if you added 6g of sand to another 35g lump of plasticine.
Write what you think you would see and draw a diagram to help.
Now make the extra specimen with 6g of sand and put your theory to the test.
Describe what you found out. Were you right or was it different in some way? Comment
on your results.
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O
=
Initial origin
OO1 =
Permanent elongation
A
=
Elastic limit
OA
=
Linear region
B
=
General point beyond A
BO
=
Relaxation if stress removed
(Note: O1B is parallel to OA)
C
=
Maximum Strength
AC
=
Region of plastic Deformation
X
=
Failure
CA
=
Plastic Flow
(Note: This is the region where necking or
localised thinning of the specimen takes
place.)
C
B
A
O1
The overall shape (not values) of the curve would be the same for a plot of Force v length.
However, plotting (Engineering) Stress v Strain standardises the curve for different cross sectional
areas and different lengths.
Problems: The plot assumes that the initial cross sectional area and length are constant
throughout. This is not the case.
The volume of material remains constant, therefore as the length increases, the cross
sectional area decreases. This effect is minute and is generally ignored over the elastic
region.
Once necking takes place, however, reduction in the cross sectional area becomes marked.
This is not normally allowed for in these plots and can give lead to misleading
observations. Since the Stress is determined by Load/Area, as localised area decreases, the
stress will, in fact increase at this point. As the Tensometer cannot measure the decrease in
cross sectional area, it is not actually measuring the True stress, but the stress assuming
a constant cross-sectional area, referred to as the Engineering stress.
Engineering stress is generally used for simplicity, since once this starts to happen, any safe
loading has been exceeded by far, and few structures are designed to fail in such a precise way.
Exceptions may include safety bolts that are designed to fail under dangerous loading conditions.
26
Line OA: The line is linear and the material follows Hookes Law. Relieving stress returns the
specimen to its original, unstretched length.
Beyond A: the stress is such that dislocations (later) in the crystal start to move. This changes the
spatial arrangement of some of the atoms relative to each other, hence a permanent change in
length is observed and the line is no longer linear.
Relaxing the specimen of all stress at this point allows the Stress v Strain line to follow a path
parallel to the line OA, as the slope is a property of the material (Youngs Modulus =
Stress/Strain), but returns to point O1 where OO1 indicates the permanent extension resulting from
the movement of dislocations.
Carbon Steels
The above applies to carbon steels also, but the alloying element carbon affects the behaviour of
the dislocations.
Carbon atoms are small compared to iron and tend to fit between iron atoms in the crystal lattice
(interstitial alloy), as opposed to occupying the site of an iron atom in the crystal as happens with
metal-metal alloys (substitutional alloys).
The position of carbon atoms increases the local stress (same dimensions as pressure) in the
crystal. If the atoms could be positioned in a region where the crystal lattice is imperfect, and
greater gaps between iron atoms are found, then the stress will be reduced. Placing the interstitial
atoms in these spaces (see dislocations, later) forms a lower energy situation than having the
carbon distributed within a perfect crystal lattice. Such imperfections occur at grain boundaries
(where crystals of different orientation meet) and at dislocations. Natural systems adjust from
high to low energy systems, therefore, to minimise the energy of the system, carbon atoms diffuse
to these sites that is, grain boundaries and dislocations.
Carbon atoms occupy the larger than usual gap at a dislocation. This prevents the dislocation
from moving and is said to pin the dislocation.
If the dislocations in iron are pinned, then they
cannot move, preventing plastic deformation at
stress values that would otherwise result in
plastic deformation. This extends the useful
range of the iron by extending the elastic
region of the stress v strain curve. There is a
limit, however, and once it is reached, the
dislocation is forced past the carbon atom that
has been pinning it. This results in a slight
relaxation and an initial peak at the end of the
elastic region. More dislocations are pinned,
preventing further deformation, hence the line
rises again. This stress and relaxation pattern
repeats a number of times giving the series of
peaks observed in the graph.
27
Stress
C Steel
Pure Iron
NOT TO SCALE
Strain
Dislocations
occur when an otherwise perfect
crystal has an extra plane of atoms
inserted.
a. A perfect crystal
b. A dislocation
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Appendix
Chart showing stress v strain charts for different metals.
Stress is defined as
As the test proceeds and elastic the limit is exceeded, the specimen necks and permanent
extension takes place, hence both the cross sectional area and original length of the specimen
change. The Tensometer cannot take these changing values into account and continues to assume
the initial values, resulting in error values of the absolute stress and strain. In the absence of any
cost effective way of correcting this defect in the experimental design, the output is accepted, but
is qualified by referring to Engineering stress and strain.
If the true stress and true strain could be plotted, the lines of the charts would continue to rise, as
the stress in the region of necking continues to rise as a result of decreasing cross sectional area.
29
Elastic Limit
LP
Limit of Proportionality
Stress
EL
From origin to LP, the metal obeys Hookes Law. That is:Stress
Strain
LP
Path taken on
unloading
BEFORE EL
Path taken on
unloading
AFTER EL
Strain
The region BETWEEN LP and EL is also purely elastic, with full recovery on the unloading of the metal, but is NOT
linear.
To explain this feature, we need to consider the Potential Energy between metal atoms as the separation of the atoms
changes. As the atoms approach, the PE changes:1.
2.
b.
Approaching from infinity (moving right to left in figure 2a), the PE increases to a large negative
value (- for attraction) as the extent of electronic / orbital overlap increases.
c.
b.
As the nuclei approach (moving right to left), electrostatic repulsion increases the PE (+ for
repulsion) between the atoms
c.
3.
There is an equilibrium position where the forces balance and the PE is at a minimum value referred to as the
Potential Energy well. This corresponds to the bond length, or lattice parameter in the case of a cubic metal
crystal.
4.
The PE well is not symmetrical. To the left, repulsive forces (varied as 1/distance cubed) dominate and to
the right, attractive forces (varied as 1/distance squared) dominate.
5.
Compressing the material is, therefore harder than extending the material.
6.
In extending the material, the atomic distance is increased. Over a short period of time, this approximates to
a linear relationship.
7.
Larger distances reduce the attraction between neighbouring atoms making it easier for bonds to break and
reform, e.g. at a dislocation, where a strained bond breaks but reforms with a closer neighbour. Hence we
get plastic deformation.
8.
Between the linear, elastic region and the onset of plastic deformation is a region in which
a.
b.
c.
30
PE between atoms
PE due to Attractive forces
Elastic, but
non-linear
2.
Place against the lips to notice the temperature. (This may not be necessary)
3.
4.
Place against the lips and notice the very large rise in temperature. This may be noticeable through the
fingers, but the lips are more temperature sensitive.
Furthermore, the clip bends easily at first, but it soon gets harder to bend. This is due to
1.
The generation and movement of many dislocations. The dislocations are limited to sliding along specific
crystal planes.
2.
3.
In turn this restricts / prevents dislocations from moving and hence limits plastic flow / ductile behaviour.
4.
The material is hardened, as steel is with carbon, by the pinning of dislocations but via a different
mechanism.
5.
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32
Hardness Testing
Background
Hardness is the resistance of a material to plastic deformation. This property can be used to
measure the hardness of a material by deliberately indenting the surface with a known load and an
indenter of known shape and size. The experiment / investigation is relevant to reinforce
terminology such as plastic, elastic, ductile, brittle, hardness, toughness and could be applied in
science or DT at Key stages 2, 3 or even 4 (where higher assessment marks are not an issue).
The principle behind this home made apparatus is that a fixed, pointed shape is pressed into a
surface by a consistent force.
Plasticine can be tested at different temperatures using ice-water and ice-salt-water mixes allow
two values below room temperature, the use of a water bath at 50C allows a safe maximum value
to be used, hot water in a beaker, allowed to slowly cool to a test temperature and room
temperature itself allow five test temperatures.
Plasticine is a very poor thermal conductor, so temperature variations will be minimal if the pupils
test as soon as the plasticine leaves its heat source.
If left in water at 50C for several minutes, anomalous results may be obtained indicating that the
plasticine has been hardened.
Testing different woods (parallel, perpendicular and end-on to the grain), different plastics,
different metals, the effect of using composites could link with DT.
Small indentations can reasonably be observed with a magnifying glass and metal rule.
Notes:
Dropping masses from greater heights and/or increasing the size of the mass are ways of
adjusting to harder materials.
Only materials which are softer than the indenter can be measured. The point of the
indenter is likely to wear with time if hard materials are tested.
The thickness of the material to be tested must always be such that neither energy nor
indention is transferred to the substrate.
33
Place the point of the indenter on the plasticine, through the central hole.
Record results and repeat to obtain three values at each of five temperatures.
Temperature / C
Ice-salt-water mix
-5C
Salt-water mix
0C
Room temperature
25C
Cooling water
40C
Water bath
50C
Conclusion
To be decided
34
Indent / mm
24 mm
Wood / Cork
20 mm
Nail
40 mm
3 mm
20 mm
150 mm
35
30 mm
40 mm
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36
Creep
Teachers Guide
The following is not intended to be a full or detailed explanation of Creep, but sufficient to
introduce to pupils at school and give the non-specialist teacher a background that is greater than
that which would be required for schools. The mechanism of creep is not discussed and it should
be noted that the text is very general since different metals will have different characteristics.
Background
Engineering Stress (Nm-2)
Stress-Strain Diagram
In the diagram (right)
O
=
Initial origin
YP
=
Elastic limit
OA
=
Linear, elastic region
C
=
Maximum Strength
Past C =
Region of necking
X
=
Failure
C
YP
X
Plastic deformation occurs in metals via a mechanism of dislocation movement in which a linear
defect slips one atom position at a time giving the same effect as a plane of atoms gliding through
the crystal. The relative position of atoms moves one position per dislocation.
Many millions of these dislocations move through the crystal along different planes, frequently
their paths intersect. Dislocations cannot occupy the same space nor pass through each other, so
they lock together. This is called a JOG. Because the dislocations block free movement to each
other, the material is hardened and exhibits increased resistance to further deformation. This
hardening due to the effect of applying forces (doing work on the material) is termed WORK
HARDENING.
37
Now, consider a dislocation under compressive forces. The dislocation is squeezed out of the
crystal, perpendicular to the compressive forces but to allow this, there must be some diffusion of
atoms away from the dislocation.
Because the dislocation is not sliding in a direction perpendicular to the intersecting plane along a
plane, but is moving along the intersecting plane, we have a different mechanism. The former is
effected by flips of metallic bonds, and the latter by diffusion processes. This latter process is
referred to as CLIMB.
Combining the above mechanisms, we can imagine a crystalline metal in which dislocations are
jogged (that is locked together, preventing further movement). If there is sufficient temperature to
allow diffusion processes to become significant, then the jogged dislocations may climb (out of
the way of each other such that they no longer affect each other. Once the dislocations are no
longer aligned, then the dislocation may continue on its journey under the influence of applied
stress.
The temperature at which the diffusion processes becomes significant is about 1/3 of the melting
point of the metal on the Kelvin scale. Lead is usually chosen to illustrate creep experimentally,
since it has a melting point of about 327C (600K) and a room temperature of 27C (300K) places
it in excess of this temperature. This explains why lead used to cover a sloping roof tends to flow
down the slope of the roof over time, such that the lead is thinner at the top than at the bottom.
During creep, the metal will thin uniformly. This decreases the cross sectional area of the metal
and as a direct consequence, the stress increases. Eventually the stress increases to a point where
normal ductile failure occurs and there is then evidence of necking in the final stages.
38
Since creep is diffusion controlled, it is a time dependent process. The process has been noted to
have three distinct phases as shown in the diagram.
Both primary and tertiary stages are relatively short times
compared to the steady state phase. The diagram on the
right greatly distorts the time axis to show the shape of the
primary and secondary phases. These may be a matter of
seconds or minutes whereas the steady state may be hours,
days or years.
In creep experiment described here, from specimen data, it
will be noted that two different mechanisms may be
detected.
1. High stresses ordinary ductile failure short
failure times.
2. Low stresses a diffusion based creep mechanism long failure times.
In a simple loading experiment in which load is recorded along with time to failure, a plot of load
v log(10)(time/sec) produces data (specimen data collected with apparatus as described in the
following pages) that graphs as
The existence of the two slopes allows for students who make careful observations to identify
these changes in slope and for the more able student to suggest that this may be due to different
mechanisms. Without being prompted, there is no reason why students up to and including A
level should know any detail about the different mechanisms simply to note the evidence and
deduce the fact would be commendable.
It will be noted that, in the experiment, the treatment of data requires that load be plotted against
log(10)(time). This should not be beyond A level candidates, and GCSE pupils should be able to
use the log function of a calculator. To make the analysis simpler, the teacher could provide a
spreadsheet into which pupils enter data and a graph is automatically plotted. Needless to say,
where assessment of ICT is required, teachers could set a separate exercise for pupils to prepare
their own spreadsheet.
39
Apparatus
The apparatus can be made from cheap easily obtained materials.
Eyelet
Lead
Wire
Retort Stand
Eyelets
Support Bar
Dowling
(5/16Dia)
Kite String
Weights
+
Battery
Alarm clock
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Method
1. Measure about 20 cm lead wire taking care not to crease it or bend it sharply, as this will
introduce mechanical working that will affect the results.
2. Attach the wire to the eyelet on the top support bar.
3. Wrap the wire around the support bar 3 times this provides a friction grip that prevents
excess load being placed on the eyelet connection.
4. Attach the lead wire to the lower load bar in a similar way, making sure that the length of
wire to be loaded is consistently the same each time (about 15 cm).
5. Set the timer to -1 min.
6. Connect the timer lead to the top eyelet.
7. Attach the timer lead to the lower bar: the clock will start.
8. Attach the weights to the sling below the lower bar BUT SUPPORT THEM UNTIL THE
MINUTE FINGER IS ABUT TO PASS ZERO.
9. Carefully apply the weights onto the lead wire. The weights must NOT be released
suddenly as this may cause a premature failure.
10. Leave the apparatus, ideally in a draft free and constant temperature place until the wire
fails
11. Record the time to failure and the weight applied.
Extension
12. Use a micrometer to measure the diameter of the wire before and after the experiment.
a. What is the initial stress?
b. What is the final stress?
c. Does the wire thin uniformly over its length, or only at the site of failure?
13. Repeat the experiment for loads in the range 150g to 350g. This type of experiment will
produce what appears to be a large scatter in the results especially for the longer times.
It may be useful to repeat each experiment at least once and calculate an average. This is
because on the microscopic scale, and below, where the failure mechanism applies, each
and every piece of wire is individual and has its own microscopic defects no matter how
carefully you handle the wire.
14. Plot the results of Load (or stress) against log10(time / seconds). Your teacher may provide
a spreadsheet to help with this.
15. What do you notice about the slope of results with high loads compared to those with
lower loads (above / below about 320g)? Can you suggest an explanation?
Note: The lower loads may take in the region of 104s (27 to 30 hours) and the higher loads may
result in a failure of only a few minutes or even seconds.
Challenge
Set up a creep test that, according to your results, will fail during your NEXT science lesson. The
group with the test that fails closest to the middle of the lesson is the winner!
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Ferrofluids
Technology Overview
A ferrofluid is a stable colloidal suspension of subdomain magnetic particles in a liquid carrier. The
particles, which have an average size of about 100
(10 nm), are coated with a stabilizing dispersing agent
(surfactant) which prevents particle agglomeration even
when a strong magnetic field gradient is applied to the
ferrofluid. The surfactant must be matched to the
carrier type and must overcome the attractive van der
Waals and magnetic forces between the particles. The
colloid and thermal stabilities, crucial to many
applications, are greatly influenced by the choice of the surfactant. A typical ferrofluid may
contain by volume 5% magnetic solid, 10% surfactant and 85% carrier.
In the absence of a magnetic field, the magnetic moments of the particles are randomly distributed
and the fluid has no net magnetization.
When a magnetic field is applied to a ferrofluid, the magnetic moments of the particles orient
along the field lines almost instantly. The magnetization of the ferrofluid responds immediately to
the changes in the applied magnetic field and when the applied field is removed, the moments
randomize quickly.
In a gradient field the whole fluid responds as a
homogeneous magnetic liquid which moves to the region
of highest flux. This means that ferrofluids can be precisely
positioned and controlled by an external magnetic field.
The forces holding the magnetic fluid in place are
proportional to the gradient of the external field and the
magnetization value of the fluid. This means that the
retention force of a ferrofluid can be adjusted by changing
either the magnetization of the fluid or the magnetic field in
the region.
A Ferrofluid is designed as a component of a device and therefore it must meet specific
performance objectives of the device. The selection of ferrofluid depends on many factors such as
environments, operating life, etc. There are many different combinations of saturation
magnetization and viscosity resulting in a ferrofluid suitable for every application.
The operating life of the product depends on the volatility of the ferrofluid. Products that require
long life must use ferrofluids with low evaporation rate or vapor pressure. Also, seals operating at
high vacuum must incorporate low vapor pressure fluids. On the other hand, ferrofluids for
domain observation must evaporate quickly so that the process time can be minimized. The lower
the volatility, the higher the viscosity of the ferrofluid.
Thermal conductivity of a ferrofluid depends linearly on the solid loading. Fluorocarbon based
ferrofluids have the lowest thermal conductivity of all commercial ferrofluids, therefore they are
the least desirable materials for heat transfer applications.
In devices, ferrofluids come in contact with a wide variety of materials. It is necessary to ensure
that ferrofluids are chemically compatible with these materials. The fluids may be exposed to
hostile gases, such as in the semiconductor and laser industries; to liquid sprays in machine tool
and aircraft industries; to lubricant vapors in the computer industry; and to various adhesives in
the speaker industry. Furthermore, ferrofluids may be in contact with various types of plastics and
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plating materials. The surface morphology can also affect the behavior of the fluid. The selection
of ferrofluid is carefully engineered to meet application requirements.
Additionally, ferrofluids may be expected to perform at temperature of 150C continuously or
200C intermittently, in winter conditions (-20C) and space environments (-55C). They may
also be required to withstand nuclear radiation without breakdown.
The thermal stability of a ferrofluid is related to
particle density. The particles appear to behave like
a catalyst and produce free radicals, which lead to
cross linking of molecular chains and eventual
congealing of the fluid. Catalytic activity is higher at
elevated temperatures and, therefore, ferrofluids
congeal more rapidly at these temperatures.
Oxidation is another mechanism that contributes to
congealing of ferrofluids, and again the higher the
temperature, the faster the rate of reaction. The
ferrofluids in sealed environments stay in a liquid
state significantly longer than those in open air.
High magnetization ferrofluids are of interest as they produce volumetric efficiencies of magnetic
circuit designs leading to lightweight and lower cost products. They can also be used to reduce
reluctance of magnetic circuits and fringing field thus increasing useful flux density in the air gap.
The domain magnetization of magnetite ultimately limits the maximum magnetization value that
can be realized in a ferrofluid.
In summary we can say that Ferrofluids are a unique class of material. Ferrofluid technology is
well established and capable of solving a wide variety of technical problems. There are many
successful applications of this engineering material and there is immense future potential.
In many applications, ferrofluid is an active component that contributes towards the enhanced
performance of the device. These devices are either mechanical (e.g., seals, bearings and dampers)
or electromechanical (e.g., loudspeakers, stepper motors and sensors) in nature. In other cases,
ferrofluid is employed simply as a material for nondestructive testing of other components such as
magnetic tapes, stainless steels and turbine blades. When correctly applied, Ferrofluid can produce
dramatic improvements in a products' performance; or achieve a level of performance unattainable
by any other technology or product.
Ferrotec Corporation (formerly Ferrofluidics) has led the development of Ferrofluidic technology
since 1968 and has worked closely with many companies as their new product teams incorporate
ferrofluids in next-generation products. With a comprehensive fluid development and applications
laboratories in both the US and Japan, and an experienced staff of scientists and engineers
available to assist you, Ferrotec is well placed to help you solve your engineering challenges using
ferrofluid.
Acknowledgement:
The above text is taken from the Ferrotec Web site
http://www.ferrotec.com/usa/ferrofluid_technology_overview.htm
where much more information about Ferrofluids can be found. Much of the information on
the web site could be useful for school projects.
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Ferrofluid Demonstrations
Ferrofluid in a bottle
Ferrofluids can be obtained from Ferrotec (expensive) or from
www.ebay.co.uk
http://www.scuddlebutt3.co.uk (seller on ebay)
http://www.mutr.co.uk/products.aspx?catID=18
The ferrofluid is the dark brown fluid and is hydrocarbon based. The colourless liquid is a
support medium intended to reduce the surface tension of the ferrofluid and provide some
buoyancy hence improving the spikey effect due to a magnetic field.
1. Experiment with the magnet.
Note the spikey effect as magnetic nanoparticles attempt to follow the magnetic lines of
force and are confined by the surface tension of the support medium.
Place an aluminium container on top of the A magnet. Take care to approach the
magnet from ABOVE the ferrofluid will jump out of the container if the magnetic field
is strong enough.
Observe the shape of the ferrofluid. Move the magnet and observe.
3. Separation technique:
Add a 5p piece (Copper-nickel alloy and NOT magnetic whereas some 1p pieces are
magnetic. Do not use magnetic coins). The coin is seen to sink.
Place the container, ferrofluid and 5p piece over a strong magnet. Approach from above
the magnet.
The 5p piece floats. This is due to magnetite nanoparticles drawing closer together in the
magnetic field, thus increasing the ferrofluids density.
Add more ferrofluid. The coin does NOT rise to the surface.
Probe the ferrofluid with a thin rod. The coins is found to be floating just above the base
of the container. As distance from the magnet increases, the magnetic field decreases.
Hence the magnetite particles are not so close together and density decreases through the
fluid from bottom to surface. The coin floats at the point where it is neutrally buoyant.
Other useful web addresses for information about ferrofluids and how they can be used
http://www.ferrolabs.com/
http://www.teachersource.com/catalog/index.html
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For further information about class experiments, school visits and courses
(pupils and teachers), please contact:
Martin Carr
(Schools Liaison Officer)
Department of Materials
University of Oxford
Parks Road
Oxford OX1 3PH
T. 01865 273 710
F. 01865 273 789
E. Martin.Carr@materials.ox.ac.uk
W. http://www.materials.ox.ac.uk/undergraduate/schools.html
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