The Central Conception of Buddhism

PRIZB PUBLIOATION lUND
VOL. VII
1.'HE CENTRAL
CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM
AND THE
MEANING OJ'
TH~~
WORD "DHARMA"
BY
..
TH. STCHERBATSKY, PH.D.,

PROFESSOR IN THE IJNIVERSITY OF PETROGRAD, IIfEMB~.R OF THE
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF RUSSIA
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY THE
ROYAL ASIA'l'IC SOCIE'['Y

AND SOLD AT
74 GROSVENOR STREET, LONDON, W 1
1923
STJ:PHJ!.N AUSTIN AND SON"! LTD
PRINTFR"I, III RTrORD
CONTENTS
PAGE
PRBFACB
I.
VII
1
6
7
PRELIMINARY
II.
SKANDHAS.
III.
AYATANAS.
IV.
DHITUS
V.
MATTER
9
11
ELEMENTS OF MIND
15
FORCES
20
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
NON'BUBBl'ANTlALI'ry OF TIlE ELEMENTS

PRATITYARAMUTPADA (CAUSALITY)
KARMA
IMPERMANENCE OF TlUJ ELEMENTlI
24
28
81
87
XIII.
UNREST OF TIlE ELEMFlNTB
XIV.
THEORY OF COGNITION
48
48
54
PREBtJDDHAIC BUDDHISM
65
SUMMARY.
78
XII.
XV.
XVI.
IMPERMANENCE IN SlNKHYA'YOGA
I Vasuhandhl1 on the flmclamental IlfIncrpll'

of the SarvastlVOOo. School .
76
ApPENDIX II. Tables of the Elements u.ccorclmf.{ to thE'
So.rviistlviidms
93
It
INDEX OF PROPER NAMES
108
INDEX OF SANRCRIT TEltMlI
109
ApPENDIX
PREFACE
THIS shod trea.tise was originally conceived as
a. contribution to the Royal Asiatic Society's
JO'Ulr'1/,o,l: its size induced the Council to publish it as
a. monograph, and my best tllanks are due to the Council
for this kind decision. I must also express my gratitude
to Mrs. C. A. F. Rhys DavIds, who was always ready to
help with her vast knowledge of Pali literature. Professor
H. Jacobi kindly went through the proofs, and to
him I am indebted for many 0. valuable suggestion.
Dr. McGovern contributed some of the references to
Chinese sourceR. But my deepest gl'atitude is due to
Dr. F. W. Thomo."I, who devoted much of ius pleciou8
tilDe to the reviRlon of my work and to carrying it
through the press.
In transhteration I have usually not distinguished the
guttural, etc., naso.lR, when occurrmg before the consonants of their respecti ve classes.
'rHo S'l'CIIERBATSKY.
July, 193.
The central conception of Buddhism and the

mean~ of the term DIaGTma
I.
PRELIMINA.RY
1N a recent work Mrs. M. Geiger and Professor W. Geiger

have made an attempt to solve the uncert.ainty whioh
still prevails about the meaning of the term dkamtA.1
have drawn up a concordanoe of almost every case where the
word occurs in Pali canonical hterature, and established a
great variety of me&Il.Ulg8. Among them there is, indeed,
only one that really matters, that is the specifically Buddhistio
technical term dharma. The other significations whioh
Buddhist literature sharell with the Brabmanical do not
present any serious difficulty. About this meaning the authors
rightly remark that it is' a "central conception of the
Buddhist doctrine which must be elucidated as far as
pOBSlble ". They also contend that the method followed by
them is CI purely phIlological ". ThiS is also an indication
of the limItations of thelr work, because the central conception of a highly comphcated system, a conception which
in its varied connotations inoludes almost the totality of the
system, cannot be expected to be.. fully elUCidated by
.. plulological" methods only We therefore propose, m
addition to Mrs and Professor Geiger's most valuable
collections, to consider the matter from the philosophical
standpoiJ!li, I e. to give, Wlth regard to thiS conception,
a succinct account of the system in which It aduuttedly
occupies the keystone position. Our chief source will
be, nMi the Pali Canon, but a later work, the AbhidJ~
koS"G_ of Vasubandhu.1I t~though late, It IS professedly
'l'h.,
P.u
I
DAGmmG, von KagdaIene u. Wllhelm GeJS8l', Mumoh, 1921.
A plan of an pdItJ.on and tranalatlon of the whole work hu been oat\Jiraed and partly carried through by the BwZlolAect:J Btuldhtl'fJ at Petrograd.
........ve appeared, (1) .A.b~kopJi:'4rd:4 and Bft4nG, 'l'ibetJD
THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION 01' BU'DD8l8Ji
only a systematized exposition of a much earlier wotkthe A.bh~uih1tii.,a-9iUtf'G, which, in its tum. is bat
a commentary on the abhidlaarma of the Sa.rristividin
school.) Thla &Chool is one of the earliest, If not the earliest,
of Buddhist sects. The question upon which it dtssented and
from which it received its name had a bearing on the essence
of what was called a dharma, so that an expoBltlon of its
mWi will afford the best opportumty of examining the full
~ot&tion of this term.1 It must be left to later investIgalilon
to determine the points where Vasubandhu's expomtion may
D6 at ",ariance with the prumtive doctrine; but, generally
speaking, he seems to have rendered the origmal doctnne
very faithfully. Smce hIS age is about the same as that of the
Pall commentanes, 2 the difference between hIm and the
tnt, pt. I, edited by Professor Th. Stcherbataky, Petrograd, 1917;
(I) SplIllIdrtMbll1dh4rma./eofa-tJy4khya of Yat;oDlltra, San8cnt text,
pt. 1, edited by S. LeVI and Th. Stcherbatsky, Petrograd, 1917. The
8ICOnd parts of both these works, Tibetan text editIon by Professor Th.
8tcherbatsky and Vyikhyi (Sanscnt) by Professor W. Wogmara of
Tokyo, are bemg prlllted m the Blbbot1ieca BuddhlCa. An Enghsh. translation of the mnth (addltlona.l) pa.rt h ... been pubhshed by Professor
Th. Stcherbataky under the title" The Soul Theory of the Buddhists" III
the Bullet,,, de l' Acade11ue des SClences de RIU/Ble, Petrograd, 1920 (pp. 823--54:
and 937-68). A renew of the system has been pubhshed by the late
Pzofeaaor 0 Ro.senberg, of Petrograd UDlvemty, under the title Problem,
0/ B1UIdAast Phlloaophy, Petrograd, 1918 (m RUBBlan). Thla scholar baa
rJao 181Ned an Illdex of Buddh18t tecbmcal terms III Chmese a.nd Japanese
under the title An 1n.troduetaon 10 the study of BuddhISm from Ohifteae antl
JapG1leB8 SOUI'ces, Tokyo, 1917. Professor de la Vallee POU8iIID has
pw.bhshed In BrUllae1S French translation of the tlurd pa.rt, ad 18 now
...-sed in prmtmg a translation of the first and second parts of the
.4.6AIdllarma-ktJra
I Beside Mrs and Prof Geiger the question haa been treated by Mrs. Rbys
DaVida, BKd. Psy. EthlCI, ltXltIIl; Walleaer, (huftdlage, 97-1{l4,; Warren,
Btcddlnsm tn TranB14taou, 116,209; S. Z. Aung, Oompentllum, 179 n.,
2M-9. S. UVlo Sucra14f/lJdra, 18, 21; L de 1. Vallee Poussm. Notes _
lea C(JI'pB eN BcnuIdAa, lrIu"n: 1913, pp. 283, 287. The question has been
put in the proper lIght and brllha.ntly treated by Professor O. Rosenberg,
ProblelllB, ohap. vi: but, smce hIS work 18 wnttenlll RUII8l&n and UI&ClOeIISible
at peaent, BOIDe of his l'OIulta are repeated here.
The date of Vasubandhu 18 not yet quite eettled; .cf. the referenoel
V. Smith. Barl, BMW" 3rd eeL, lIP 328 11. At the eud of chap '<4
V. .baDdhu nuwka that In lws time the c'ip_ had bad an eDtoaoe",
J.
PRELIMINARY
Pali 8OUlCe8 is not so much one of time as of school. Nothing

it more instructive than the study of the divergent views of
differeIlt schools, since it allows us to watch the builders of
the' Buddhist doctrine at work.
(The formula of the BuddhIst Credo (ye dkamma, etc.)which professedly contams the shortest statement of the
essence and the spint of Buddhism I-dec]ares that Buddha
discovered the elements (dhamm,a) of eXistence, theIr causal
conneXlon, and a method to suppress theIr efficiency for ever
(n~rodho). Vasubandhu makes a SImilar statement about the
essence bf the doctrine: It IS a method of convertlDg the
elements of eXistence mto a conditIOn of rest, out of which ,'
they never WIll emerge agam 2 From the first days of the
BuddhIst church the nOVices, before obtammg admIttance
mto the order, went through a course of mstructlOn m what
may be termed the BuddhIst catechIsm, I.e an exposition of
the elements (dharma) of eXistence and theIr ddferent
classificatIOns into skandhas, iiyatanas, dM.tus. 3 The same
traming was consIdered mdispensable for the aspmng nllnS.
These condItions have not changed down to the present day In
all BuddhIst countrIes. In the whole of Mongoha and Tibet,
in those parts of SIberIa where Buddhism IS sprE'ading agamst
the prumtive Shamamsm among the Tunguz tribes of
1,000 (not 900) years, and the adlllgama (=abkldkarma) somewhat 111M than
that. That there were two V&8ubandhus 18 not" a guess With no Bohri
ba.sls"; the K09a actually quotes the opmlona of a vnddwlirya V/Ulubandhu
and rejects them (i, 13, libetan text, p 23, cf. YaQomltra's comment).
There rema.m the dates of the Chmese trana1ahons of the works of Asanga
and Vasubandhu, which alone, If correct, would be suffiCient evideDce to
&l81gn them to the fourth century. OtherwlBe one feels mclmed to brmg
Vasubandhu Dearer to DIgniga, whose tea.<'her he was.
1 Cf. M a/ui,uagga, 10 23.
Ab E., i, I, Tlb. text, P 3, IL 12-13.
a Cf T~, 1255.
ta864M11' t.'lZCtlfllJl1' ItfI.tflli kllaMM dgatalliini CQ
d1liUv.yo CI1 "lIldtllifIIJ pabbaJ,m aaIJgangal1l.
, Cf. Geller'lI references to Therig4th4a, op CIt, p. 65; the dlliitu, there
mentwned are propably the eighteen d1Itit"" (not tbe SIX); a D111Ilber IJl
other dJviuons mto dAcU", are mentioned in the .&llll-dlliitll__riIIw, cil.

..th. K.,1, 27, Tlb. text, p. 46.
4:
THE CENTRAl, CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM
Transbalkaha, in the governments of Irkutsk and Astrachan,

where It IS mamtalrnng itself against orthodox Christianityeverywhere It mvarIably proceeds by startmg rehglous schools
(ckos-grva), where manuals similar to the Dhamma-sa'1fl9a1)i
containing tables of dharmas are carefully studied, m the
Tibetan orlgmal WIth explanatIOns m vernacular, by the young
generatIon asplIlng to be admItted to the order and to be
gradually promoted to the hIgher eccleSIastical ranks
Scholars of Buddhism m Europe WIll do well to follow thIS
example.
A school of Buddlusts whlCh claims as its fundamental
doctrine the prinCiple that "everythIng exists" has very
naturally been supposed to uphold some land of realIstlc
views.1 TradltIOn affirms that the questIOn whlch gave
rise to thls sect had been dlscussed at the tlme of Buddha
hlmself. If a dlVlslon arlses m a community WIth the result
that some of Its members are declared to be, or claim to be,
realists, one would naturally be led to suppose that there
were others who were non-reahsts, i.e ldeahsts of Bome kind.
But, as a matter of fact, we do not meet wlth views defirutely
Ideahstic, i e. Wlth the denial of the existence of extemal
objects, until a comparatively late date. Consldermg, on the
other hand, that these would-be reahsts, lIke all Buddhists,
derned the existence of a soul or a personahty (titman,
pudgala), our uncertamty mcreases, and the SUspICIon anses
. that the battle between the Sarvastlvadms and theIr opponents
was fought on an altogether drlIerent plane, about a
question which had lIttle to do WIth our conceptIOns of
realism and Ideahsm. 2
1 80 Takakusu s v m Ha8hngB' Encyclopll!dla
Mr 8 Z Aung and
M1'II. C. Rhys DaVlds, POints 01 ControverBY, pp 275-6, nghtly observe that
the question bears upon the eXlStence of future and put dharmal/, but tlua
does not mean that .. they beheved m contmued or Immutable eXlStence
of everythmg". ThiS would be drlftmg mto Siinkbya dootrme. agalIlflt
which Buddhist phdosophers were a.lways uttermg warrungs , of Appenw% I
I The Buddh18ts theDlllelves ascribe the ongm of their IdealistiC phlloaophy
to Vasubandbu; cf mya.rtlclem theMu~n, 1905,11 ButtJuswaseVldently
only a reVlval of a tendency WhICh, m a dUferent form, wu &lrea.dy revealed
I.
PRELIMINARY
The occasion upon whIch Buddha hImself is supposed to

have put forward the watchword "everythmg eXists" was
a discusslOn Wlth the Ajivikas, who flatly demed the mfluence
of past deeds upon our destlIDes, smce they were past and
non-eXlStent. 1 This sect upheld a kmd of extreme determinism
which served as excuse for moral mcontmence; it mamtamed
that" all things are malterably fixed. There 18 no cause,
either proximate or remote, for the depravity of being, or ...
for Its pnnty ... There IS no such thIng as power or energy
or human exertlOn. Everything that thInks, has senses, 18
procreated, and lIves, IS destItute of force, power or energy.
TheIr varymg conditlOns, at any tIme, are due to fate, to theIr
enVlronment and theIr own nature".2 Buddha's teaching,
both m the moral domam and m ontology, was the reverse of
thIS, It mamtamed moral responsIbIlIty and at the same time
transformed all eXlstmg thmgs lllto a congenes of subtle
energIes (sarnskara-samuha) When pressed to say what was
meant by the words "everythmg exists ", he answered
" everythmg eXists means that the twelve ayatanas exist". 3
Now the twelve ayatanas are merely one of the many ~
classIficatlOns of the elements of eXistence of matter and mind.
The Sarvastivadm school admItted seventy-five such I
elements. These elements were called dharmas. The full
mearung of the term will emerge at the end of thIS article;
m the works of At:vagho(la and NagarJuna Ab K. bears witness that
Ideahstlo views were already discussed m the V,bMsii'rasfra, of. I, 42,
TIbetan text, p. 77, 10, and Yac;omltra's comment
1 Ab. K. ad v, 24; of AppendiX I
Of. R Hoernle's article In Haattngs' EncyclopaJdla.
Thl, passage (Sal'}'tyu1ctiigama, XIll, p 16 (McGovern cannot be traced ."
In the Pall Canon EVIdently the Theravidlns suppressed It because
It dId not agree WIth their particular tenets They accused the
VitsiputrlYas of haVing suppressed the p8.IJsages whICh ran agltlnst their
views (Soul Theory, p 840), and eVidently dId themselves the same. But
even m their school the word sabba seems to have been used rather hke a
teohrucal term. It did not mean" everythmg ", but every Item of the I
Buddh18t table of elements ThiS table was supposed to be an .. exhaustive
diVISIon ": of Mrs. Rhys DaVIds, Buddkwt P8yckologlJ, p 41, Sal'}'tyvtta,
IV, 15-27, Vwucldk,.Magga, ch XIV. Warren, Buddhls71l In translahon,
p. 158; G. Gnmm, Buddhw71lUB, pa881711.
THE CENTRAL CO!<lCEPTION OF BUDDHISM .'
at present we take it to mean an ultimate entity, the conceplilon of whlch, in the domain of matter, excludes the reality
of everythmg except sense-data, and in the field of mind, of
everytlung except separate mental phenomena We wIll begin
by revlewmg the dtfIerent kIndS of elements and theIr various
classIficatlOns, and then proceed ~o determme what was the
BuddhlSt conceptIOn of an element of eXistence. This Wlli
lead us to ascertam more preCisely 1D what sense the older
Buddhlst doctrme may have a claim to be called a. reahstIc
system.
II SKANDHAS
The sImplest classificatIOn of all elements of existence
is represented by a dIVISIOn mto five groups of elements:
(I) matter, (2) feehngs, (3) Ideas, (4) volItIOns and other
facultIes, and (5) pure sensatIOn or general consCIousness.1
If we realIze that the group of matter represents no other
matter than sense-data, that a soul IS excluded and replaced
by feehngs, Ideas, volItlOns, and pure sensatIOn, we cannot
but be surprised that from under a cover of Oriental
ternunology an epItome of matter and mmd emerges whlch
very nearly approaches the standpoint of modern European
SCience.
Three of these groups, namely, feelmgs, Ideas, and pure
sensatIOn, contam one element (dharma) each. They are,
nevertheless, called groups because they mclude feelIngs, etc.,
as past, present, and future, prOXImate and remote, external
and mternal, morally pure or impure, etc 2 The group of
matter mcludes ten elements, ten dIfferent varieties of sensedata. a The group of volItIOns, etc, mcludes fifty-eIght
elements, varIOUS mental facultIes and general forces.'
The reasons for these rendermgs of the terms TUpa. vedana, 841ft,iiij,
and v.pili 114 "Ill be gl\"en later on
lAb K, 1,20.
B Ibid, I, 14
, All the 8amsklmu e'l:cept vedana and 841ft}iiij, Ibid, I, 15 The three
eternal elements-aB41ft8krta-are not Included In the elt:andhtu, Ibid., I, 22.
Together With 4v'Jliaph.rupa tws will make seventyfive elements In aD.
1
841ft8kara,
II.
SKANDHAS
The physical elements of a personahty, mcludmg its outer

world-the external objects-are represented in this
classification by one Item-matter, 1 the mental ones are
dIstributed among the four others.
For "Matter and Mind" the old, pre-BuddhistIC term
niima-riZpn IS used, where riZpa represents the elements of
matter and nama mcludes the four mental classes.
Rut the most general dIvISIon of all elements IS mto matter
(ri],pa) , mmd (clita-calita), and forces (sarnsldira) The fourth
group (samsMra-skandlla), "hleh mcllldes mental faculties
and gener!].1 forces, is here spht into two parts, the mental
facultles are then umted to all other mental groups, and are
brought under the head of mind; the general forces or energIes
receIve a separate place (cltta-vtprayltkta-samskiira) 2 ThIS
threefold dIVISIon IS very popular and k-nown In Mongoha
and TIbet to every schoolboy 3
III
AYATANAS
A second, more detar1erl, classdicatIOn of the elements IS

made WIth a vIew to a dnrisIOn mto cogmtive facultIes and thetr
objects. There are SIX cognitive facultIes and SIX categolles
of correspondmg objects They make the twelve iiyatanas
or " bases" of cogmtIOn, VIZ
II SIX exterral base. (biihlla.
(zyatana) or ol;;le(lt~ (vl9aya)
I Rl'I: mt 'rnal b\ses (mf/lyillllll'

ayatana) or rOJcptlve faculties
L
2.
(MdTlya)
(cahltr.lnt/Tlya.
agatan1)
Sense of audItIon (frotr.endnya.
allatana ).
Sense of
VlSh,m
Colour and shape (rilpa.aya.
Sound 'fabda.ayatana}.
17nll)
1 Among the phYSIcal clements there IS one c~lled aVIJiiaph whIch

broadly corresponds to what we mIght call the moral character of a person
for SOIDIl spec1al reasons It IS entered bytheSarva~tlv;1dms m theIr phYSIcal
class (r'llpa), but other schools mclude It m mmd (Ab K, I, 11) III the
iiY2tIJna and dhdtlt classIficatlOns It IS mcluded not m the phys1calltems, but
m the general clas8 dharmalt, I.e allatana or dMtu. No. 12 In the follo\\ mg
account we leave thIS special element unnoticed, cf Appendix II, under
Matter.
a Or a shghtIy dlffermg fivefold dlvlSlon

rilpa, cstta, calfta,
lI'prallu.kta8tJ!p8k1ira, and nlrval'a. of. Ab. K , ll, 22, and AppendIx II
Zu.g8,,".ldan.m,n.l!4u..byed
THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM
3. Sense of smelling (ghriin-entlnya-
9. Odour (gandlaa-ayatana).
iiyatana)
4. Sense of taste (Jlkv.endriya-
10. Taste (raBa-iil/alana).
iiyatana)
5. Sense of touch (Uy-endrlya-
11. TB.Dglbles(8praslavya-iiyatana).
ayalana)
6. Faculty of the Intellect or consClousness (lIIana-lIulrtya-
12. Non-sensuous obJects (dllarmaayatana or dkarmcili).
iiyalana)
In this claSSification the eleven first items correspond to

eleven elements (dll.arma) , each mcludmg one. The twelfth
item con tams all the remaInIng SIXty-four elements, and it IS
therefore called dkarma-iiyatana or SImply dharmiill, i e. the
rematmng elements
The term iiyatana means "entrance" (iiyam tanot~). It
is an "entrance ' 01 conSClousness and mental phenomena
(cttta-catttiiniim) ConSCIOusness, It IS stated, never anses
alone, SInce It IS pure sensatlon, wIthout any content. It IS
always supported or "mtroduced" by two elements: a
cogmtlve faculty and a correspondIng objective element.
These are the supporters or the "doors" (dvara) for consciousness to appear. Visual conSClousness (cak~ur-mJniina)
arises m correlatIOn (pratitya) With the sense of VlSlon
(caksur-mdnya) and some colour (riiparn cal In the case of
the SIXth cogmbve facultv (manas) , consClousness Itself,
i e. Its precedmg moment, acts as a faculty for apprehendmg
non-sensuous obJects
The trend of thiS classlficatlOn, which IS a characteristic
feature of Buddlusm from Its very begmnmgs, IS unmIstakable.
It Intends to give a wVlslon of all obJects of cogmtlOn into
sense-obJects and non-sensuous ones. The first are then
chvided mto ten groups accordmg to the five senses and theIr
five obJects, and the second (dkarma-iiyatana, or simply
dharmiih), includmg every non-sensuous object, IS left undiVlded. There are SIX items correspondIng to SIX cogmtive
faculties. Thus the twelve iiyatanas, or "bases of cognition".
represent all elements of existence distnbuted within six
subjectIve and SIX correspondmg objective' Items. Their
III.
AYATANAS
synonym is "everything" (8aroam). When the principle /

"everything exists" IS Bet forth It has the meaning that'
nothIng but the twelve bases of cognition a.re eXIstent. An
object whIch cannot be VIewed as a 8eparate object of cognItIOn
or a 8eparate faculty of cogrutIOn is unreal, as e g the soul, or
the personality. Bemg a congerIes of separate elements It is
declared to be a name, and not a reahty, not a dharma. l
IV.
DHl.TUS
The dIvision of the elements of existence into eighteen

dhatus, although very SImIlar-It represents, mdeed, in its
first twelve Items a repetItion of the fonner one-is taken
from a qUIte dIfferent VIew-pomt. Buddhist phIlosophy IS
an analySIS of separate elements, or forces, whICh unite m the
productIOn of one stream (sa'l]ltana) of events. The
unphilosophic mmd of common people supposes thIS stream
to represent a personahty or an indiVidual (pudgala). Viewed
as components of such a stream, the elements are called dhatus.
Just as dIfferent metals (dhiitus) might be extracted out of
a mme, Just so does the stream of an mdlvldual lIfe reveal
elements of eighteen different lands (dhiitu = gotra}.2 It always
mcludes SIX faculties (from cak~ur-dhiitu up to mano-dhii~u),
SIX kInds of objective elements (from rupa-dhiitu up to dharmadhiitu), and SIX kInds of conSCIousness, begmnmg WIth visual
consciousness, or VI'lual sensatIOn (cakxur-vljnana-dkiitu), and
endmg WIth conSCIOusness purely mental, I.e. non-sensuous
(mano-mjnana-dhiitu). Thus, m additIon to the twelve components correspondmg to the twelve bases of cogrution, we
have :1 The nght expl&natlon of the term iiyatana IS given In 0 RosenllArg's
Problem8, p 138 ff
The usual translation "sphere" Ignores the
/undamentum dWI810lns 8 Z. Aung, Compendium, p 256, although ,'ontammg the right suggestIOn, think. It .. might well be left untranslated ".
Ab. K , i, 20 It may be noted that the number of ('omponent elements
(tattVtJ8) of the ruchmentary body m 8ankhya IS hkc\\186 eighteen That
the term d1Iatu hr,s been borrowed from mechcal SCience, where It means
element of the body, can ha.rdly be doubted.
10
THE CENTRAL CON(,EPTION OF BUDDHISM
13
14.
15
16
17.
18
Veual consclousness (cak8u"''''Jiiiina.dhiit1l.).

Audltory
(~ot,.a''''JiUina.dluitu)
Olfactory
"
(ghriina''''Jiiiina.dhiiJu)
Gustatory
"
(J,hvii"'piiina.dhiitu)
Tactile
(kiiya."IJiiiina.dhiitu)
Non.sensuous"
(mano.tJ'jnfinQ.dluilu)
Consciousness, whiCh 1S but one element (dharma), is split

in this classIficatIOn mto seven Items, since It enters mto the
compositiOn of an mdlvldual hfe as a faculty (mano-dhiitu)
and as SIX different kmds of sensatIOns, differentiated by their
origin, as from one of the senses, or from a purely mental
non-sensuous source. l
All these vanetles of conSClOusness e~nst only ill the ordlDary
plane of eXIstence (kiima-Dlliitu) In higher worlds (rilpaDltritu) sense-C'onsclOusness gradually disappears, m the
ImmaterIal worlds (arupa-Dhiitu) only non-sensuous consCIousness IS left A diVIsIOn of conscIOusness mto varIOUS kmds
(dMtlt 13-18) IS thus made necessary for the composltlOn of
formulas of elements correspondmg to the deruzens of varIOUS
worlds 2
We Will now proceed to conSider the separate elements
m the order of their most general claSSificatIOn mto Matter,
Mmd, and Forces
1 Dluitu IS often defined Just as dllarma
8!'a'8!'OhIIliI'adhiira7liit, or
8l'alal'KIItRtlMraflfit (d R Z Aung, ('OIllp<!lIdtllffl, p 2:>5 ff), but thls IB
only partly corre~t. smco the dhltu No 12 mduueA sl'I:tvfour dharmas,
and the seven dM/U8, No 6 and Nos 13-18, ('orrospond to one smgle
dllarma-the "IJiiihlll (=manaR =nttam) The defimtlOn 10 Ab K, 1, 20,
IS dM/1t =go/ra
\\"0 ('an, ac('ordmgly, translate dhiitu by .. component ",
.. element". or" ('lass of elements ", Just as the case may requll'e
I When the three Dhizt1l8 are mentioned the term Dha/u moans world (Ioka)
or plane of e"usten('o (al'acara) It haH nothmg to do wlth the elghteen
dhiitU8 The worlds are dlvlded mto material (nipa.) and lmmatenal (ariipa.)
"orlds, the former agam mto "orlda of carnal deSIre or defiled matterkiima(rupa).Dhdtu, and those of pure, or reduced, matter-(ltI8kiima.)
rupa.Dhiitlt
In the kiimaDhiitu hfe conslSts of eIghteen components
(dMtU8). 1D the riipaDhiitu of fourteen (excepted are Nos 9-10 and
1.516),10 the arlipaDhdt" of three (Nos 6, 12, and 18). In rupa. and
ariip/J.Dhd~us Me 18 characterlZed by dlfferent degrees of perpetual trance
(dhyana)
Ordinary people can bo trallilferred mto theso hlgher reglons
of trance eIther through beIDg reborn In them (u/patn) or through an effort
of translC medltatJon (samtipath)
V.
v.
MATTER
11
ELEMENTS OF MATTER
Matter (TUpa) or the physical elements (rupMo dkarmiih),

whICh In the first classIficatIOn occupIed one Item
(rupa-skandha), IS otherw18e dlstnbuted mto ten IteIU~(Nos 1-5
and 7-11). The term rupa-iiyatana IS reserved for Visible
matter or, more preCisely, the phenomenon of vlSlblhtyalone,
this bemg matter par excellence.1 The general charactenstlC
of matter, or materIal elements, IS Impenetrablhty
(sa-pratlghatva), whlCh IS defined as the fact that space
occupIed by one of them cannot, at the same time, be
occupied byanother. 2
The elements of vl!!lLllity are diVIded mto two mam groups,
colours and shapes There are eIght colourE> and twelve
different shapes. Another theory reduces all colours to two,
light and darkness All other varletlCs of YISlbility arc
represented as dIfferences of hnes Tlw OpposIte VIew,
namely, that colours alone are reahtws and shapes (samsthiina)
represent com,tructlOns of the mmd (nriinmmm, JI(1TI~allntam)
(superImposed upon the dIfference of coloratIOn as an
mterpretatlOn of It), was favoured by the 8autriinhkas 3
A lme, say a hne drawn by the motion of the hand, bemg an
Ab K, 1, 24
The etymological cxplanatIon IS rilpya/a III rilpam, Ie mattl'r IS
what materializes DIfferent meamngs are then gnoen of tlll~ ma.tena.hzmg :
pressure, pam, dlHappearance, or cha.nge Thus matter IS something tha.t
disappears
The real meamng I~ ImpenetralJ1iIty (Ra-prahgltfl/t'a), whIch
IS further varIOusly explamed Kumiiralllbha gIves to the phenomenon of
Impenetrability an Idealistic mterpretatlon .. the ImpOSSIbility for the
mtellect to Imagme the pre~en('e of t~o sUl'h objects occup~mg the same
space" (IbId, TIbetan text, p 50, 17 ff) Professor 0 Rosenberg strongly
objects to the 11Iterpretatlon of rupa as matter He mamtams that
BuddhISm from Its very oubet VIewed the phenomenal ~orld as an liluslOn
ancl relegated every reailty to some transcendental world (cC Problem"
chap x)
He suggests .. sense-elements" for riipa ThIS would bnol a
place 111 an IdealIstiC' system and would be supported by the above lIlterpretatlOn of Kumaralibha But It IS, eVIdently, not the vIew adopted by
the school of the Sarvishvii.dms It 18 true that there IS no other matter
than sense-data ThiS should not prevent us, just as It does not prevent
modern phIlosophers who favour the same View, from usmg the term
.. matter" for faots characterized by Impenetrablilty
3 Ab. E., I, 10, and Y 0.9 comment.
1
12
IntImatIon of something (mJnaptt), IS an element (rilpa-dkarma)

of length 1; the hne of the flIght of a bIrd In the all'IS the same.
They are interpreted as the apparItIons of the element of
length or of some colour, and all BuddhIst matter must be
conceIved accordIng to thIS pattern. They are materIal
elements WIthout any matter In them
A glance at the ten Items correspondmg to matter in the
agatana-division WIll convince us that no other matter except
sense-data IS recogruzed It is broadly diVIded mto two
ca.tegones, objective sense-data (msaya) constltutmg external
objects, and sense-organs (mdnya) conceIved as a kind of
translucent subtle matter whICh covers the body when It Itl
hVIng ThIS dIVISIOn remmds US of the F;ankhya VIew that
matter developed along two ddlerent hnes, the one WIth
predomInance of the translucent IntellIgence-stuff (sattva)
resultmg In sense-organs, the other, WIth predommance
of dead matter (lamas), resultmg In sense-objects In theIr
subtle (tan-matra) and gross (rnahiihhUta) forms. In fact the
concept of tan-maim comes very near to the Buddhist conceptIOn of an element of matter (rupa-dharma). The
fundamental dIfference between the two conceptIOns IS that
lD the Sankhya system these elements are modIficatIOns or
appurtenances of an eternal substance In Buddhism they
are mere sense-data WIthout any substance
The translucent matter of the sense-organs (rupa-prasada)
18 very subtle; It IS hke the shmmg of a Jewel, It cannot be cut
m two, 2 It cannot be burnt,3 It has no welght, 4 and it diSappears WIthout a reSidue at death 5 It IS, nevertheless,
1 Ab K, 1, 10, Tlb text, p. 17
If a member, or all members, are chopped oft' the body, the sense-organmatter IS not cut even In two parts, 1 e the parts that are cut off are
senseless The movements of a hzard's t&ll after It IS knocked off the main
body are explained not by the presence of thiS hfe-matter (l1ulr,ya), but
by the InteDBlficatlOn of the tJiiYll element, I e It 18 a lifeless process (Ab. K ,
36, Tibetan text, p 63, and Ya~ comment)

a Ab K, I, 36, Tlb text, p 63, 13
' Ibid.
Ab K, 1, 37, and YS9 comment mrtaaya IJMn'UlITllela. ThIs
pomt of ana.logy With the langa-f/lrira of the Sinkhyas
1,
18
V.
MATTER
13
atomic, and is represented by five dIfferent kmds of atoms.

The atoms of the organ of sIght (cak~uNndrtJla) cover In concentric circles the eye-ball The atoms of the organ of taste,
or, more preClsely, that matter whlCh IS supposed to convey
the sensatIon of taste, covers m concentnc semIcIrcles the
tongue. The atoms of the organ of touch (kiiy-endnJla) cover
the whole body.l The Idea that all these dIfferent lands of
special matter are, mdeed, the same translucent subtle stuff
covermg the whole hYing body and disappearmg at death had
also Its advocates, who consequently reduced all senses to one.
the sense of touch, but thIS dId not find general acceptance
Bemg as subtle as the shmmg of a jewel, thIS matter cannot
appear alone, It IS supported by gross matter (mahiibhilta),
of whlCh the eye-ball and flesh m general COnsIst
The atoms of external matter are hkeWIse dIvided into
atoms of general, unIversal, or fundamental matter, and speCIal
atoms of colour-, sound-, tangibilIty-matter, etc. The
fundamental elements are four m number; they are
marufested by the facts of hardness or repulslOn, coheSIon
or attractIon, hcat and motiOn 2 ConventiOnally they are
called earth, water, fire, and aIr, but It IS speClfied that these
are only conventiOnal appellatIOns, and that m the name of
the fourth general element (lrana) alone both the techmcal and
the usual meamngs coalesce, because the word irana has both
the slgmficatlOns of motIOn and aIr as well 3 The fact that the
fourth element IS motIon IS an mdlCation of the trend of thIS
diVlBlOn; the general elements of matter, lIke all BuddhIst I
elements, are more forces than substances. These four
elements appear always together, always In equal proportIon.
There is as much element of heat In a blaZIng flame as there IS
In wood or in water, and VIce versa, the dIfference IS only m'
theIr mtenslty 4. The general elements of matter (mahiibhuta)
1 Ab K. I, 44, TIbetan text, p 84, 15 ft
I Ab K. I, 12
3 Ab K, I, 13
4 e g the tactd~ sensatIon may have a dd'ferent degree of mtenslty as
the touch hy a bunch of steel needles 18 more mtensely felt than the touch
of a pa1nter's brush, although the quantIty may be the same TheeZlStenoe
14
are brought under the" head of tangibles (iiyatana No. Il).

Smce there IS only a lIroJ.ted number of general manIfestatIOns
of tangtbIlity, therefore theIr number IS four 1 There IS,
apparently, a distInction between the elements In themselves
and theIr manIfestatIOns, beca.use the four facts of reSIStance,
attraction, heat, and motion are clearly called mamfestatIOns
(lak~ana) of the elements (dharma), which, accordmgly, must
be somethmg different, somethIng mystenous or transcendental. SimIlar In thiS respect to the gunas of the Sankhyas.
The other five kmds of obJective matter (iiyatanas Nos 7-11)
were not general, but speCldl, correspondmg to each of the
five senses, the tangibilIty-matter alone (liyatana No 11)
mcludes both the general (mahiibhata) and the speCial
(bhautlW) elements of matter 2 They were also atomiC, but
could not appear mdependently Without being combIned
With the funda.mental ones, In the ratio of four atoms of
prImary matter to one of secondary Thus the mmimum
number of atoms Indispensable for their actual appearance In
hfe was eight four atoms of general matenahty combIned
With each atom of colour, odour, tastc, and secondary
tangIbilIty-matter (such as smoothness, coarseness, etc.).
If the particular piece of matter resounded, atoms of sound
were added and the combInatIOn conblstt>d then of nIne
different atoms 3 The combIned atoms (san.qhiita-paramiinu)
a.lone appear In phenomenal realIty, the SImple ones, or infraatomIC elements, presumably, were relegated to transcendental realIty, In accordance With the general character
of coheslveneAs, I (' of the element "\\ ater" In a flame, IS proved by Its
keepmg a Hhape, the presence of repulSIOn, I (' of the clement " earth",
In water, IS proved by the fact of Its supporting a shIp, etc. (cf. Ab. K,
11, 22, and Yalt0m )
1 Ab. K , I, 35, Tibetan teAt, p 61, 5 If
I Ibid
I The actual number of atoms In a. sanghiita.paramiinu will be much
greater, Since ('aeh atom of secondary (bkauhla) matter needs a set of four
primary atoms of Ih own, but If dkatU8 alone are reckon.ed the number ",111
e'tpress the classes (dhiitu) of elements (dllarma) represented (cf. Ab. K.,
11, 22)
V.
MATTER
15
of a Buddhist element. ThIs deVice made It an easy task for

BuddhISts to oppose the mdiVIslbilIty of atoms.1
VI. ELEMENTS OF MIND

In the iiyatana classIficatIOn two items (Nos. 6 and 12)
Ilre devoted to the elements of mmd (cztta-ca~tta-dharmiih,
arilpulO dltarmiih) and, accordmg to the prmciple of thIS
classIficatIOn, they represent two correlatIve groups: a
subJectIve one (tndnya) and an obJective one (vlsaya)
The prmClple of externalIty of one element In regard to
another, I e the Idea of separate elements (p,tlzag-dharma), IS
mamtamed m the field of mmd Just as In the field of
mattcr l\Imu IS Rpht Into two chief partll. The suhJectlYc part, or nllnu VIewed as a receptl\Te faculty,
IS represented by onc element called, mdlscrurunately,
c~tta, '/)I}iiiina, or ma11.as 2 It represents pure conSCIOusness,
or purc sensatIOn, wIthout any content. Its content IS plaecd
m the obJcctlve part WhICh contams the defimte sem,atlOn
(spar~), Ieelmgs (l~danii), lueas (sallJiiii), volItIons (cctanii),
and varIOUS other mental phenomena up to the number of
forty-tuX separate elements.3 So It IS that feehngs come to
be VIewed as obJccts of the mmd, a position whICh, for other
reasons, they lIkewIse possess In the Siinkhya system
The category In whICh they are entereu IS ('aIled the
(general) group of elements (dlta(l/U/,-iiyatana) or simply" the
elemcnts" (dlta1 mall).
As stated abo\'e, the first eleven
" bases" contam one element (dharma) each, but thIS last
one contams the remalDIDg SIxty-four elements of the hst.
BeSIde the forty-six mental phenomena It contams the
fourteen elementary forces (t'zprayukta-Sa1!lSkara), the element
of character (av~Jliapt~) and the three etcrnal elements
(asa'f/lskrta). among the latter IS Nuvdna, the chief dharma.
Ab K , 1, 43, T1betan text, p 83
Ab K, 11, 34 The same terms In the Pall Canon, 8arpyultll, 11, 94.
I The Thera.vida J:ockoned fiftyone
Of tho fifty bhiwas of the Siinkhyas.
some of them exb1b1tmg an analogy Wlth correspondtng Buddlust cadtadh4rmtu. A full hst of the fOrty-BIl[ cadtadharma8 1S glven beloW', App II
1
I
16
For this reason the term" elements" (dharmJih) is a sufficient

indlcatlOn of th18 group, because the other categorIes, although
also contammg elements (dharmiih), have a specIal name each.1
The common feature of all these elements IS that they are
apprehended by the intellect dtrectly without any intermedla.te agency of the senses. In the a.pprehenslOn of senseobjects there IS lIkewIse participation by the mtellect; but
these dharmiik are non-sensuous objects, they are the exclusive
domam of the receptIve mtellect, just as colour is the exclusive
domam of the Bense of VlSlon 2 The definition of receptIve
consCIOusness IS pregnant vlJiiiinam pratuII,.Jooptlh, I.e. " conSCiousness IS an mtImatlOn, or awareness, m every smgle case"
(of what IS now present to the senses, or to the mmd dIrectly) 3
If an apprehenSIOn contaIns some, albeIt qUite inde6rute,
content, say some mdefimte VIsual sensatIOn, It Will then
1 Every iiyatana IS thus a dharmiiyatalla, but No 12 IS dharmiiyatana
par excellence. Just so lS It that the ten materIal iiyatanas all mclude
matter They are, consoquently, all of them, rilpliyatana! But only one
of them-the VlSlble element, iiyatana No 7-retams the name of
rilpdyatana a'! Its spe~lal designatIOn, because It represents the most
eharacterLStlc and Important among the elements of matter Cf. Ab K,
I, 24, Tibetan te'Ct, p 42, 17 If
2 Prof and Mrs Geiger, op CIt, P 80, have e~tabhshed for the dharmak
10 the techrucal sense the slgmfication .. the emplrlcal thmgs". TillS 16
an example of the Impotence of the .. phuologlca.l method" I It has not
escaped their attention that dkarma~ IS synonymous With dharmiiyatana
and dharmad1W.!u, m wluch Nirvana IS meluded (p 83), "hleh 18 anythmg
but empmcai. The dharmii~ are apprehended by manak (p 81), but,
the emphaSIS 18 put on the fact that they are apprebended untllout the co.
operatIon 0/ the 8eMe8 Everythmg IS apprehended. by manal., but the
dharmak are external With regard to manak, theIr place lU the system IS
among the SlX visaya, as opposed tlil the SlX Indnya, one of which, the Ruth,
IS manak
Concernmg the mearung of the terms "external" and
.. mternal " some remarks wul be made later on, pp 58-9, when dLScussmg the
theory of cogmtlon
Ab K, I, 16 Czttaln vlJanlill, Asl, P 42 = " lS awa.re flaT10U811l"
(l\1 Tmg), must have the same Import, If any Cf the Sankhya defimtLOu
of pratyaksa m Siinkkya.mnkli, 5 prahVIBall-iidkyavasiillQ drsjam. where
we have hkeWISe the dlStnbutIve pratl-, but fllJiitina = fllJiiDptlk, smce It lS
In the Sinkhya system represented by puruaa (cf
below, Theory of
Cogmtlon, p 63). 18 replaced by adkyava8fi.ya-the function of the mtAImaJ.
organ (synthesiS)
"a
VI.
MIND
17
represent the next degree, a real sensatIon {8parfa).1 The

definite perceptIOn (panc}t~ttt) of a colour wdl be an " Idea "
(sanJiiii), but consciousness as the perceptive faculty is pure
sensatIOn Although qUIte undIfferentIated m Itself, thIS pure
sensatIon IS, nevertheless, dIstlngmshed from the standpoInt of
Its orlgm or, more precIsely, Its enVlIonment, 1 e the elements
by whICh its appearance IS accompamed From thIS pomt
of VIew, as stated above, there IS a set of SIX ddIerent kmds
(dhiitu) of COllSClOusness, correspondmg to a set of SlX receptive
facultIes and a set of SIX kmds of objects We thus have SIX
categories of conSClOusness (~ad-VtJniina-kiiyiih), begInnIng With
vIsual sensatIOn or, more preCISely, pure sensatIOn arISIng In
conneXlon wIth some colour (cak8ur-vlJiiiina-dkiitu) and endmg
With consCIousness accompanymg a non-sensuous object
(mano-vIJiiiina-dhiitu). We have beSides the same consCIOUSness as a. receptIve faculty (dhiitu No 6) As a receptIve
faculty mano-dkiitu IS not dIfferent from conSCIousness ariswg
In connexion WIth abstract objects (mano-IJ1Jiiana-dMtu);
It IS the same reahty, the same dharma But for symmetrical
arrangement It has been found necessary to have a set of
three Items for the purely me-ntal elements, Just as there IS a
threefold set of faculty, object, and sensation correspondIng
to each of the senses 2 The dIfference between eOnSl'IOusuess
as a receptIve faculty and the same conSCiOusness accompanymg an abstract object IS then saId to be a dIfIerence of
time ConSCiOusness In the role correspondIng to the place
occupied ill the system by the senses IS the conSCIousness of
the precedIng moment 3 The Theraviidms, eVIdently for the
same purpose of symmetrtcal arrangement, mtroduced Into
1 Three dharma8 are engaged when thiS kmd of sensation, sometimes
translated a8 .. contact ", 18 produl'ed tr"yiillum sunnllKllail 8p6r~uh
(tl"tI(Zm 8amgah phasso) the cons(,lousne~s (ntta), the senseorgan, and
the sense-obJect Cf below under theorJ of ('ogllltJOn
lAb. K., I, 16, Tibetan te'l:t, p 29, I 17
a The mental phenomena (caltea.dliarlna) also have their obJects, they
are according to the current termmology Biilambana, but they are themselves
t'\8I11/fJ and not tnd"YII (Ab K, 1, 3~, cf Tibetan text, 'P 49, I 19)
2
18
the system a "heart-stufi" (hadaya-vattku) which supports

the non-sensuous cognitions, just as the other sense-stufls
II support" sense-cogrutIons.
It occupies in the system the
place of the sIxth organ (ayatana or dkatu No. 6).1
Although enernal In regard to one another, consciousness
and mental phenomena (C'ttta-ca~tta) were conceived as being in
a closer, more mtunate, conneXlon than other combmmg
elements. Pure sensatlOn (c~tta) could never appeal' In hfe
In Its true separate condItion; It was always accompamed
by some secondary mental phenomena (cattta).2 Among
these mental phenomena (catUa-dharma) or faculties
(samskiira) three are espeCIally conspicuous, namely, feelings
(vedana), Ideas (san) 00), and vohtions (cetana). In the
clasSlfica.tion Into groups (skandka) they occupy three separa.te
items, all the remaming ones being Included together with the
volitions In the 8a'T]tskiira-skandha. FeelIngs (vedana) are
defined as emotIons pleasant, unpleasant, or neutraf.3 Ideas
(8alljna) are defined as operatIons ot abstract thought, as that
which" abstracts" (udgrakana) a common characterIstIc Sign
(ntmitta) from the IndiVIdual obJects' Even the defimte
representation (panchtth) of a colour IS brought under
this head.' It 18 exactly what In later Indian philosophy,
Buddhist as well as Brahmamcal, was understood by
"de.firute" (sa-vzlcalpaka) cogmtlon. Dignag& and Dbarmakirtl
mtroduced Into IndIan loglc the dlstmctlOn between pure
sense knowledge, free from any operatlOn of abstract
thought (kalpanapodha), and definIte cogwtlon (8amkalpaka) & It was then adopted by "C'ddyotakara and
1 Cf. Mrs C. Rhys DaVIds, B. P8ych., pp 32, 70.
Th18 heartstuff had,
presumably, as httle to do With the actual heart as the cakBur.,ndr'ya.stuff
With the actual eye Indian medIcal sCience assumed the eX18tence of a
subtle iikiira.foodstuft' as a vehicle of mental processes It 18 here called
heartstuff.
lAb. K, n, 23.
Ab. K ,1,14.
IbId.
Of. the definition of yatyaTt,a m N yay4.617111u 1.
VI.
MIND
19
the whole of the Nyaya-Valgeslka school 1 It now

appears that Dignaga was not the orIgInator of thIS
doctrIne, he only adapted It to hIS system. From the
very beginnIng BuddhIsm had established thIS ddIerenee:
VtJ1iiina and Its synonyms Cleta, manah represent pure
sensatIOn, the same as the kalpaniipodha pratyak~a of
Dignitga, and sanJiiii corresponds to definite Ideas. Every
constructIOn (kalpanii), every abstractIOn (udgrakana),2 every
definIte (pa7"lch1,nna) representatIOn, such as blue and yellow,
long and short, male and female, fnend and enemy, happv
and miserable-this is all brought under the head of ideas
(san.1iid) as distinguished from v1,Jiuina = pure sensation.
VohtlOn (cetanii) IS defined as the mental effort that precedes
actIOn. It IS an element 01' a force whICh enters In the compOSItIOn of a personal hfe (santana) It must not be forgotten
that, SInce there is no personality m the BuddhIst outlook
of the universe, there certamly IS no will in our sense, i.e. no
personal WIll. There IS a certam arrangement of elements,
there IS an element, or a force, or, stIll more preCIsely, the
SImple fact (dharma) that the elements are arranged in a certam
way, accordmg to certam laws. ThiS fact IS pOInted to by the
term cetana. It "arranges" (sancetayatt) 3 the elements in
" streams ", whICh SImple folk deem to he personalIties. It
IS synonymous WIth the law of moral causatIOn (karma)'
and hkewlse with the force of vltahty. the "elan Vital"
(bkiivanii, viisanii), whICh III the Buddhist system replaces any
conSCIOUS agent, whether soul or God or even a conSCIOUS
1 Cf. Nyayii.-varttlka, pralyak~a-Biilra.
, Ud1f'ahana 1S literally" abstraction", lalpana .. 1magmatlon ", .. ('onstruct1on" It corrcsponds to the part taken m Kant's system by" productlve 1magmatlon", whereas 1131iiina, or thc pratyakaa of D1gniga,
corresponds to .. reme S1nnilchkelt" Cf my LogIC of laler BuddlltBla
(chapter on lalpand)
8 To be der1ved from the root Cl from wh1ch the Buddhists derIve cllta
as well (Asb ,p 63); Ba71('clagatz IS exactly, In form and meanmg, the RUSSIan
Bochetayetl" the PiJI ablnBandakah has th", same Import, cf S Z Aung,
CompendIum, p. 235.
The definItlOn of karma 1S relana eetQytltYz ea laranam, Ab K, IV, 1 fl.,
the same as m Ang!dlara, lll, 415 l'f Mrs C Rhys Da.Vlds, B Psych., p 93.
20
human being. 1 A moment of this kUld of wI accompanies

every conscious moment (CtUa).
There are, on the whole, ten mental elements which accompany every conscious moment; they are called the" general"
mental elements 2 There are ten others which are partlCularly
" favourable" for progress towards the final appeasement of
hie, they are faIth, courage, eqU8lllmIty, etc. Ten others
have the contrary unfavourable or oppressive (kllfta)
character There are some others whICh have no definIte
moral character. All these mental elements are not general ,
they accompany only some of the moments of conSCiousness,
not all of them 3
VII. FORCES
The definItions of the wIll (cetana) and of the force (sa1/lskara)
are indeed the same, "what produces the mamfestatlOns
(a'bkz-aa?!/,8karolt) of combmmg elements (sa?}lskrtam) '" it IS
a " concerted agency". 5 Smce all forces are agencies actmg
In some combInatIOn WIth other elements, we may In rendenng
thIS conceptIOn, for the sake of expedIency, safely drop the
word " combming " and use" forces" alone 6 There are some
mdICatIOns that ongmally there was only one samskiira In
the Buddhist system, the wIll, and that gradually a whole
catalogue of them was developed, some of the elements bemg
entered roto thIS group rather forCIbly, WIth excuses. 7 The
Ab K, IX, Soul Theory, p 942
Cltla-makiibhu,mka
a A full list of them "Ill be found In 0 Rosenberg's Problem8, p 374,
and at the end of thiS book
6 ThiS defimtlOn \'Ie find already In the old~st sources, e g Sa1/lyutla,
lll, 87, and It IS repeated In numberless pa,sages of the Ab K., cf S Z.
Aung, Compendllltn, Jl 236
.'iarllbkii.yakdrllvam, Ab K, I, 7
ThiS the Buddhists themselves have also done In replacmg ,am8krta
by krlaka, of lIyayab.likd, pp 47, 50, etc. A umth WIthout combIDlng,
can produce nothmg na h/'j'IC.d eka'Z ekaamat (Dlgnage.)
7 In the Ab. K., I, 15, there IS an mterestmg effort to prove that all
lIa'l\o!kiira8 (sIxty) are Included. In the 8Qf/lBkiira-8Lalldkaand notcelanci alone,
BSlt would be pOSSible to conclude from scrIptural }laMagee As the !leCond
member of the ch&J1l of causation, aaf/IBlcara IS eqUIvalent to karma.
I
VII.
FORCER
21
most typIcal forces are the four forees of origmation and decay,
etc, whICh accompany every other element In hfe. Some
detaIls concernIng them wIll be glven In the sequel. In
general, all elements may be dIVIded Into substances (
and forces (dra'V!Ja and samskara). The forces are then I
dIVided Into mental facultles, WIth the wIll as chief
among tht'm, and non-mental ('~Ua-vzprallukfa) forces,
among whICh the orIginatIOn and dt'cay forces are the'
most typICal But even these latter forces are sometimes
gIvt'n a certain amount of substantlahty (dra'V!lato~ sant~) 1
The word and conceptIOn sa1ilskara performs a conspICUOUS
part in all Indian phIlosophICal systems. It usually means
some latent mysterIOUS power, which later on reveals itself
In snme patent fact. It sometlmes 18 identIfied With the
" unknown" (adrsta) concClved as a force sw genens. Smce
every phIlosophy IS but a search for the hIdden reahty as
opposed to the patent surface of lIfe, the Importance of the
conceptIOn of a samskiira IS qUIte natural Every system had
ItS own defimtIOn and scope attnbuted to the connotahon of
thIS term. The IJivika sect, as we have seen, was known by
ItS demal of the eXistence of surh forces. The BuddhIsts, on
the contrary, converted all theIr elements Into subtle forces
of some degree The subtler the element the more was it
gtven the character of a force. but even the coarsest elements,
the mahiibhilfas, look more hke forces than substances There
IS a constant fluctuatIOn In BuddhIst terminology between
a force (samskiira) and a substance mfluenced by these forces
(sarnskrta). A forct', It must be recalled, should not be regarded
all a real influence of somethIng extendmg beyond Its own
eXistence m order to penetrate mto another-thIS would be
Mrs C Rhys D&Vld~ calls mv attentIon to th( folIOlung very I1lummatlDg
words In Sa""yutta, Ill, 60 Katama ca bk,!.khave BallkMra? Cha-lI,me
eetaniikt'iYli r'iipn.Badda.gandha-ra8a-pMffhabba-sa,iceta1la dhammaBaiiceta1la
lIne t',,&Callh BaltkMra. Ac('ordlDg to Yal,'omltra, Ie, t be mentaIfacultJes are
Included In the Ba'1l'kiirn-skandha because they obey the Will, the othl!l'
foroes beoa.use they are slmIlar to the Will (cetana).

1 Ab. K , n, 2, 24.
22
upakara-but simply as a condItion, a fact, upon which

another fact anses or becomes promInent (utkar~a) by Itself
-this IS sa'1]l8kara m the Budd1ust system.1
The little we know of the history of IndIan philosophy
induces us to look to the Siinkhya system as the foundation
of scientific thInkIng. In that school the fundamental ideas
were formed which sometImes unconsclOusly affected all later
constructlOns What do we find there ~ Three fundamental
pnnciples, Matter, MInd-stuff, and Energy-stuff, as mterdependent moments In every real and substantial existence.
Even energy IS substantIal In thIS sense. The mfimteslmals
of energy, present eyerywhere, are semI-materIal, although
dIfIerent from the mertIa of Matter, and the lUmInOSIty of
Mind, they are separate and substantlal 2 The Buddhist
elements as mfimtesimal realItIes, dIvIded mto elements of
'Matter, Mmd, and Forces, look lIke a reply to the Sankhya
constructIOns from an archItect of greater skIll. "you mamtam the reahtles are gunas, we say they are dharmns" The
fundamental Idea of mfimtesunal realItIes may be recognized
m the dharmas, the Idea of forces everywhere present can
be traced to Its OrIgm m the Siinkhya conceptlOn of raJas,
there are forces whICh are dIfferent from ma.tter and mmd
(rupa-clua-vtprayttkta) A pluralIstIC View of the whole IS
added to make the origmalIty of the new system, III contrast
to the umtarIan tendency of the old one But, be the case as
It may, every element of matter and ullnd llla.y be called In
BuddhISm a samskiira, whIch, 1ll thIS case, WIll stand
for Sa1f/,8h da-dharma 3 The BuddhISt Idea of a force
Cf. the pa1'lbhasii8 to Piinull,ll, 3, 53. VI, I, 139, and IV, 2, 16, IV, 4, 3,
the Kii~ikii (not occurrmg m the M. bhiisya) Cf below, p 69
Cf. B Seal, The Posllwe SCWICU of the Hindus, and S Dasgupta, The
Study of Pata,iJall The mterpretatlOn of the gU'!IaB given there IS entIrely
based on Yyii.sa who, as Will be sern below, p 46, was strongly mfluenced
by abh.dharma Concernmg their 1t1ytllOloglcal origin cf Senart, J. As
1915, v. 11, pp 131 ff
Ya90mltra (Ab K, I, 15) remarks that the name Ba'lfl8krta 18 given In
antlOlpatlon, smce an element Will become Bamdrta only when the forces
(Ba'lfl8kiira) shall have exhIbIted their effiClenoy. In the popular formula
anltydh 8/lrve Bamalairab the word Ba'lfl8kiira stands for Ba'lfl8krta-dharma.
1
10
(
VII.
23
FORCES
seems to be that it is the subtle form of a substance,

but even substance is here subtle enough. The order in which
the elements appear m the first classification into groups is
interpreted as a. gradual progress from coarseness to subtlety;
maliter (rupa) IS coarser than feeling (vedana), feelmg more
palpable than ideas (aanjM), the remainmg energies (aar},lakiira)
still more subtle 1
The pure forces (mprayukta-aamakiira) are the most subtle
among the elements. In the loftIest, highest worlds, where
eXIstence is entirely spintuahzed, theIr agency continues;
they are the last to be suppressed before final extinction is
reached. The chief among them are the four forces of
origmatlOn and destruction, etc., which are the very essence
of every eXlstence. Then there are two forces, prapt and
aprapt&, whIch are supposed to control the collectIOn of
elements composIng a personal hfe or to prevent (aprapti)
the appearance in it of an element that is not m agreement
WIth ItS general character The Sautrantlkas and Vasubandhu
deny the reality of these forces; for them they are mere names
(prO:l'iiaptl).2 There are two forces supposed to be active in
producmg the highest degrees of trance-the unconSCIOUS
trance (aaan)i'h-samapath) and the cessahon (mrodha-) trance
or catalepsy They are also brought under the head
of pure forces. 3 They eVldently could not be brought
under the head of mmd, because consCIOusness at that
time 18 supposed to be suppressed. Then there are three
forces correspondmg to the sphota of other systems.
All
Indl8.n systems contaIn speculatIOns about the nature of
sound, Its physical as well as Its significatIve aspect. The
physical sound was in BuddhIsm conSIdered, in agreement
with the whole system, as a production, i.e. (flashing) of soundatoms reposmg on the atoms of fundamental matter. If
8atp.8kiira etymolOgIZed as wana ...lidhana would mean force, and alf
mrma'Biid1IallG would be equal to 8cz1flBkrtadllarma. The mchvldual Ide,

which OOD8l8ts of all these phy&lcal and mental elements and foroes, 18 called
BtJ'1I8h21'tJ-Ba",iJAah, cf. Yayom. (Ab. E., IX), 8tJ CiJpl CczJtrtJ-tJbhut'haliall
R'1I8A:!irtJR",tllla-BallltlillGb.
1
Ab K, 1,22
A6 E.,
11,
37.
Ibid, D, 46.
24
simultaneously some atoms of translucent sOlmd matter

(ffJbda-riipa-prasiida) appeared m the ear, an auditory
sensation (frotra-tl1,Jnana) was produced But the significance
of the sounds of speech was given by specml forces. The
Mim8.rpsaka school was known for lts theory of transcendental,
lDtelligible sounds whlch were eternal and ublqultous, like
PlatOnIC ldeas, and mamfested themselves in the case of
physlCal words bemg pronounced. Followingtht'Irfundamental
pnnciple of analysmg everything mto minutest elements, the
BuddhIsts imagmed three separate forces which Imparted
to the sounds of speech their significatIveness; the force of
sound (vyanJana) , whlch would seem to correspond to the
modem ldea of a "phonema ", the force of words (nama), and
the force of sentences (pada).1
Generahty, general ldeas, are also concelved as a kind of
force, and It IS chrlstened by the name of ntkiiya-sabhiigafii, a
conceptIOn mtended to replace by a "force' the substantlal
reahty of the s{i1luinya of ot.her systems 2 In general thls
group of forces lS a rather mcongruous assemblage of
elements whIch could not be placed elsewhere As a separate
group of elements It IS absent m the Theravada school. Some
of Its members seem to have found a place, for some reason,
among the physlcal (riipa) group of that school 3
VIII.
NON-SUBSTANTIAUTY OF THE ELEMENTS
After thIS succmct reVlew of the elements of eXlstence and

theIr dlfferent classIficatlOns, we may conSIder the questlOn
as to what wt're they In theIr essence, what was the Buddhlst
J Ah. K, 11,4711
V1/allJa1la here corresponds to varna, nama to BallJ,iti,
and pada to viik1/a, a case exhlbltmg clearly the deSIre to have a. termmology
of one's own, so common to IndIan systems .. you mamtam It in splJoIa,
we ..y It IS vyalt,1ana-niima-padG-Ba'1l8k4ra" The real eXlstence of these
forces 18 admItted by the Sarvistlviidm alone. For tws reason they brmg
the Holy Scriptures under the head of sa1fl8kiira-skandlw, whereas the
Salltritnt!lus clasSify It under r1ipa, as fabda, and the VIJiliinavadms under
1l1,1nalUl-skandlw, cf VmItadeva.'s mtroductl0n to the SantantinlcH'a
Blddln, edIted by me m the B,bl. Buddhlca.
lAb. K, n, 41
Of. S. Z. Aung, CompendllJ,m, p. 157.
VIII.
NON-RU:BSTANTIAI.ITY
25
conception of an element. The elements had four salient

features (1) they were not-substance-thIs refers to all the
seventy-five elements. whether eternal or Impermanent;
(2) they had no duratIOn-thIs refers only to the seventy-two
Impermanent elements of phenomenal eXIstenCE'; (3) they
were unrest-thIS :efers only to one part of the latter class,
that whIch roughly corresponds to the ordmary man as
opposed to the purIfied condition of the elements of a saint
(drya) ; and (4) theIr unrest had Its end In final delIverance.
Speakmg techmcally (1) all dharmas are aniitman, (2) all
sa'Yflskrta-dharmas are anttya, (3) all siisrat'a-dTlarmas are
duhlrha, and (4) theIr mrviin.a alone IS {,tinta. An element IS
non-substantutl, It IS evanese'ent, It is In a beginrungless state
of commotion, and its final suppressIOn IS the only Calm.
These are what the TIbetan'.! call the four" seals" of Buddha 1
We now proceed to examme them separatE'Iy.
Anatma
The term aniilman IS usually translated as "non-soul ",
but In reahty atman IS here synonymous WIth a personahty,
nn ego, a self, an IndIVIdual, a hvmg bemg, a conscIous agent,
etr 2 The underlymg idea 11'1 that, whatsoever be deSIgnated
by all these names, It IS not a real and 11ltlmate faLt, It IS a
mere namc for a multItude of mterconnected facts, ,vhlch
Buddhist phIlosophy IS A.ttemptmg to analyse byreducmg them
to real elements (dharma) Thu:;" soullessness' (nmriitmya)
IS but the negatJ' e exprE'ssion, mdeed a synonym, for
the E'Xlstence of ultImate reahtIe'.! (dharmatii) 3 BuddhIsm
1 The Southerns reckoned three .. marks .., eYldently mC'ludmg the fourth
m du1J,kluJ, as Its cessatIon. C'f S Z Aung, Compendzum, p 210
I. The whole Issue WIth every detaIl IS admirably expounded by
Vasuba.ndhu In a concluding, ninth, chapter of Ab K, translated III my
Soul Themy of tlie Boud,lk.BU1. The terms atma, Jivall, Battva, pudgala are
here used as synonyms, cf Soul Tlieory, P ~38, and KathiivaUhu.attluJlcathii,
p 8 The Vii.fslputrfyas made some dJ1ference bet" een pudgala a.nd alma" ;
they were pudgalavad.nB, but not iitma,'dd,nB Although a.dmlttlng a
hmlted, very shady, reahty of pudgala, they denied It the ultimate reahty
of 8. dharma; cf Soul Tlieory and below, p 70 fl.
lTalltJcanadharmatii punar atra natriitmyam budd1uinu~d8ani va, Y&9om.
ad .db. II IX, In fine.
26
\ neVE'r denied the eXIstence of a personality, or a. soul, In the

empirical sense, It only maIntamed that It was no ultimate
reahty (not a dharma). The Buddhist term for an IndlVldual,
a term which is Intended to suggest the (hfference between
,the Buddhist view and other theories, is santana, I e. a
" Atream ", VIZ of Interconnected facts. It mcludes the mental
elements and the phYSiCal ones as well, the elements of one's
own body and the external objects, as far as they constitute
the experIence of a given personahty. The representatives
of Clghteen classes (dhiitu) of elements combme together to
produce this mterconnected stream. There IS a spemal force,
called priiph, which holds these elements combIned. It
operates only WithIn the hmlts of a SIngle stream and not
beyond. ThiS stream of ('lements kept together, and not
hmlted to present bfe, but haVIng Its roots In past eXistences
and Its contInUatIOn In future ones-Is the Buddhist counterpart of the Soul or the Self of other systems.
Consequ('nt upon the demal of substance IS the derual of
every difference between the categorIes of substance and
quahty There IS no " Inherence" of quahties In substance ,
In thiS respect all real elem('nts are equally Independent.
As separate entIties they then become substances SUI genens.
"Whatsoever eXists IS a substance," says Vasubandhu. 1
"An element IS somethIng haVIng an essence of Its own," 2
is the current defimhon To every urut of quahty there IS
a correspondmg subtle element (dharma) which eIther dIrectly
(mamfests Itself or, accordmg to the Sarv8stIvo.dlns,
flremaInIng for ever a transcendental realIty, produces a reactIon
\(A.arttv(I, lak~",na) whiCh we wrongly mterpret as beIng a
qualIty. All sense-data (rupa) are substances In that sense
that there IS no stuff they belong to If we say c, earth has
odour, etc.", It IS only an Inadequate expreSSIOn, we ought
to say" ('arth ~s odour, etc", smce beSide these sense-data
I
'lAb. Koo lX, .'",IYlllllli7llJm arllVyq.m, Y&90m. adds 8V11Z11ksczMto vlaramci7llJ'fl arllvyq.m~f. Soul Theory, p 943
I SVldaksa7llJ.dwlI1kid dharmah, Y&C}om ad Ab K, i, 3.
VIII.
NON-RUBSTANTIALITY
27
there is absolutely nothing the name could be applied to.l

The same principle IS apphed to the mental sphere; there is
no splrLtualsnhstance apart from mental elements, or facultIes,
that are conceIved as subtle reahties vr substances sui gener/,8,
"ery much on the same pattern as the elements of matter.1II
There IS no soul apart from fet-hngs, Ideas, vohtIOn!'!, etc.s
Therefore an element technIcally mt-an'! "non-self" 4
P1'thzvi gandhavatity ukte rii.pa-(Jandha-raaa-8par~ebhyo nanya dar~allttum
YaQom. ad Ab K., IX, cf SOlll Theory, p 742
I In hlB Htstarll of Indlafl. Ph,lo8ophy (CambruiglJ, 1922), p. 244, ProfOBBor
IS Dasgupta mamtalDs that In Sfmkhya phIlosophy there IS lIkeWise no
Iscparate eX18tcnce of qualitIes (I e no mherent.e of qualIties In a substa.nce)
ThiS IS based (as the lcarned author mforms me m a letter) on Vyasa, UI, 12
(8apcL"ko dharma-dlwrml-bMvali) and Vii.caspatl's comment There are
other po.ssages suggestive of a Similar Idea, e g dlw71ln-8tar/;pa-miitro I"
dha.rmah. (Ibid ,m,13). But Ihs addeddharml-vllnyalt'a es!i dllarma-dvdr!i
prapa7icyate In Buddhism thcre cannot be any change of dharnn,
, smce everythmg IS new at every moment Besldps It must not be forgotten
that Vyii.l!a, as w1l1 be sho\\n later, was strongly mfluenced by the
I Abhldharmlsts If Professor S. Daqgupta's view that the ultimate entities
lD Sii.nkhya \\ere called gU7Ul8, probably to suggest that they are the entities
whteh by their variOus modificatIons mamfest thcmselves as gunas or
qualIties, IS accepted, thIS would constitute a very strong analogy between
the Sli.nkhya. g~ and the Buddhist dharmaa In h18 r'piiinam!itra-siddh,
~asubandhu apphes the term dharma to the ta.ttva.s of the S."i.nkhyas
(0 Rosenberg)
a It IS a matter of surprise how long It has taken European sCience to
realIze th18 doctrme, which IS so clearly stated In numberless passages of
Buddh18t writ, and In one of them even In terms very nearly approaching
to Hume's statement (Sa1fl,Ylltta, lll, 46) "all Brahmanas or Cramanas who
attentIvely consIder the soul, wruch so "artously ha'l been desc~lbed to them,
find elthcr the five groups of phenomena (phYSical, feehngs,ldeas, volItiOns,
or pure sensation) or one of them," etc
The stumbling-block has always
been the supposed theory of transnugratton of souls and ItS "glarmg"
(contradIctIOn With the derual of soul Buddhism always had two languages,
one for the learned (nilartha) and one for the Simple (neyartha)
Ab. K , IX, cf Soul Theory, p. 840, where It 18 stated that a1Uitma IS
synonymous With 5 8kandhalJ, 12 !iyatanaa, and 18 dhatu8, I e WIth aU
dharnw8, a smgle dharma IS lIkeWise synonymous lHth n,haattva It IS,
therefore, mIsleadIng to translate BuddhaghOlla's mterpretatlon of dharma =
''''8Satta, 1UJJi.va, as meanmg " marumate thIng", 11.8 Mrs. and Prof Geiger
have done, op Cit., p. 4 (Unbelebtes, Ding, Sache). SInce consolousness
ltseH and aU mental phenomena and even NIrvana are dharmtU,
BuddhaghOlla could not have meant that they are "marumate thIngs" In
the orclma.ry sense. of the word. The compound fl.188atta. must be explamed
eIther a.s a madhyama-padcl-lopi-71~rgGCqb aaUVGh,or a.s a bahuflTi'h,-nlrgGCab
ltHhIo !fG8m4t.
1
~kyate,
28
IX
PRATITYA-SA'IUTPADA (CAUSALITY)
Although the separate elements (dharmas) are not connected

wIth one another, eltht'r by a pervadlDg stuff in space or by
duratIOn lD tIme, there IS, nevertheless, a conneXlon between
them, theIr mamfestatlons lD tlmf', as well as in space, are
suhject to defimte laws, the laws of causatIon. These laws
We have seen
bear the general name pratit,/a-samutpiida
that the connotatIOn of tht" word dllarma Implies the meamng
of elements operatlDg together wIth others. ThiS concerted
hfe of the elements (sams/:rtatm) is but another name for the
laws of causatIOn-the combmed orlglDatIOu (~am-utpiida) of
some elements wIth regard (proWl/a) to otht"r elements 1
Thus It IS that the fundamental Idea of BuddhIsm-the
I conceptwn of a plural1ty of separate plempnly-includes the
I idea of the most slrlct causahf1j controllIng theIr operatIOn lD
the worlrl-procefls The" theory of elements "-the dkarmasanl:eta, RaYS Vasubandhu, means that "If somethmg appears,
such and such result wIll follow "-asmm 8at~ ulaJ!t bkavah 2
The mORt popular form of the laws of causatIOn IS
represente<l- by the theory of the twelve consecutIve stages lD
the ever revolvmg stream of hft' from bIrth to death, It IS,
BO to say, the YertICal hne of causatIOn, whIle other relatIOns
represent the horizontal 3
1 Yal,'om ad Ab K, 11, 46
sa1fl8krtatmm pralitya-8amutpannatvam Itl
paryayav etau, Hamely" 8a",bhiiya pratyayalh !-rtam 8am811'lam, ta1f' ta1f'
pratyayam pratitya 8amutpanna1ll, pratitya-8amutpanna7n Ita
Ab K, 1II, 18 and 28, d also 11, 47, and 11, 1i0

The mterpretatlon of thiS formula has been the ('rux of European
8Jholars, whIle In Buddhist countrlOs, as I'rofessor 0 Rosenberg certifies,
It. IS supposed to hf, vary plam and aCl'l'"slble to the SImplest understandmg.
The right explanation, m the lIght of the dharma theory, wIll be found In
o Rosenborg's Problems, ('hap XVI Tho ~tumbhng-lliock to every explanatIOn came from the SUPPOSition that the formula was moant to represent
aome evolution 10 whl('h one member was produtmg the other, It was then
ImpOSSible to dedu('8 0 11; nanuz-rilpa from tllJiiiina, unl6Rs the latter be
taken In the sen"6 of the buddhl of the Siinkhyas In reallty, as soon as the
firRt moment of Me (vIJlirlna-thlrd nuUinal appears, all the eighteen
dh.!ilu8 are already present, a('cordIng to the principle" there 18 no c,"'Without caltta, and no bhiita Without bkaul,ka " On "'Jnana as the firat
moment In the lIfe of the embryo cf Ab K, I, 35, Tibetan, p. 62,6, and
1,22, Tibetan, p 47, 18, and also Mrs. C Rhys DaVids, B Psych., p. ltG.
The number of tettVaB m an embryo, acoordmg to Siinkhya, 18 hkeWlle
I
IX.
CAURAI.JTY
29
In the popular literature of the Sutras the term pratitya18 almost exclusIvely applIed to thIs formula of the
" wheel of lIfe ", although the general meanmg of It must have
been present to the mmd of all BuddhIsts It IS ImplIed In
the dIvIsIOn of dharmas mto ii1latanaa, whICh IS fOlHld('d on the
theory that knowledge arISCS (samutpad'late) when condItIoned
(pratitl/a) by an object and a recertlve faculty .. All (lbh~
dharma IS but an mterpretatlOn of the sutras" the current
says defimtlOn. Therefore the general meanmg of the Idea
of "Interconnected ongmatlOn of elements" may have
appeared m the abludllm ma by a sort of generahzatlon founded
on actual conceptIOns that are to be found m the sutras m a
somewhat dIfferent form ThIs questIOn IS dIrectly asked by
Vasubandhu "Why IS It," says he, "that the twelve
members of mterconne<.ted origmation of the elements are
dIfferently treated In the SCrIpture and m the ExegesIs?
e g It IS stated m the latter that the mterconnected
orlgmatIOn of elements (pmlUlja-bamuipiida) IS a term
eqUIvalent to all the actIve elements (lJarnsk,-tn-dkarma) ~ "
And he answers .. Because m the sutras thIS relatIOn IS
treated IntentIonallv (In a popular way, WIth reference to the
development of an mdlvuiuaL side), whereas the exegetIcal
works explam ItS eS!lence (m regard of all elements m general) "1
Some of the causal relatlOllshlps have already been
mentIOned Thus the rclatlOn of slmultanclty (sahabku)
samutpiida
I eighteen,
though thore IS difference m C'ountlll

AC'cordmg to Caraka
t 0 sporm-cell of t 0 father wntams mmuto partlClo~
of all the organs Consequently 11IJlialla. aH the third mllml"'r m the" wheel
of Ide ", IS a techmcal term mdtcatmg the fir~t momont of 11 nl'\\ hfo arlsmg
out of pre-natal fmces (a",dyu, BUIlIslrrira) The nO'lt seven members mark
the stages of the develupment of tho embryo lIlto Ii ('Inld, yuuth, and grownup man The Inna-stage corresponds to sexual maturity, when now lanna
begms to be formed.. The two lQ11t members refer briefly to futUlo Me The
Idea that all elements are present through the whole prOCOSij. the difference
being only m the relatlvo .. prominence" (titAarsa8 tv abhll'ya1iJakah, cf.
SUQruta. Siitrasthdna, xu) of une element over the others, POlllts out to
Sinkhya habits of thought, where evorythmg was conslderod Immutable,
always eXisting (8~rva", mtyam), all tlllngll entormg III one another (sarva'l1
sarvatmakam), the difference being only a passing mamfestatIon of some
element, whue the others contmued to assISt In a latent state
1 Ab. K ill, 25
Of 0 Rosenberg, Problemlf, p 223
\(tarirastluina, IV
30
ties together the four fundamental and the secondary elements

of matter-bMta and bhautlka. The same relatIOn apphes
to the simultaneous origmation of conSCIousness and mental
phenomena (cltta and caltta). But for the vice versa conJunctIon-one would be tempted to say" mherence" if It
was not so grave a mIstake against the fundamental prmciple
of BuddhIsm-of the mental elements With pure conSCIousness
(mtta), a speCIfic, more mtimate, aSSoCIatIOn was Imagmed.
EVIdently there was a feelIng that the varlOUS mental facts
were more closely umted With conSCIousness than the atoms
of matter WIth one another ThIS fact receIved the name
of sampra1loga, I e a thorough and mtensive UnIon, and
It was explamed as anupanvartana, I.e. a followmg and
envelopmg of conSCIOusness by concomItant mental
phenomena or the secondary mental elements (ca'/,Ua).
It must not be Imagmed that thIS close conneXIOn of
conSCIousness WIth other mental elements means any
umty between them, allowmg only a logIcal dIstmctIOn
for purposes of analysIs, as m modern psychologies.
A BuddhIst element IS always a se-parate entity, It is
neIther " compound" nor "phenomenon", but an element
(dharma). The close conneXlOn, "envelopment" of conSCIOUSneSF.l ~y other mental elements only means that
they are ItS satelhtes, they appear and dIsappear together,
they are produce-d by the same causes, and have the same
moral aspect 1 Ten such satellItes are the IDlmmum number
to accompany conSCIousness (cltta) at every moment;
a feehng, an Idea, a vohtlOn, some attentIOn, some understandIng (mat~ = pTaJiiii), some concentratlOn (sumiidkl), etc.,
are always present In every conSCIOUS moment. 2 They are
1 Ab K, 11, 52, reckons ten dlfJerent ties of the" satelhtes .. With calla
The Theravida seems to reckon only four, cf A8l, P 42' ekuppadadinam
va.'Iena 8Gmpayogatlho vullo
I The number 18 then Increased by the four 8G'lI8krtG-lalsG7;1a8 of each
element, and by the four la1cSG7IaB and four G7IUlak8Gnas of calla Itself,
thus makmg fifty-eight satellItes the minimum number'to Unite In every
smgle kBana WIth Cilia, the fifty-runth (Ab K, 11, 52).
IX.
CAUSALITY
31
conjoIned, but conjoined by the law of "satelb.tes"

(samprayoga).l
The Sarvistivadm school reckons In all SIX ddferent causal
relations, but m these detaIls the schools varIed a great
deal, and they eVIdently represent a later development of
the orIgInal Idea. The detaIled account gIven In the
Abku1harma-ko~a represents the doctrme in Its final form
whIch It receIved In the abkidharma of the SarvastIvadlns.
X. KARMA
One of the most IlluminatIng features of BuddhIst
phtlosophy IS Its deep research Into the phenomenon of moral
causatIOn All IndIan systems contam an appeal to the
" unknown" (ad'llta, aml7"llQ.) as a transcendental cause whIch
has to be pOSIted in explaIning the ongIn and the ultImate
goal of hfe. The BuddhIsts dIstInguish between (1) causatIOn
among elements of dead matter, where the law of homogeneIty
(sabkiiga-hetu) between cause and result reIgns, (2) causatIOn
lD the orgamc world, "here we have the phenomenon of growth
(upacaya), and (3) causatIon In the ammate world, where
the operatIon of moral causation (v~pa~'a-ketu) IS superImposed
upon the natural The elements constItutmg the stream of
our present hfe are condItioned, In addItIOn to the natural
course of events, by the mysterIOUS effiClency of past elements
or deeds, If the latter have possessed a moral character of some
force or prommence. The indrfierent actIVltles of everyday
hfe have no such effiClency But a promInent deed, whether
good or bad, Will affect the whole stream and may carry ItS
result either at an early or very remote date. The resultmg
event (lnpiilca-pkala) IS always IndIfferent (avyiikrta) in the
1
The figurahve words of BuddhaghOlila (quoted by Mrs Rhys DaVids,
B PBych, P 54) aro apparently mtended to descrIbe thiS kmd of Union
That Vi)1iiina 18 the most general mental element 18 admitted by all BuddhlSts;
but that It .. mcludes and mvolves " other elements, let a.Ione aggregates.
ha.s never been admitted m ab/i,dkarma-It would be pure vIJliiina.vada.
The Bam'{1l'ayoga conneXlon 18 known to BuddhaghOlila. cf A8l., p 42 The
Ab. K., I, 35, Tibetan, p 6.2, 9, argues that, If the mental phenomena were
not cW!erent from catla, they would not have been called eattta
32
moral sense, because it IS a natural outflow of a previous

cause, and IS supposed not to be produced volunumly. This
moral law is also called karma
The Influence of karma is not In the Buddhist outlook so
overwhelming, controlling the whole UnIverse, as It IS mother
!lon-BuddhIst systems, and as It also becomes, under the name
of v{u,'!nt;;, m the later IdealIstIC systems of BuddhIsm also
In abhulharma It IS one of the forces controlhng the worldprocess. It IS the chIef force so far as rt controls ItS gradual
pro~ress towards Final DelIverance Its operatIOn IS subject
to the followmg conditIOns. Every fact produced by the
"maturmg mfluence" (t'~piika) of moral or Intellectual
antecedents (karma) necessarily belongs to ammate hfe
(sattt-akhyalt), but IS by Itself morally IndIfferent (avyiikrto
dharmah) It IS IndIfferent because It IS a natural outcome
of antecedents, It always arrIves mVOhIntarIly, automatIcally.
If somethIng IS produced voluntarIly, It may become the
startmg-poInt of a new development. W'hen It has an
outspoken strong moral charac-ter, whether good or bad,
It becomes lMrma, and wdl haye correFlpondmg consequences
whIch, aga.m, WIll appear automatic-ally, Since they are fully
foreshadowed by their antecedent and are not voluntary
acts. ThiS explaIns the defimtIOn of Karma, as given by
Vasubandhu Karma IS wIll (cetan(t) and voluntary actIOn
(celayltvii karallam) I Exactly the same defimtIon IS found
m thf' Pah canon, and eVidently was current m BuddhISm
from the begmmng 2
When a new hfe IS produced, ItS component elements, I.e.
the eIghteen classes (dhiitus) of elements, are present, although
In an undeveloped conditIOn. The first moment of the new hfe
IS conventIOnally called tIJiiana. It constItutes the third
member (mdana) of the eyer revolvIng" wheel of hfe ". Its
antecedents are karma, I.e tht- good or had InstIncts stickIng
to It from the begInlllng. In the formula of the ., wheel of
hfe" thiS member appears under the na.me of samakiira, I.e.
Ab K.
IV,
1 If
A"uutlara, vol.
IV,
415.
X.
KARMA
ss
pre-natal forces. Another, more general, antecedent is

amdIJii, the mst member of the wheel, representmg the defiling
influence (klefG) of lIlOrance and other VIces, the absence of
dIscnmmatmg knowledge (praJ'iiii) Among the components
(dhatu) of the new lIfe ten represent matter. They are atomIC.
The atoms are compound atoms, they contain the usual eIght
components WIth addItIOn of partIcles of sensIbIlity-stuff
(rupa-prasiida) or "orgamc" stuff (= ~ndnIJa).
The
" tangIbility "-stuff (kiiyendnya) pervades the whole body.
In some parts of the body, e g In the organ of VISIOn, the
atoms have a stIll more complicated structure But not
only does matter consist of compound atoms, It COnsiSts of
momentary appearances of atoms In dead, morgamc matter
one moment follows the other, obeymg solely the law of
umformity or homogeneous production (sabhiigaJa) The
next moment follows automatically (m.yyanda) on the former
one. There IS neIther growth nor decay ThiS unIform course
,vould represent the Buddhist counterpart of what we mIght
call etermty of matter Although the same matter IS also
present m the orgamc body, nevertheless the term "umform
course" (saMiiga-ltetu) cannot be appbed to It m that condition.
It IS reserved for those cases where there are no other causes
m additIon to the uniform sequence of moments COnstItutIng
inorganic matter. When other processes-the process of
growth (upacaya), the Influence of mtellectual and moral
causes (v'tpiika)-are superImposed upon the uniform course
of the eXIStence of matter, when It becomes orgamc and lIvmg,
the consecutlOn of Its moments receIves other names
(upacayaJa, vtpiikaJa).
The pure "umformlty-relatlOn"
between consecutive moments-the sabhiiga-n~anda-relatlOn
-obtains only m the realm of Inorgaruc, dead matter When
the atoms of orgamc matter have aSbembled, the phenomenon
of growth (upacaya) becomes the controlling prInCiple of
de"elopment, the atoms mcrease III number. ThIS process
of growth 18 supported by favourable cIrcumstances. good
food (anna-V't9ta), qUiet sleep (8vapna-vtfe~cal
34
tIdIness
(8a7Jl8kdra-v~fe8a),
and careful behaVIour (samddhi1nfC~a).

But this growth IS not the only factor whICh
controls the development of hVIng bodIes. The influence
of what we may term heredIty steps In, and IS superimposed
upon the natural process of gro\\1;h. ThIS IS the Influence of
karma, the maturIng (vtpiika) mfluence of moral antecedcnts
When the organs of the body are bemg formed, or are
developmg, thIS mfluence condItIOns theu final constltutlOn
The questIOn IS then raIsed, what IS the mutual relatIOn of
these two dIfferent agenCIes, natural development and
heredIty? The answer is that the first process constltutes the
"vanguard ", or a rampart, under the protectIOn of whICh
the second, the t'lpiika, may safely operate.1 It IS not qUIte
easy to realIze what such an answer may exactly mean.
At any rate, It suggests a more subtle, spIrItual, or semlspmtual character of t,he second force. Karma IS not qUIte
phySICal (paudgaltka) WIth the BuddhIsts, as It IS WIth the
Jams, but It seems to be semI-physIcal, smce It mterferes m
the dISposItIOn of atoms along wlth the prInCIple of growth
that accumulates them
A very mterestmg IllustratIOn of the meamng of these
BuddhIst conceptIOns about heredIty, retrIbutIOn, etc.-all
facts falhng under the head of karma-ttpiika-Is gtven by the
followmg scholastIC questIOn. VOIce IS always produced
volunt..arIly, consequently It cannot be the product of moral
antecedents, of karma I t IS not V1piikaJa, for all the facts
of heredlty are produced automatIcally (m~yanda). But
we know that the Great Man (mahiipuru~a), 1 e. a Buddha, has
a captlvatmg, melodIOUS VOIce, a noble elocutIOn. It IS one
of the characterIstIc gtfts of a Buddha, and is due, hke all hIS
subhme quahtles, to heredity, 1 e to a long course of moral
progress runmng through generations Therefore hIS extraordmary VOIce and elocutIOn must hkewlse be a consequence
of hIS moral antecedents (vtpiikaJa). The puzzle IS solved by
1
Ab. K.,
1,
37, and Yac;:om -upacaya.Balilc/,no Hpaka'8antii7lll8ytJ
parn'(ira'QVQ8tJlti1lt'1IQlIQ cirQE,.(i.
X.
KARMA
assuming a double causahty. The configuratIon of atoms m

hIS organs of speech was 1nfluenced by hered1ty, I.e. moral
causes (vtpakaJa), but hIS actual speech IS a voluntary, not
an automatIca.1 act, and therefore could not be interpreted
as a dIrect product of hiS subhme nature, or the result of hiS
former achlevements. 1
The elements of moral defilement (kle9a) are always present
In a lIfe (samtlina), m a latent or patent cond1tion. When
latent they have tlle form of "res1dues" (anufaya), they
stICk to the other elements, pollute them, brmg them mto
commotIOn and prevent theIr commg down to rest. Th1s
mfluence of the dlsqUletmg elements m hfe IS termed
" general cause" (sarmtraga-ltetu) because 1t affects the whole
of the stream of hfe (santana), all ItS elements become SOIled.
The primary cause of this unhappy condItIon IS "illusion"
(avulyii), the first, fundamental member m the wheel of hfe
It contmues to eXIst and exhibIt Its mfluence as long as the
" wheel" turns, and IS gradually neutrahzed and finally
stopped by an antidote m the form of transcendmg Wisdom
(praJ1tii amalu). Some detaIls about thIS process w1l1 be gIven
later on when deahng With the "unrest" of the elements.
ThiS process of gradual extmctIOn of the kler;as and the consl'quent purificatIOn of hfe 1S the ultImate aIm of the BuddhIst
doctrme. For the sake of It the analysis of hIe mto elements,
the research mto the1r functIons and connexIODS was
undertaken. sankler;a-vyavadiinlkam UW:T{I, ~iistram-this
doctnne 1S a doctnne about defilement and purIficatIOn, or,
more exactly, about the commotIOn and final appeasement
of hfe. 2
'4!though emphatIcally banned from the dwelhng of
BuddhIst phIlosophy and replaced by the laws of InterconnexIOn, the conceptIOns of substance and quahty seem
to have found a back-door through which partly to
Ab. K , I, 37. Tlb text, pp 6Ci ff.
The second ps.rt.of the second K~a.8tTliina contams an exposition of the
hetupratyaya theory Cf also Ab K. I, 36-6, Tibetan tll'tt, pp 64 ff.
1
36
THF CENTRo\.L CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM
re-enter m theIr usual positIOn

For the dIvISion of the
elements of matter mto primary and secondary (bkUta and
bkauttka) and of the mental elements mto fundamental and
derivatIve (eltta and catua) approaches very nearly the
relation of substance and qualIty
The secondary are
supported (ilp-tta) 1 by the pIlmary, and thIS conneXlOn IS
mseparable, the one cannot a.ppear Without the other.
In the Buddhist mterpretatlon they are, nevertheless,
separate elements although lmked together by the laws of
causatIon A speCial relatIOn of Simultaneous or reCiprocal
causatIon (sakabhu) IS then ImagIned to save the SituatIOn. In
theory the one element IS as much the cause of the other
as the latter IS the cause of the former 2 The mental
phenomena are not mcluded m consCiousness (ctUa) , but are
standmg by It, mutually they are envelopIng (anupartvartante)
It, but, nevertheless, they are separate elements 3 N otwlthstandmg these efforts to mamtaIn theIr equal rights,
we see that the attempt has not been successful, smce there IS
a prImary and secondary posItIOn, the secondary IS spoken of
a~ supported by the primary, and their connexlon IS
mseparable It IS presumably for thIS reason that Buddhadeva,
one of the celebrities of the Sautrantlka school, revolted
agaInst such mequahty of treatment, and demed the difference
between primary and secondary ell'ments; he mamtamed
that all were equally prImary (bMta and not Mautt/ca) 4
But thIS strICture had no success, It was dlSposed of by
reference to the Scriptures and by pomtmg, as It would seem,
1 The derlvod elements of matter are called ulludiiya-rupa, Ie. bhiUii1lt
"11 idiiya, cf the diSCUS&IOn under Ab K, I, 35
I Ibid, 11, 51
a It IS curious that the rltta 18 relatod to caltta by the sahabMi. relation,
whICh 18 defined as mutual causalIty, one member bemg the cause of the
othor as much as the lattor 18 tho cause of tho formor Nevertheless, the
cadlas stand to cllta m another relatIOn, called samprayoga They" envelop"
the calta, but do not entor mto It, for thiS would moan" Inherence", which
18 prohibited
Through the cobweb of these devlCes one can clearly watch
the apparitIOn of the ghost of the Roul, which It has cost so much effort
to ban
Ibid, I, 35
X.
KARMA
37
to the promInence of the tactIle sense data; the general

mamfestatIOns (lak~ana) of matter-repulsIOn, attractIon,
heat, and motIon-are all tactIle phenomena, and they are
genernl,l whereas colour, t-tc. can be appreht-nded by VIsion
alone. Moreover, the t.ranslucent matter of the sense organs
could not eXIst (1 e. appear) WIthout beIng backed by some
more con'-lIstent forces 2)
XI.
IMPERMANENCE OF THE ELEMENTS
The elements of eXIstence are momentary appearances,

momentary flashmgs mto the phenomenal world out of an
unknown I)onrce Just as they are chsconnec.ted, so to say,
III breadth, not bemg hnked togt-ther by any pervadIng
substance, just so are they dIsconnected In depth or In
duratIOn, SInce they last only one SIngle moment (ksana).
They dIsappear as soon as they appear, In order to be followed
the next moment by another momentary eXIstence. Thus a
moment becomes a Eoynonym of an element (dharma), two
moments are two dlfferent elements. An element becomes
somethIng lIke a POInt In tIme-space The SarviistlvadIn
school makes an attempt mathematIcally to determme the
duratIOn of a moment 3 It, nevertheless, admIttedly
represents the smallest partICle of tIme ImagInable. Such
computatIOns of the sIze of the atom and of the duration of a
moment are eVIdently mt-re attempts to seIze the mfirutesImal.
The Idea that two moments make two dIfferent elements
1 Caraka ({JarirasIMlla, chap I) likeWIse pomts out that tho 'alr"allo,8
of hiS five bkilfaa are tacttle phenom~na.-spaTf-!'ndrlya-!1oearam.
2 Bulilihadeva In hIS turn quotes the Garbkii~akrallh-sii.tra (not to be
tTaced In tho Pah canon) a.nd a passage statmg that at the conceptIOn
moment of Buddha (I e the thll'd nulana, teebnICaUy called IIIJiiilna) the
embryo was IIarldkiitulra, I e consIstIng of SIX elsml'nts, tltJ,;,ana, fuur
mahabkii.taa, and a~~. tho bkauh I.."a8 are not mentIOned But It IS answered
that the makabkii.las a.re alone mentIOned, smce Mula represents the
bkalltllras as well, and vlJoona IS here eqUIvalent to cilia and cmtta (Ab E,
1,35, Tlbtltan text, p 62,6 If) Su~rtlta(8iUra-8tkalla, xu) has the same View
as Buddhadeva HehkswIAe shares the VIew that the prommen!'e, ufkarao"
not the quantity, of one kind of atoms, determmes the class of th" compound.
a Ab. E., 111, 15; cf. S Z Aung, Oompendlum, p 25.
S8
remains. Consequently, the elements do not change, but

disappear, the world becomes a cmema.. DIsappearance is
the very essence of existence; what does not dJsappear does
not exist 1 A cause for the Buddhists was not a real cause
but a precedmg moment, whIch lIkeWIse arose out of nothing
In order to dIsappear mto nothmg.
It IS at present impossIble to determme the epoch when
th18 theory was definitely framed Some of the oldest schools,
at any rate, expressed It very clearly. a They mamtamed
that mountaIns, trees, the elements of matter, all elements
In general, were momentary appaIltlOns, hke moments of
thought. The schools differed on thiS pomt, and the complete
logical demonstration was constructed, probably, at the time
when logiC had taken the place of abludll,arma 3 But It IS
easy to reahze that, gIven the fundamental BuddhIst Idea of
the plurahty and separateness (prthal..tva) of theIr elements,
thIS Idea, worked out With the characteIlstlC IndIan intrepidity
In phIlosophical constructIOn, mll8t have been carried to ItS
logical COnBt'quence, I.e. the assummg of no duratIon, Slllce
there was no stuff that could possess duratIOn
1 Thus eXistence becomes synonymous With non-eXistence, SIDce every
fact dISappears at the same moment when It appears ThiS IS the Indian
way of expressmg the Idea developed by H Bergson, CreattVe Evolution,
p 2 .. the truth 111 that we change Without ceasing, and that the stlLte
It,elf IS nothmg but cha.nge .. The conclUSIOn of Bergson IS to the mdlvlSlbllIty
of duration, whereas the Buddhlsts stick to the separate moment'! and make
them a.ppear out of nothmg--<lsata ttlptidalv-and agam dlsaPlJear mto
nothmg-Mranvaya-v17l4~ah, I'f Ny4yabl7ldut, p 68
J'ediinta-Butra,
li, 2, 6, and 84nkllya-'iUra, I, 44-5, accuse the Buddhists of convertmg
elustence mto non-existence
I Katk4vatthu, XXIl. 8
pka-cltta-kha1nkii 8abbe dhammii
I The anC18nt term seems to ha.ve been anl/ga. \,lul'h 18 a('ceptod by all
schools. It was replaced 10 tho sequel by k ..av.lLa Thl~ may reBect some
cha.nge In the defiUlteness of the view The logical argument 18 that every
moment bemg a different determma.tlOn, must be a separa.te entity
vlTuddha-dharma-8a1fl8argiid dlly anyad lIaJtu. d. Nyilyab,ndufikii. p 5
(Blbl. 100) By the conversIOn of the proposlhon'yat 8at tat hantkam'lt
was proved tha.t, II somethml! did not d18appE'ar. It did not eX18t.
The dootrme 18 flllly expounded 10 Ratnakirh's K~anabha",gallllldl" (SIX
BuddhISt tracts. Blbl I nd ). and It 18 controvertod In numerous Brahmamcal
works
XI.
I~PERMANENCE
39
A consequence of thIS doctrme was a delllal of motion. A

really eXlstmg object, I.e an element, cannot move, because It
dIsappears as soon as It appears, there is no time for It to move.
ThIS does not contradIct the Clrcumstance that one of the
general characterIstics of matter, the fourth maMbhiUa, is
motIon Every motion is resolved m a serIes of separate
apparItions, or flashings, ariSing In contIguIty to one another}
MotIOn of physIcal objects, as explained In the abhidharma,
gave the best E.Upport to the conSIderation of dead matter as
a serIes of evanescent flashmgs. The phenomen of acceleration
of falhng bodies IS explained by a dIfference In the llltensity
of the element weIght or motion (irana) at every moment of
Its downward course, Since the object at every moment IS
dIfferently composed. 2 An element 18 thus comparable to a
fire, It conSIsts of a serIes of separate flashmgs follOWing one
another, every moment representmg a new fire.
The Sarvastivadins construe the theory of the momentary
character of the elements In the followmg manner. a Every
element appearing In phenomenal hie IS affected
SImultaneously by four different forces (saf!lSktiras), the
forces of ol'lgmatlOn (utpiida) , decay (Jara), maintenance
(sthltt), destructIOn (amt.'1atii) " These forces affect every
element at every moment of ItS eXIstence, they are the most
UnIversal forces, the characterIstIC feature or the mamfestmg
forces of phenomenal eXIstence (sams!rta-laksaniirH). The
elements affected by them are called the mamfested elements
(sarnskria-dltarma) Unaficcted by them are only the three
1 Ab K, IV, 2, na gahr, niit It IS not 1nya, but mrantara-utpiida.
see below, under Theory of CogmtlOn, p 60
I Ab K, 11, 46
The Vau;eslka admit one mdlvmble Bamakara tlll the
cessation of a motIOn ThIS would ('orrflSpond to Hl'rgson's Idea of the
Indlv18lblhty of motIOn The NalyJ.Ylkas, on the contrary, admit as many
8al1",lca7'aB as there are momontary I.nyiiB
a It I'! expounded With all detaIls of the Issue between Sautrti.ntlkas and
SlI.rvii.stlvii.dln'l by Vasubandhu III Ab K, 11, 46 Profo~sor J. de la Vallee
Pous9m has kmdly oommumcated to me hIS French translation of thJ8
lmportant text, }VhlCh I compared WIth my own Enghsh translatIOn.
Sometime, reduced to three-birth, subSIStence, and decay
40
elements of eternal unchanging eXlStence (asaf!U!krta-dka'f'fOO).

The term sarp,skrta IS therefore synonymous wIth ksan~ka,
I e Impermanent or momentary 1
ACcordlDg to the laws of mterconnCXIOn between elements,
these four forces always appear together and Simultaneously.
They are lIaltabhil 2 BeIng elements themselves, they are In
need of secondary forces (upalak~ana) In order to display theIr
effiClency. The reahstIc tendency of the SarvastlvidIns, If
I there
was any, consisted In constructIng some reahtles
correspondmg to our Ideas or habIts of speech. ThIS tendency
they shared with the Nyaya-Vall;esIka system Just as the
latter had a qualIty of conJunction (samyoga) as somethIng
real, additional to the thIngs whICh were JOIDlng, Just so the
SarvastlvadIns had theIr orIgInatIOn, decay, eXIstence, and
destructIOn In addItion to the elements origInatIng and
dIsappearIng at the same moment They InSisted that these
four forces, and the secondary potenCles Influencmg them In
their turn, were realItIes (dravyatah santt). AgaInst thiS Idea
of an element whICh was SImultaneously orIgInatIng, eXistIng,
and dIsappearIng, the very natural obJectIon was raIsed by
all the other BuddhIst and non-BuddhIst schools that
productIOn and destruction could not be SImultaneous. On
the other hand, It was ImpOSSIble to allow an element more
than one SIngle moment's duratIOn, SInce two moments
constItuted two elements
The SarvastIvawns met the
obJectIon by pOIntIng to the drfierence between an element
In It.self, Its real nature (svabluiva) and its effiClency-moment,
Its functIOn, or manIfestatIOn (kii..!J;lva, la~a). The elements
or forces Dlay be opposed to one another, yet theIr effect
may result In some smgle real fact, as e.g., SUppOSIng three
assaSSInS have resolved together to kill a man hidIng In some
1
The tra.nslatlon of 8al7ukrm-dkarma as .. compound" is a contradlctl!)

A dharma 18 never compound, It 18 IIlways Simple Wherever
In adJeclo
there IS composition there aTe several dkarmlJ8

I Just &8 the Cltta never appears Without Simultaneously bemg accompanIed by callta-dluJrmas, or the fOUT mal/(wkiltaB appearmg Simultaneously
WIth the bhauhka8
XI
IMPERMANEN0R
41
dark recess, one of them (utpada) pulls him out of his hldmgplace (the future), the other seizes him, the thIrd stabs him,
all actmg simultaneously. The VIctim (dharma) appears only
to disappear The reahty moment IS the moment of actIOn,
of Its bemg achieved. "We call a moment," the SarvastIvadms
mamtam, " the pomt when an actIOn IS fully achieved." 1 We
have here the germ of the later Idea that thiS moment IS somethmg transcendental. somethmg that cannot be expressed m
a discurSive thought 2 The moment was then raIsed to the
pOSitIOn of the "thmg m Itself ",3 the transcendental
foundation of reahty, mdeed, the absolute reahty Itself '_a:
conceptIOn whICh had great Importance In the development
of later Indian phIlosophy.5
The Sautrantlka school takes a more simple and reasonable
view of the questIon. They deny the realIty of the four
mamfestatlOn-forces of productIOn, decav, etc G The correspondmg notions of productIOn, destructIOn, etc, refer, not
to smgle moments, but to series of them (santana) 7 Even
If apphed to one moment these notIOns do not Imply the
eXIstence of correspondmg realIties, they are mere names
for the fact that a momentary entity appears and dlsappears. 7
ThIS entity Itself appears and disappears, there IS no need of
l'Iupplemt'ntary for<.'es for thiS Const'qut'nt on that, a. further
very Important dIvergence between the two schools arises.
As stated above, the Sarvastlvadms mamtain that all elements
( 1 Krtya-partsamiiptl-lakBana
t80 nab. kBallah, Ab K, 11, 46,) cf.
Nyii.yabmdutika., p 13 (Blbl lnd) k8anlke vaBtUnI . eka-lnyiikarltvena 8al14kiiri grhyale
2 KRana8ya (Jiiiinena) prapayttllm a~akyatviit (Ibid, P 16)
a SvalakBana, lbld
4 Paramiirtha-Bat, IbId
a Dharmakirtl Identlfied the momE"nt Wlth pure sensation, where subJect
and object coalesce, and the Vedantms deemed that we have m thiS moment
&. dll'eCt perception of brahma. The Indl&n IIstronomers and mathematlClaDS
knew the ddierentl&l conception of 1llstantaneous mohon of a planet,
It'itkfihki gaMI, a. motIon consta.nt durmg an mfiruteslmally small mterval ;
cf B Seal, P081tlfJe 8clffU'f8, p. 77
a Dravyato na santi, cf Ab K, 11, 46
7 Ibld
42
THE CENTRAL CONCEPTlON OF BUDDHISM
. exist on two different planes, the real essence of the element

(doorma-svabhava) and Its momentary mamfestatlOn (doormalaklana). The first eXIsts always, in past, present, and future.
It IS not eternal (n~tya) because eternahty means absence of
change, but it represents the potentIal appearances of the
element mto phenomenal existence, and Its past appearances
as well. ThIS potentiahty IS eXIstIng for ever (sarvada ash).
Even in the suppressed state of Nlrvii.I)a, when all hfe IS
extmct, these elements are supposed to represent some
entIty, although Its mamfestatlOn-power has been suppressed
for ever. The future potentIal elements are, mdeed, dIvIded
m thIS school mto two dIfferent sets, those that wIll appear
(utpaU~-dOOrma) and those that are suppressed and never WIll
appear (anutpath-dkarma). Smce the moment (ksana) IS not
somethmg dIfferent from the element (dharma), time m general
IS not ddIerent from the elements taken collectIvely, as far
as they have not lost theIr capaCity of appearmg m phenomenal
hfe. In fact, "the times" IS one ot the synonyms used to
deSignate collectively the elements appearmg m ordinary
hfe. 1 But the term "tIme" (kala), Implymg the reahty of
one tIme, IS carefully avoided; It IS replaced by the term
"transItIon" (adhvan) When the Sarvastlviidm mamtams
that " everythmg eXIsts", It means that all elements eXist,
and the emphaSIS whICh IS put on the reahty of elements
I refers to the conceptIon that theIr past as well as theIr tuture
transitIOn represents somethmg real From thIS fundamental
tenet the school denves Its name Smce the conception of an
element answers rather to our conceptIOn of a subtle force
than of a substance, the realIty, 1 e effectiveness, of the past
IS not so absurd as It otherWIse would appear. The
Sautrantikas dellied the reahty of the past and the future
m the duect sense, they admItted the reahty only of the
present. The future, they contended, was not real before
becommg present, and the past was Dot real after havmg been
1
IIpdddna.llrandl,a, cf Ab K,
I,
7, Tlbetan text, p 12,6
XI.
IMPERMANENCE
43
present.1 They did not deny the influence of past facts upon
present and remote future ones, but they explamed It by a
gradual change m an unmterrupted sequence of moments,
thIS sequence havmg a startmg-pomt m a conspicuous
or strong impmgemg fact: It was for them one of the laws of
Intereonnenon between separate elements 2
There was another school whICh occupIed an Intermedlate
posltlOn between the Sautrantlkas and Sarvastivadms, It
mamtamed the reahty of th' present facts and of that part of
the past ones whICh had not already lost theIr Influence, but
the reahty of the future ones and of that part of the past ones
whICh had ceased to exhIbIt any mftuence It dented.
Vasubandhu ca.lls thIS school the VlbhaJyavadms, or
DlstmgUIshmg School 3 The whole argument between the
rival schools IS presented by Vasubandhu wIth every detaIl
m hiS usual masterly manner and need not be repeated here'
XII.
IMPERMANENCE IN SANKHYA-YOGA
The deprecatIOn of " change and decay" and ItS contrast

wIth somethmg that "changes not" IS a popular theme
WJth many relIgIOns and philosophies The merit of havmg
worked It out up to the remotest logICal consequences
appertams to Buddhism It appears that m thls work
the Buddhll,ts were asslsted by the parallel work of
Brahmamcal phllosophers of the Sfmkhya-Yoga school.
The startIng-poUlt of the Jatter was Just the reverse of the
BuddhistIC one They maIntaIned a. umty of eXistence,
cause and effect were one m essence. But a corollary of the
Ab K, Y, 24 ff ,d AppendiX I
, Ab K, IX, cf Soul Theory, p 949
a In the Katlmvatlhu, I, 8, lIuch opmlOns are ascribed to tho KiQyapiyas.
These also admltt('n the reality of that part of the future whlrit was foresha.do\\ed or fixod by the past or pres('nt IIlUon Thsang states m hiS
Commentary that the Kii.c<yapiya.s are hero moant under the name of
Vlbha.Jyavadms (McGovern) The Theravii.dms seem to have shared the
same opmlOns all the SautriintJkas. The e"planatlon of vlbhaJya-viida as
orthodoxy or an.~lyt\O school because Buddha hunself was v,bhaJya-viidln
(ef KathiivlItthu, mtroduotlOn) seems to be unlmown to Vasubandhu.
~ , Of translation In ApptlndlX 1.
1
44
umty of substance (satkiirya-vada) was the constant change

of Its manifestations, this change was also conceIved as
momentary (prat~qana-par~nii,ma). The moment IS here
defined as the Infimtesimally small measure of time, just as
the atom IS the smallest ImagInable fractIOn of ma.tter.l Two
moments cannot coalesce,! therefore there IS no real duration,
no tIme outSIde the moment 3 TIme IS an Idea Wlthout
reaMy, an empty constructIOn of the mInd.' The only rea.hty
IS the momentary thIng The past and the future are not
real dIrectly, but, SInce the present cannot eXist WlthOUt a past,
the latter 18 mherent In the fact of change 5 "Therefore,"
says Vyasa, "the whole Unlverse IS mcluded in one single
moment, all the real umts of change you may imagine 6 are
merged In every SIngle moment." 7 ConcludIng, Vyasa
admIts two lands of etermty, Immutable etermty belongIng
to the soul and etermty of mutation belonging to matter 8
The umt of change IS termed dharma, and It 18 Identified Wlth
the moment (ksana) In Yoga as well as In BuddhIsm. The
change of marufestatIOn was called a change of dharma 9 ;
but in the Brahmamcal system It IS qUlte natural to make use
of thIS term, SInce an old and usual mearung of It IS " qualIty".
and In the Sankhya VIew the changIng marufestatIOns are
appurtenances of some pervadIng stuff. It 18 therefore
probable that the techrucal meamng of thI<; term In Buddlusm
developed from one of its old mearungs, WIth the difference
that, qualIty beIng left WIthout any support by the substance,
It became an Independent qualIty, or quahty In the role of
substance. As In the BuddhIst system, theae manifestatIOns
Vyiisa's Blllhya, ad 1II, 52.
Ibid
a Klla(Ja-tatkramflYM' nash la8tu-samriluirall, IbId
, VaBIrI~inyo buddhlmrmiillall, IbId.
a Parmamanutall, IbId.
8 IbId, ami Bartle dllarmlih
7 IbId, tatl8anoparUddluih
M Ibid, IV, 33
g IbId, UI, 13.
1
I
XII.
IMPERMAl'.'ENCE IN YOGA
45
are conceived as forces (~kh) 1 and even potential forces

(yogyafijvacch~nna),2 correspondmg to the BuddhISt conceptIon
of a sa1ft8kiira. The ddference IS that they belong to some
substance (dharm~n)
The reahty of a "transitton-tune"
(adhvan) as distIngwshed from a duratlOn-tIme" (kala)
was admitten, the same term-adhvan-Is used on both
sides to expre88 the first of these conceptIOns 3
If we turn to the Sarvii.stIv8.dm vIew, whlch admltted some
transcendental everlastmg reahty of the elements along With
their Pa88Ing manifestations, the similanty becomes still
more strdang, and the difference IS often restrICted to the
wordmg. A dharma, says Vyasa, eXists In all the three tImes.'
The marufestatlOn (dharma) and the mamfested (dllarmm) are
qwte the same, the mamfestatJOn represents only the way In
whiCh the manIfested appears 5 The reahty of the past and
the future IS then proved by Patan]ah amI Vyasa In almost
the same expreSSlOns that are used by the Sarvastlvanms, G
With the difference that there IS no mentIOn of separate forces
(sa'l'}Lskrta-lak~aniim) of productIOn and destructIon
When
accused of drIfting mto Sankhya, the SarvastJvii.dms JustIfied
themselves by pomtmg to these momentary foroos, whIch
saved the BuddhIst prinCiple of detached entitles 7
The question of the relation between the permanent eSStlnce
of an element and Its manIfestatIOn was thoroughly dIscussed
Ibid. lll, 14
Ibid
a Ibid, IV, 12
, Ibid, lll, 13
Ii Ibid
I The Sarvii.StIviidm. argue that the paRt and the future must eXISt
be~ause we have a. knowledge of the past and of the future obJects, th18
knowledge ca'lnot be of non eXistence, I e of notlllng We hnd qUite the
sa.me argument In Vyaaa.bhd'ya, ad IV, 12, cf Appendix I
Stress IS laid
upon the conception adhvan .. tranSitIOn ", when the reahty of past and
pre.,ent are a,serted adhva.v'~'8tatayii sattvam trayiilliim apy aVI~l8tam
(Vacaspah ad Vyaaa.blui.ya, lV, 12). ThiS realIty IS Inherent 10 the
fact o{ tranSition ye t1 bkiitabkiivlnah k~alll'is Ie paTLnlimanvlta t,yiil..ltyeyiilJ.
(lbld, lll, 52) Othorwlse there would be contradlct.lOn between IV, 12,
and W, 52, where tt IS Bald na piirvottara-ksaniih santi
1
I
Of. Appenthx 1.
46
THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION O'F
BUDDHISM
among Buddhists, and four solutIOns were suggested. The

first belonged to Dharmatrata J. It malDtalDed umty of
substance (drav"Ia) along WIth a change lD existence (bkat1a).
ThIs was dIsmissed by sImply pomtmg to the obvious fact
that this was Siinkhya and not Buddhism. The second
explanatIOn belonged to Ghosa; It assumed that elements,
although eXIstent m the past, present. and future, changed their
aspect (lak~ana), or lDtenslty, accordmgly as they appeared
at different times, just as the passIOnate love for one woman
IS only an mtensJficatlOn of a feehng whICh IS ahve towards
women m general, It does not mean total absence of thlS feehng
lD other cases. ThiS e"'{planatJon was not accepted on the
ground that It ImplIed co-eXistence of the different aspects
at the same time. Vasunlltra advocated a change of conditIOn
(avastha) , I.e of effiCiency (kiirltt a) m the present, and noneffiCiency m past and future ThIS VIew was accepted lD the
school as the correct one. It was Illustrated by the ball of
an IndIan abacus: beIng thrown m the hole for umts It means
one, m the hole for hundreds-hundred, etc. Fmally
Buddhadeva thought that past, present, and future were
contIngent (apeksa) upon one another, Just as the same woman
may be a mother WIth respect to her chtld and a daughter
WIth respect to her mother ThIS was dIsmIssed as leadmg
to a confusIOn of the tImes. The passage of the Vlbltasa, where
these oplDlOns of four celebrated masters of the SarvastlvadlD
and Sailtrantika schools were reported, enJoyed apparently
great popularIty. Reference IS made to It lD later Buddhist
works,2 and It eVIdently was borrowed from the Buddhists
by PatanJah and Vyasa YogasUtra, lll, 13, alms at glvmg
an explanatIon of the time varIatIOns of one substance; It
adopts the suggested explanatIOns not as exclUSive of one
another, but as subordInate and co-existent. The change of
mamfestatIon (dharma) IS characterIzed further on as a change
1
Ibid
As e g
In
Bhavya's account of the sects, cf. RockhIll's LIJe of Buddha.
XII.
IMPERMANENCE IN YOGA
47
of aspect (laksana) and condItion (avasthii) The characteristio

examples for IllustratIng the suggested explanations are
repeated In Vyasa's BhuRya With sbght modifications. As
though anSwerIng the variety of the BuddhIst theorIes,
Vyasa emphatically mamtaInS that the change of quabty
(dharma), aspect (laksana), and condition (avastkii) IS but the
same fact variously descrIbed. " There IS, therefore," says
he, " only one kmd of mutation of matter, though varIously
described by us ... The mutatIOns of external aspect (dharma)
and of time-varIatIOn (laksana) and of IntenSIty (avasthii), as
here descrIbed, do not transcend the substance as 6uch. Hence
there IS only one kmd of mutatIOn whICh meludes all those
vanetIes we have descnbed." 1 Buddhadeva's theory that
the time varIatIOns are contlllgent upon one another, whIch
logIcally leads to the conclUSIOn that essence and marufestatIon
are Interchangeable terms, may have Influenced the somewhat
SImIlar theory of PatanJab and Vyasa that substance and
qualIty are contIngent (sapek~tka) terms. 2
The doctrIne of momentary uDlversal change ongmated
probably m the Siinkbya system From thIS doctrme It
receives the name of a Theory of Change-pannanw-t'ada,
whICh IS only a natural corollary of ltS fundamental prmClple
of llDlty between cause and effect (satkiirya-t'iida) It IS natural
to SUrIDlSe that early Buddhism has been Influenced by It.
But m a later perIOd the SarvastIviidm phIlosophers
unquestionably exerClsed a conSiderable mfluence on the
formatIon of the Sankhya-Yoga doctrme. 3
1 C'f Profespor J H Woods' translatIon In hlB Yoga System 0/ Pataiijali
(Harvard 0 S ), P 217.
2 VyiUa, 111, IS
3 The pomts of 81muarlty between the Buddhl~t syqtem and the
Sii.nkhya-Yoga, e~pecmlly as presE'nted m tho YOIJa-Sfi,tra and Bhdaya. are
so overwhelmmgly numerous that they ('ould not escape the attention of
the students of abkldkarma Some ot them have been occaSIOnally notICed
above The pomt deserves speCial treatment Professor de 1a Vallee
PoussJn has kmdly commumcated to me In MS a paper prepared by him
on the subJoct }fe &lao Informs me that :frofessor KImura In Ja}lan haa
arrIved at the same conclusIOns mdependently from mrn.
48
THR CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM
XIII.
UNREST OF TilE ELEMENTS
The thIrd sahent feature of BuddhIst elements IS that they

represent duhkha, a term whIch has always been rendered by
Bufienng, sorrow, etc. SuffiClent a.s thIS mterpretatlOn may be
for popular hterature, It IS eVIdent that theoretIcally somethIng
else IS meant. Such expressIOns as "the element of VISIon
(cak~uh) is sorrow'',l "all elements mfluenced (sasrava,
1 e Influenced by deSIre to hve) are sorrow" 2-an element
" colour" mIght be brought under the head of "sorrow"
as well 3-could not be understood If our usual Idea of
sorrcw was brought In The Idea underlymg It IS that the
elements deSCrIbed above are perpetually m a state of
commotIOn, and the ultimate goal of the world process consISts
In theIr gradual appeasement and final extmctIOn The old
Buddhist credo (ye dharma hetu-prabhavah) already expresses
the Idea very sharply "the Great Recluse has IndIcated
the (separate) elements, theIr mterconnexlOn as causes and
effects, and theIr final suppreSSIOn"
Vasubandhu lIkeWise 4 states that Buddha In hIS compaSSIOn
for the troubles of mankmd offered them a means of salvatIOn
whICh dId not COnsISt of magIC or relIgiOUS boons, but of the
knowledge of a method of convertmg all utpattl-dharmas mto
Ab K, I, ]9, Tibetan text, p 31, 5
Ibid, I, 9, Tibetan tf''tt, p 13, b
a llorause It IS entered Into the up(idalla-A~andha8, a synonym of which
IS duhltf.a and duTlkha-sa11lltdaya (Ab K, I, 8. Tibetan text, n w ) The
translation of ar!lu-satya by .. Aryan facts" (M TIng and l\Irs Rhys DaVids)
IS eVidently better than the old translation" truth"
What IA really meant
18 a distribution of the elements (dharma) Into four stages, unrest (duhkha)
and Its cause (samudaya), final appeasement (narodha) and Its cause
(marga), a formula of elements correspondmg to every stage The aasrulodharmas are the ~ame as duhkha and SQ"'Iludoya, the (/na8ra~a-dhormal/ the
same as mrodha and marga, rf Ab K, I, 3 Thus duhkha m thIS formula
does not a.t a.ll mean" sorrow", but It IS a synonym of theseventy-twodharmaa,
or the five upiidana-Bkandhas Its general meanmg IS exactly the same as the
mea.lllng of the formula ye dhammii This duhkha IS pannama-dub.kha.
EVldently Ledi Sadaw had thIS conception III Vlew when pomtmg to the
ddlerence between two kmds of dukkha, cf Mrs Rhys DaVids,
B Psych, P 83 Cf S Scha.yer, Maluillrinllltl8cke Erl08vnglllekren, p 6.
Ad Ab K, I, I
1
XIII.
UNREST OF THE ELEMENTS
49
anutpatti-dharmas, i.e. of stopping for ever the commotion

created by the operation of the forces actIve m the process of
hfe lOur conceptIOn of a. BuddhIst element (dharma) would
not be complete If thiS connotatwn of a. commotion to be
suppressed (heya) were not mcluded, along wIth Its nonsubstantIahty and momentary evanescence.
ThiS feature converts the dTtarma-theory mto a doctrme
of salvatIon-the chIef 801m of theoretIcal as well as practIcal
Buddhism. The doctrme amounts shortly to the followmg
detaIls From the vIew-pomt of a gradual progress towards
Fmal Dehverance all the elements of hfe may assume two
different characters: they either are characterIzed by a
tendency towards hfe, commotIOn and turmOIl, and then they
are called siisrava,"I. 1 e. "mfluenced" by passIon.~; or they
are" umnfluenced " (aniisra'l.~), 1 e they exhIbIt the OppOSIte
tendency towards reduchon of hfe, appeasement of commotlOn
and even annIhIlatIOn 3 The passlOns (klefa), bemgthemselves
separate elements, I e represented as substantIal entIties,
affect the stream of hfe (santana) to whIch they belong
Roughly, the first set of elements (the siisrava-dharmas)
correspond to the ordinary man. WIth all hIS enjoyments and
bothers m hfe, the second make up the samt (iirya) ,
who stands aloof from all mterest m hfe and cares only for
Fmal Dehverance A thorough knowledge, a discrimmatIon, if,
of all elements of eXIstence IS essentIal for Salvation, smce
when they are known they can be smgled out and gradually
suppressed one after the other The connotation of the term
" element" (dharma) thus mcludes three further conceptIOns .
(1) It IS somethmg that can be well determmcd, I.e
dlstmguished m the tomplex stream of hfe as an ultImate
1
Ab K,
1,
Cf Ab K,
I.
1, 3
The derIvation of the word from the root BrU 18. no
doubt, correct, as 18 provt'd by the Jama view of the karma matter
.. flowmg " mto the body througlt tho pores of the skIn
The eternal aaams/rrta elements are Ulcluded among the aniiBralla class
CAb K ,1,3)
4 AI}. K, I, 2, dluJrma'prall,caya-a thorough plclong out of elemEnts
one by one
I
50
THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM .
reahty; (2) this something IS m a state of eternal commotion;

(3) It IS somethIng that must and can be appeased, and brought
to an eternal standstIlll
A special element received In thIs connexion extraordinary
promInence. It IS termed praj'tiii, whICh may roughly be
translated "understandIng". It IS one of the czua-mahiibhumtka elements, I.e. a mental faculty a.lways pre&ent, in
every conSCIOUS moment In the ordInary plane of existence
It 18 synonymous WIth mah and means SImple understandIng,
the capaCIty of appreCIatIng somethIng. But It IJ capable
of development and becomes then praJ11ii amalii, "Immaculate
wISdom," anasrava praJfiii, "understandIng uninfluenced (by
mundane conSIderatIOns)." Its presence gives the whole
stream (santana) a speCIal character, It becomes the central
element of the stream, and Its satelhtes-all other elements
of the "stream "-feehngs, Ideas, volItlOns, become pure. 2
The presence of thIS element acts as an antIdote agamst other
elements that are "unfavourable" (aku9ala) for progress;
they gradually dIsappear and cannot reappear In the same
stream. The first thIng to be reahzed In such a state IS the
theory of the elements (dharmatii), the Idea that there is no
permanent personalIty (pudgaZa, atmii), that the supposed
personalIty really IS a congerIes of eIghteen components (dhiitu).
When the wrong VIew of an eXIstIng personahty (satkiiya-dr~M
IS dISPOSed of, the path that leads to Fmal DelIverance is
entered. Every ViCIOUS, or dIsqUIetIng, "unfavourable"
(akus:ala) element has a speCIal antidote in the agency of
wisdom; when suppressed It becomes an anupaUt-dharma,
an element whICh never WIll return, a blank IS substituted
for it; this blank (nirodha) IS called "cessatIon through
1 In the termmology of abl"dllarma .. somethIng to be suppressed"
means that It lB an element (dllarma), cf Ab. E., I, 15, TIbetan text, 27. 8.
lf 80methmg 18 not mentioned among the obJect~ to be suppressed, that
means that It 18 not a dharma, cf. Ab K ,IX, Soul Theory. p. 844. Something
to be .. well kno~'D. thoroughly known" means hkeWlse that It IS a dkarma
(IbId, P 837)
I Ab K, I, 2, and Ya90m eomment
XIII.
51
wisdom" (pratuankltya-nirodha}.l But only the Imtial

stages of samthness can be reached through this so-called
drst~-marga, I e. through knowledge a certam amount
of dharmas has Its flashmgs stopped The remamder are
stopped by mystical concentratIOn, they are bluivana-heya,2
I e. to be suppressed by entermg the realms of trance. In all
Indian systems the ultimate mstrument of salvatIOn IS Yoga.
ThiS can not only do away wIth the mtellectual and moral
elements that are "unfavourable", but can stop the
eXIstence or appearance of matter Itself. We have seen that
matter IS reduced In thiS system to sense-data, whICh are
conceIved rather as forces, momentary flashmgs. Practical
observatIOn has shown to the phIlosophers that when a certam
degree of mtense concentratIOn IS reached the sensatIOns of
taste and smell disappear, hence, It IS concluded, the obJects,
the sense-data of odour and taste, have lIkeWIse vanished.
Founded on thiS practIcal observatIOn, a plane of eXIStence
has been Imagined, 3 where hvmg beings or "streams"
(santana) conSIst only of fourteen mstead of eIghteen components." In the A.bhtdharma-ko~a the questIOn IS raIsed,
how many elements can be suppressed through knowledge
and how many through ecstasy ~ and It 18 answered that some
mental elements are suppressed bv mere knowledge only,
namely, the belIef m a real personahty (sat-kiiya-drsti) and Its
1 PrahsanJ..llya IS synonymous With praJiia amalii, It IS the same as the
praJiiit or prasankhViina In the Sii.nkhya-Y oga ~ystem, an agency destrOYIng
the klefa8 It was probablytheorlgmal meanmgoftheword samkhyii, from
whICh the system received Its name The Buddhist speCification In the way of
the propo~ltlOn prat.- refers to the separateness of the elements, of whIrh
everyone needs a separate actIOn of w19dom In order to be suppressed ;
cf Ab. K., I, 4 The same tendency 19 probably responsible for the term
pratt-mokRa Instead of moho, as pratl-f}I}tiaplth, cf. above. p 16, the tE-rm
prab-buddho, on the contrary, IS used as a deSIgnatIOn of the" EnlIghtened
One ", m the UparusBds (ef H Oldenberg, .DIe Lehere dUT Upanl8hadtn,
p 131), by Jams, Sankhyas, but not by BuddhISts.
lAb K . I. 20.
a Ab K, bM8ya. ad 1,30, Tibetan text, p 53,4, where thIS explanatIon
18 attributed to Qrnibha, and 18, eVidently, shared by VBsubandhu himself
, The dhdtll8 Nos 8-7 and 14-15 are In abeyance.
52
consequences-all the feehngs, Ideas, and vohtIOns and forces

connected-they dIsappear as soon as the antidote, I e. the
aniitma = dharma-theory, IS reahzed. Other Impure elements
(stiMava), all the materIal elements (dhiitus 1-5 and 7-10),
and all sensuous conscIousness (dhiitus 13-17; fifteen dhiitus
In all) can be suppressed only by ecstasy 1 SInce matter was
conceIved as a play of subtle forces, Its dIsappearance In a
lIlanner simIlar to the suppresslOn of passlOn and wrong VIews
is not so IllogIcal. The purIfied elements of the saInt
(aniisrava-dharma) could not be suppressed at all, hut
they likewise dIsappeared at the time of NIrvana, through
absence of new karma, I e. elements of unrest (duhkha),
to whICh the commotIon of the world was due ImagmatIOn
has constructed whole wcrlds where these kmds of matter
and sensatIOns correspon(lmg to them are absent, they
are the worlds of reduced, or purIfied, matter.2 They
can be entered eIther by rebIrth In them (utpath), or by
an effort of concentratlOn (8arniipaU~), an absorptIon whICh
transports Into higher planes of eXistence not merely
BuddhISts. Workmg further on upon the same prmCIple,
hIgher worlds are constructed where the materIal SIde-the
sense-data-expenence further reduction and finally worlds
purely spmtual are reached, where every matter, I e all
sensatIOns and sense-data are absent Speakmg techrucally,
the formula of a hVIng bemg In these planes of eXistence WIll
reveal only three component terms (dhiitu) conSCiousness
(mano-dhiitu) , mental phenomena and forces (dharma-dhiitu) ,
and abstract, non-sensuous cogmtIOn (mano-vtJ i~na-dhiitu).3
These purely spmtual bemgs (or, more preCisely, formulas of
bemg) have theIr consciousness and mental phenomena
brought to a standstIll at some very hIgh planes of translc
eXIStence: the unconsCiOUS trance (asanJrh-samapath) and
cessatIon trance (n~roilhii-samapatt~) But thIS IS, nevertheless,
Ab K ,I, 40
lAb. K, I, 30, rupa-Dltdtu
Ab. K ,I, 31
1
XIII.
53
not an eternal extinctIon. At last the absolute stoppage of

all the pure dharma8 of the highest spirItual beings IS reached,
an eternal blank IS substituted for them. ThIS IS Nirvana,
absolute anmhllation of the surnskrta-dkurmas, which 18
tantamount to the presence of the asu1ft8krta-dharma8.
According to the SarvastivadIns, this qUlte negatIve re'!ult
is, nevertheless, an entIty of some land. They make a
difference, as stated above, between the essence and the
manIfestatIOns of the dharmas. At the tIme of NIrvana
the mamfestatlOns have ceased for ever, there WIll be no
rebirth, but this essence remains. It is, nevertheless, a kind
of entIty where there IS no conSCiousness.
Thus the ultImate goal of the world-process, the final result
of all purifYing, spmtuahzIng agenCies and efforts IS a complete
extinctIOn of conSCIOusness and all mental processes. The
absolute (nirvana) IS Inammate, even If It IS somethIng. It
]S sometImes, espeCially In popular hterature, characterIzed
as bhss, but thIs bhss conSIsts In the cessation of unrest
(duhkha). Bhss IS a feehng, and In the absolute there neIther
lS a feelIng, nor conceptIOn, nor volItIOn, nor even COnsCIOUSness. The theory IS that conSCiousness cannot appear alone
WIthout ItS satellItes, the phenomena of feelIng, volItIOn, etc ,1
and the last moment In the lIfe of a bodlHsaUvu, before mergmg
mto the absolute, lS also the last moment of consCIousness
m hIS contmUIty of many lIves 2 The appeasement of wrongs
and paSSIOns IS the general Ideal of humamty; but thIS
appeasement carrIed further on and raIsed to the state of
absolute InsensIbIlIty IS a pecubarIty of the Hindu Ideal.
PhIlosophy has converted that Into conceptual formulas,
and the result may seem absurd, but "whosoever WIshes to
be a philosopher must learn not to be frightened by
absurdIties", says a dlRtmgwshed modern author.3 Buddhism
was not the only IndIan system of philosophy to arrIve at
1 Ab K.,1I
IbId, i, 17, TIbetan text, p 30, 5.
a Bertrand Ruesell, Problems of Pll1lo8opRY, p 31.
54
such a result: in the Vaigeslka system the hberated soul

is as Inanimate as a stone (pa~allavat), or as ether (aktifavat),
because cognition, feehng, etc, are not considered as of Its

essence, but as an accidental quahty produced by I!peclal
contacts, which cease when final delIverance IS reached.1
The absolute IS spmtual only in those systems whICh accept
the doctrme that consCIousness IS of the essence of the absolute,
i e. the doctnne of self-Iummoslty (sva-praktira) of knowledge 2
XIV. THEORY OF COGNITION
The character of a philosophICal system generally comes
forth very clearly m Its theory of cogrutIOn; It enables us to
assign it a place among eIther the reahstIC systems, mamtalrung the reahty of the outer world, or among the IdeahstIC
ones, denymg such reahty. Among the Indian systems we
find every variety of such theones represented. The
Nyaya-VaIge~lka system favoured a natvely reahstIc view
of a series of real contacts--of the object With the sense-organ,
of the latter With an mternal organ, whICh m Its turn entered
into contact With the soul, and thus cogmtIOn was produced.
The Buddhist IdeahstIC school of Dlgnaga and Dharmakirtl
developed a transcendental theory whICh exhibited some
strdong pomts of Similarity With the transcendental theory
of Kant. The Sankhya-Yoga system would explam the
OI1~ln of knowledge through an assumed aSSimilation of
the mmd-stuff to the object through the medIUm of a
sense-organ, compared With the attractIon of an object by
a magnet 3 Even later Vedanta, notwlthstandmg Its strictly
momstlC prmClple, managed to establIsh some kmd of
reahstIC view about "seIZing" the object by the senses'
What was, as compared With these Views, the conceptIOn of
earher Buddhism, that part of Buddhist philosophy whICh
Cf reference, In A B Keith's Ind,an LogiC, p 261 n
Clearly expressed by Dharmo.kirtl In the celebrated verse cWlbhiigo
111 buddyiilmii.
3 Yoga Siitra, I, 4, 7
C Vedlinta-.mra, 29
1
I
XIV.
THEORY OF COGNITION
admitted the eXlStence of elements (dharma) as ultunate

reahtleB, I.e. the Sarvastlvadms and the Sautrantdms ~
Their explanation of the orlgm of knowledge was m perfect
agreement with their ontology, I.e. with the theory of a
plurahty of separate, though interdependent, elements
(dharma). The phenomenon of knowledge was a compound
phenomenon, resolvable Into a number of elements
simultaneously flashing Into eXistence. BeIng conceived as
momentary flashes, the elements could not move towards
one another, could not come Into contact, could not mfluence
one another, there could be no "seizIng" or " graspIng" of
the object by the intellect. But, accordmg to the laws of
mterconnexlOn (pratitya-samutpiida) prevalhng between them,
some elements are mvanably appearmg accomparued by
others anslDg In close conttgmty WIth them. A moment of
colour (riipa), a moment of the sense-of-vl!!lon-matter (cak~h),
and a moment of pure consCiousness (cUla), arlsmg
Simultaneously m close contiguity, constitute what is called
a sensatIOn (sparra) 1 of colour. The element of consCiousness
accordmg to the same laws never appears alone, but always
supported by an object (v,~aya) and a receptive faculty
(~ndnya) 2
A very Important, though somewhat scholastIC, questIOn IS

then raised: how IS It that, If these three separate elementsthe element colour, the element VIsual sense, and the element
consciousness-merely appear, or flash, together, Without
bemg appUl'tenances of some non-eXlstmg hVIng bemg, Without
bemg able to mfluence one another, to " grasp ", apprehend,
or come mto contact With one another-how IS It, then, that
there, neverthelElss, IS an "apprehendmg" of the object by
the mtellect? Why IS It that the resultmg knowledge 18 a
cogmtlOn " of colour ", and not a cogrutlOn of the visual sense,
1 7'rayiinam BannlpiilaTt 8par~l&h. It 18 m18lea.cimg to tra.nsla.te Bpar~a by
.. contact", smce It represents a caltf,ad1iarma.
Oak8ula pralitya rtlpam ea cakBur.vlJniinam utpadyate Here eak!'vr.
vl.11ici1ltJ II not a v18dal sensa.tlon-that would be aparflJ-but a pure 'enaatlO7l,
ar18mg accompanied by a moment of the Vl8ualseDlematter
56
which is supposed to enter the combination on terms of

equahty WIth the other elements 1 The question about the
relation between external (obJective) and mternal (subjective)
elemt'nt, and the "graspmg" of the one by the other which
was to have been evaded by the constructIOn of a plurahty
of mterdt'pendent, but separate and equal, elements, reverts
In another form.
The answer IS that, although there IS no
real commg m contact between elements, no graspmg of the
objective element by the mtellect, nevertheless the three
elements do not appear on terms of absolute equalIty; there IS
between two of them-consCiousness and obJect-a. speCial
relatIOn whICh might be termed" co-ordmatlOn" (siiriipya),l
a relatIOn which makes It pOSSible that the complex
phenomenon-the resultmg cogllltlOn-ls a cognitIOn of colour
and not of the Visual sense.
Such an answer amounts, of course, to a confcSBlon of
Ignorance: thiS relatIOn eXists because It eXists, It IS req1Ured
by the system, Without thIS patchwork the system collapses.
In all Indian-and, mdeed, not only Indian-systems we
always reach a pOInt whlCh must be acqUIesced 1D without
any pOSSible JustificatIOn. It must be assumed, not because
It could be proved (00 SiidkaYltU7J~ ~akyam), but because
there IS no pOSSibilIty of escape (avarJaniyatayii), It IS
a postulate of the system (suldhiinta-prasiddham).
1 ThIS sa.me Barupya rea.ppE'ars In the trans('endental system of DIgniiga
and Dha.rmakirtl, as It would seem, m a dlfierent, but slInilar, role of a
sa.lvage m extremIS. Dharmakirh estabbshes an absolute rea.bty, thE' thmg
In Itself, the SIngle moment of purE' sensatIon (ruddham pratya1c/lam =
kaZpaniipodham = B7'aZa1cBanam = kBana = paramiirthasat) , thls smgle
moment of rea.bty 18 the transcendental (Jliiinena priijlllydum na rakyate)
rea.hty undeTlymg every representatIOn WIth Its complex of quabtll;s.
constructed by ImagmatIon (kaZpanii). There IS a dIfficulty In supplYIng
some explanatIOn of how thIS qUIte Indefimte moment of pure sensation
combmes WIth the definite constructIOn of reason, and Biiriipya steps In to
save the SItuatIon. Its role 18 const>quently 8lmtlar to Kant's schemat18m.
that was mtended to supply a brIdge between pure sensatIon (reme
Smnhchkelt) a.nd rea.son. Cf my LogIC accordIng to later BuddhlBts, chap.
on pralyksa About Biirupya In Riinkhya-Yoga Sf'e below. p 64.
XIV.
THEORY OF COf1NITION
57
In the Abkidharma-kofa we have the following account of

the process of cogmtIon 1 : Question.-We read in scnpture, "ConscIousness apprehends."
What IS conSCIOusness here meant to do 1
Answer -NothIng at all! (It SImply appears In co-ordInatIOn
WIth Its objective elements, lIke a result whIch is homogeneous
wIth Its cause) When a rcsult appears in conformity wIth ItS
own cause It IS dOIng nothmg at all, but we say that It
does conform WIth It. ConSCIOusness, lIkeWIse, appears In coOrdInatIOn (sarupya) WIth Its ObjectIve elements. It IS (properly
speakIng) domgnothmg Nevertheless, we say that consCIousness
does cognize ItS obJcct.
Questwn --What IS meant by "co-ordmatlOn" (between
consciousness and Its objectIve element) 1
Answer.-A conformIty between them, the fact OWIng to whIch
cogmtIon, although caused (also) by the activIty of the senses,
IS not somethmg homogeneous WIth them. It IS saId to cognIze
the object and not the senses. (It bears the reflection of the
objective element WhICh IS ItS corollary) And, again, the
expressIOn "consCIousness apprehends" IS not lDadequate,
masmuch as here also a contmUlty of conscIous moments IS the
cause of every cognItIon. (" ConSCIousness apprehends .. means
that the preVIOUS moment IS the cause of the follOWIng one.)
The agf'nt here also denotes SImply the cause, just as In the
current expressIOn " the bell resounds" (the bell IS domg nothIng,
but. connected WIth It every folloWlllg moment of sound IS
produced by the preVIOUS one).
(We can give) another
(tllustratIOn): conSCIOusness apprehends sllmlarly to the way In
which a hght moves
Qup..stwn -And how does a lIght move ~
Answer.-The light of a lamp IS a comInon metaphoncal
deSIgnation for an unInterrupted production of a serIes of flashing
flames. When this productIon changes Its place, we say that the
lIght has moved, (but In reahty other flames have appeared In
another place). SImIlarly, conSCIousness IS a conventional name
for a challl of COnsCIOUS moments. When It changes Its place
(I.e. appears 1D co-ordination WIth another ObjectIve element)
we say that It apprehends that object And 1D the same way
we are speakmg.about the eXIstence of material elements. We
1
Ab. K.,
JlI:;
('f. Sov.l Theory, pp. 937-8.
68
THE CENTRAl, CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM
say matter "is produced", it exists, but there IS no dlfferenoe

between eXistence of an element and the element Itself that does
eXist. The same apphes to consCIOusness, (there IS nothing that
does cogmze, apart from the evanescent flashIngs of consciousness
itself).
The questIOn of the reahty of an outer world is, strIctly
speaking, obviated. In a system whICh demes the eXIstence
of a personahty, splits everythmg mto a plurahty of separate
elements, and admIts of no real mteractIOn between them,
there IS no poSSIbIlity of d18tinguIshmg between an external
and mternal world. The latter does not eXist, all elemt'nts
are qwte equally external towards one another Nevertheless,
the habIt of dIstmgUlshmg between mternal and external,
subJectIve and obJectIve, could not be dropped altogether,
and we meet Wlth curious situatIons mto whICh the phtlosopber
is drIven by logIcal deductIOns, COnSClO1l8neSS Itself sometimes
happens to be conSIdered as an external element WIth regard
to other elements. Such elements as Ideas (sanjiia), feehngs
(vedanii), VOhtIOM (cetana) , and all forces (saf!l8kara) are, as
a rule, consIdered to be external elements The Abhidharmakora gives the folloWlng account of the question :_ 1
Questzon -How many among the eighteen categorIes of
elenuntary components (rlhiitu) of hfe are Internal, how Dlany
external 2
Answer.-Internal are twelve, (the remaInIng SIX) colour, etc ,
are external
Questton.-Whlch are the twelve mternal ones ~
AnBWer.-They are the SIX vanetles of conSClOusne!lS (RallVtJiiana-kayah) , I.e. conSCIousness (1) VIsual, (2) audItory, (3)
olfactory, (4) gustatory, (5) tacttle, (6) purely mental, and their
SIX respectIve bases (iit;raya) : the sense-organs of VISIon, audition,
smellmg, tastmg, touch, and conSCIousness Itself, I e Its
prt'cedmg moment (bemg the baSIC element of the next moment)
-are lDternal. The remaImng SIX, COmprISIng VISlblhty-matter
(sounds. smells, tastes, tangtbles, and mental or abstraot obJects,
e g Ideas), are external
1
Ab K, 1,39
XIV.
THEORY OF COGNITION
59
Question -How 18 It possIble for the elements of existence to

be mternal or external, If the Self (or the personalIty) m regard
to whIch they should be external or mternal does not eXist at all ~
Answer -Consclonsness IS metaphorically called a Self, because
It Yields some support to the (erroneous) Idea of a Self. Buddha
himself uses such expreSSIOns. He sometimes mentions control
of the Self, (sometimes control of conSCIOusness), e g "the wise
man who has submItted h,s Self to stnct control, mIgrates into
heaven," and (m another place) He says. "the control of one's
conscwusness IS a weal, the control of consc,ousnessleads to blIss"
The sense of VISIon and other sense-organs are the baSIC elements
for the corresponding sensatIOns, conSCiousness, on the other
hand, IS the baSIC element for the perceptIOn of a Self. Therefore,
as a consequence of thIS close conneXlon WIth conSCIOusness, the
sense-organs are brought under the head of mternal elements
A very characterIstIC questIOn IS then ralst-d, namely, that
thIS defimtIOn of an Internal clement docs not apply to conSCIOusness Itself. If to bp Internal means merely to be the basIC
element of consCiousness, as the organ of VISIon egIs the
baSIC element (arraya) for any VIsual conSCiousness, then,
SInce consCiousness could not be ItS own baSIS, It could neIther
be an mternal element. The questIOn IS solved by stating
that the precedIng moment of conSCIOusness IS the baSIS for
the followmg one, and SInce tImt' IS Irrelevant In thIS defimtIOn,
conSCiousness must also be called mternal. In any case, the
dkarmii~ or dkarma-dkatu, I.e. Ideas and all mental phenomena
and forces, are supposed tc; be external elements,l that IS
a postulate of the system.
The theory sketched above does not by any means prevent
our USIng the expreSSIOns of common hfe WIth regard to an
I The exact diVISion of the eighteen dhiitu8 from thIS vlew-pomt 18 In(1) SIX bases, a,raya satka, cakaurad, orltans of sense and conselousnesl
(mtllUlk), otherWise called sad mdnyanl, or the SIX fa('ultlO'l (2) SIX" based .',
Gyrlta-satka, cak81Ir-vIJ71{miid,: five varlotles of sensation and mtellectual
conSCI0l18ne8S (malJo-vIJiitina). (3) SIX cogmzed objects (alambana-8atka
and vlsaya-8alka) five varieties of sense objects and mental obJects;
they are, With regard to the seoond set, alambalJa8. and v.,ayas With regard
to the tndrtgtJ8.
60
inter-action or contact between sense-organ and object. We

meet even WIth the comparIson of thIS contact to a clash of
buttIng goats, but these expressions need not be taken hterally.
About the posslblhty of any real contact between the senseorgan and ItS object, we find the follOWIng explanatlOns.l
The senses are dIVided Into two sets accordIng to theIr power
of actIng at a dIstance, or through contact only. The senses
of vIsIon and audItIOn apprehend theIr objects at a dIstance.
For the eye a dIstance IS even a necessary condItion, because
e.g. a drop of medicme introduced Into the eye cannot be
seen by It. The three organs of smelhng, tastIng, and touch
must be m Immedlllote contact WIth the object. The questIOn
IS then raIsed, how IS contact pOSSIble If there IS no movement,
and It IS answered that contact IS only a name for productIon
of two elements In ImmedIate viClmty The question of contact between obJect and organ of sense affords an opportumty
for debating the questIOn of contact between obJects m general.
The Valbhfu}lkas mamtaIn that when there IS a contact,
I.e. Simultaneous productIOn of two thIngs In close VlClnlty,
thelf vlClmty IS absolute, there IS nothing between, but
Vasubandhu obJects that absolute vIClmty IS ImpOSSIble for
many reasons. He quotes the opmlOn of two celebrated
phIlosophers, Vasumltra and Bhadanta; the first says:
"If the atoms of whlCh the objects are composed could really
come Into contact, they would be existIng durIng the next
moment," i e. SInce every atom IS but a momentary :H.ashmg,
its coming Into contact is impossible; the contact wIll be
achIeved by another atom appearIng In the next moment.
Bhadanta says: "There IS no such thmg as contact. Contact
IS only a name for the close VICInIty (of two apparItions)." 2
WIth regard to matter (rupa), the Abhldkarma-k~ gIves
two dIfferent standpoints from which to conSIder ItS pOSItion
as eIther external or mternal. It IS externallf part of another's
personahty (lIa1fltiina), hIS facultIes or his obJects, mternal if
1
I
Ab. K., ad I, 43, TIbetan text, p. 82, 5 fJ:

NlTantam-utptida, IbId., TIbetan text, p 83,9.
XIV.
THEORY OF COGNITION
61
part of my own personahty, my faculties or my objects.

Otherwise It may be dlstmgUlshed accordmg to the
classIficatIOn Into "bases" (iiyatana) of cogDltion. As we
have seen, thIS classdicatIOn dIVIdes everythmg a('cording to
the facultIes by whICh It is perceIved. the five sense-organs
(~ndnya) are Internal bases (adhyiitmiiyatana) and the objective
sense-data represent the external ones (biihy;;'yatana).l
Since there IS no real drfference of external and mternal,
the senses do not really play any part In perceptIOn; they are
mere facts or elements that appear together WIth other
elements accordmg to laws of InterconnexlOn If we speak ot
the sense of VISion as perCeIVIng colour, thIS must not be taken
hterally. There IS In the Abhldharma-kora 2 a long dISCUSSIon
about the relative parts of the two elements, of the Visual
sense and of conSCiousness, In the process of perceptIon. FIrst
an Ideahst opponent mamtaInS that consCiousness alone
produces cogDltIOn, the part of the senses IS ml. This oplDlon
IS dISPOsed of by pOIntmg to the fact that conscIOusness does
not apprehend obJects behInd a wall, whICh It ought to have
achIeved If It were Independent of the sense-organs.3 The
SarvRstivadm then reViews several explanatIOns of the
dIflerence between the parts of the sense-organ and conSCIousness In perceptIOn " We find In Scnrture," he says,
" the follOWIng statement" ' " ThIS, 0 Brahmm, IS the organ of VISlOn, It IS a door through
whICh to sec colours and shapes" ThIS means that conSCIousness
percClves (colours) through the organ of VlSlOn (which is comparable to a door). It, strICtly speakmg, means that when we use
1 Of. Ab. K., I, 20
For the posItIon In the Pall canon cf. Mrs. C. Rhys
DaVIds, BuddhVlt P8ychology, p. 140 if The Idea that external matter IS
the matter entermg Into the scope of another person's lIfe may be traced
In the V Ibkanga, where nterlor rupa IS BaId to be the InterIOr r'lipa of another
person: rupam bakldh4 yam rupam t8am leBam parasaUiina"" (! paraBaf!tI4n4na",,) parapuggaliinam, etc. Of. lIkeWISe MaJJmma, I, 421 if. (No.2
Maharahulovi.ds.sutta)
s Ab. g., I, 42,'Tlbotan text, p 77, 10 If
IbId., TIbetan text, p. 78, 11 if
62
THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BlTDDHISM
the verb" to see II we only mwcate that there IS an (open) door

(for the conSClOUsness to apprehend a colour). It IS wrong to
mamtam that the organ of VISlon (ca.huli) "looks" (pafllah).
wIth the result that It "sees", (perceptIon is produced only by
the element of conscIOusness)
Queshon -If It IS the element of conSClOUSness that" sees ".
who IS It that becomes conscIous (of the thlDg seen) 1 What IS
the dIfIerence hetween these two expressions, "to see a colour"
and" to become conscIous of the presence of a colour" 1
Answer -Although that (elC'ment) whICh produces conscIousness cannot, strictly speakmg, be supposed" to see ", neveItheless both expressIOns are used indiscrIminately. .. be sees"
and ,. he IS conscIOus of ", lust as wIth regard to understanding
(praJiiii) we may equally usc the expressIons" he sees It" and
.. he understands It ".
The Sarvastlvadm then states that the elements of VIsual
sense and conSClOusness do not exhIbIt any agency, they SImply
appear under certam condItions: the organ of sense and the
obJect bemg present, consCIousness arises, and the mere fact
of Its apparItIOn IS tantamount to a sensatIOn of colour, Just as
the sun In arlsmg produces the day; It does nothmg, but Its
appearance Itself IS the day The Sautriintlka adheres to
the same OpInIOn, and "mds up With the remark: "What IS
the use of thIS quarrel about 'who sees' and 'who is
consclous'1 It IS lIke chewmg empty space I A VIsual
perceptIon (sensatIon) IS a fact, condItIOned by two other
facts, an organ of VISIon and Bome colour WhIch IS the
agent 1 "What IS the agency 1 Useless questIOns I There IS
nothmg but the elementary facts (dJtarma-rniitram) appearmg
as cause and effect. In practICe, accordmg to the reqwrements of the case, we may use eIther the expression' the
eye seeE!' or' conSCIOusness IS bemg aware' But we should
not attach grea.t importance to these expreSSIOns. Buddha
hImself has declared, 'do not stICk to the expressIOns used by
common people, do not attach any Importance to usual
terms' ' 'The eye sees,' 'the ear hears,' 'th(l nose smells,'
the tongue tastes,' the body feels,' 'the mtellect becomes
XIV.
THEORY OF COGNITION
63
conscious,' the Ka9mman Yalbhaslkas make use of these

expressIOns (wIthout talnng them hterally) " 1
ThIS sounds lIke an answer to the Sankhya phIlosophers.
They maIntaIned that the sense organ " sees", but consCIOUSness" IS consCIous ".2 The Mlmamsakas adopted the same
view m awmttmg an mdlstInct sense-perceptIon (cilocalla)
comparable to the perceptIOns of a chIld and the clear VISIon
WIth partiCIpatIOn by the understandIng 3 The transcmdental
school of Dharmakirtl denIed the dIfference. It maIntaIned
that, dIatInct or Indlstmct, the fact of knowledge remaIned
the same m Its essence 4
There IS no great dIsagreement between the ValbhasIkas
(SarvastlvadmR) and the Sautrantlkas on the mterpretatIOn
of the orIgm of cognItIOn. It 1'1 m theIr OpInIOn a complex
phenomenon In whIch several elements partiCIpate, Interconnected, but separate, WIth the essentIal presence of the
element of consCIousness among them 5
In the lIght of thIS theory of cognItIOn It IS surprISing to
see the famIly-hkeness whIch reveals Itself between the
consCIousness (Ctt, pU7ll~a) of the Siinkhyas and ItS BuddhIst
counterpart (vIJiiiina). Both are absolutely InactIve, WIthout
any content, a. knowledge WIthout an object, a knowledge
" of notlung", pure sensatIOn, mere awareness, a substance
WIthOUt eIther quahties or movements BeIng the pure
lIght of knowledge It " stands by " the phenomena, Illuminates
them, reflects them, WIthout graspmg them or bemg affected
by them. 6 The only dIfference IS that 10 Siinkhya It represents
an eternal prmClple, whereas In BuddhIsm momentary
lIght - flashes appearing at the tIme when certam other
lAb. K , I, 42, TIbetan text, p 79,] 8
I Garbe, Sankkya PkdOBop}lIe, 2nd ad, pp 31911,326
3 {llokavartlka, Pratyaksaailtra
, Nydyablndut, P 4 11.
I 5 The mformatlon about the Sautriintlka theory of cognItion, ('ontalDE'd In
!the Sarva.darfana.8angraha and sImilar works (biihyitrtkiinltmeyattlfl), reo
POBeS on a ('onfu810n by Brahmamcal authors beheE'n Sautriintlka and
VIJiiina.vida, not IJeldom to be met Wlth.
b Garbe, op Cit, pp 358 Ii.
64:
THE CE!I'TRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM
elements are present.1 The order whICh it occupies among the

BuddhIst groups (skandkas) of elements is lIkewlSe suggestIve.
It IS not Included In the mental groups It has a place of rts
own just at the end of the lISt, SImIlar to the pOSItIon occupIed
by it as the twenty-fifth prmCIple of Sankhya.2 In order
to aVOId the ddficulty Involved m the idea of one element
" grasping" the other, It IS Imagmed that there IS the mere fact
of them bemg near one another.3 Wha.tsoever that may mean
in Yoga, m Buddhism It refers to mterconnected flashings
Into eXIstence of two elements TheIr relatIOn of subject and
object, nevertheless, remam.c; unexplaIned, and thIS fact IS
chrIstened by the name of "co-ordmatIOn" (siirupya). We
meet the same deus e;r; makut.a performmg an analogous task
in both systems; subject and object stand aloof from one
another, yet they are" oo-ordmated ".'
It can hardly be doubted that the emphatlC dental of
any dIfference between conSCIousness, mmd, and Intellect 6
in BuddhISm IS lIkeWISe a dIrect reply to the Sankhya system,
where we find such a gap between conSCiOusness and mmd,
and the latter then dIVIded into the threefold mternalorgan.
The doctrIne of IdentIty between conSCiOusness and an
internal organ of know ledge IS characterIstic for BuddhIsm
from Its very begmmng. It IS, In fact, another manner of
expressIng the denial of a soul and IS the dIrect consequence
of Its bemg replaced by separate elements. We find It clearly
stated In the oldest texts.6 It probably was, at the tIme,
a new doctrIne, Intended to replace an older one. The
I Sankhya.ko.nkd, 64, which has given &n opporturuty to impute to the
system the negation of & soul, only proves th&t the conscIOus pnnolple
deprived of any characteristic or content, represents ill Sinkhya nothing
else th&n pure sensation, or pure consolousness. Of G&rbe, op. Cit., p 364
I About the order In whICh the Bkandlaas 8t&nd we find & gre&t many
specul&tlqns ill Ab. K., I, 22; of. Mrs. C. Rhys DaVids, B. Psych., p. 54.
Vyii.s&, &d 1,4, 11,23.
, Professor J. H 'Voods tr&nsl&tes .. correla.tlon ", which 18 much the
B&me Cop. Cit, p. 14, 16011 ).
Ab. K., 11, 34 ; Mrs. C. Rhys D&vlds, B. Psyc" , p. 66.
~ Sarpyutta, n, 94, Malnm., I, 256 11
XIV.
65
THEORY OF COGNITION
pre-BuddhistIc use of the terms is cleady dlS.cermble m the

Pall texts. One or the other of these synonymous terms is
used with preference in certam contexts.1 As an organ
(~ndriya, ayatana No.6) and as a common resort (pmttSorana)
fer the Rense-organs, the term" mmd " (mana't) IS preferred;
consciousness purely mental. non-sensuous, is called manol"t)ntina (dkdtu Yo 18), i.e. conSCIOusncss allsing, not from an
C\rgan of sense, but from ('onSCIOusne~8 Itself, from ItS
precedmg moment, when the precedmg moment takes the
place of a support (~raya), or an organ (mdnya), for a nonsensuous Idea. These dIstmctions are mere traces of older
hahits of thought The phIlosophICal atmosphere m the tIme
of Buddha was m all probabIlIty saturated wIth Sankhya
Ideas. BuddhIsm cannot be fully understood If these
conn{,XIOns arc not takf'll mto account.
XV
PRE-BlTDDHAIC BUDDHJSM
Can the thcC\ry sketched above he ch'l.ractem:ed as a system

of realIsm? It IS certamly not the muve realIsm of Nyiya-I
Yal\lefillka. lfor the BrabmamcJ.I writers It was realIsm r
(biikyiirtltiistttm) because It "as different from the later, more
defimte, Idealism But the Ihfference J,etweell. SaTlJQstttada
and r lJiianaviUa comusts rather m thnt the former iSI
plurahstlc and the latter converts all elements mto aspects
of one store-C0I1SCIousnes~ (a7aya-vlp1alta). The whole system
of clements IS retamed With slIght VarIatIOnS Professor 0
Rosenberg IS mclIna! to con!'lude tha.t m theory of cogmtIon
the BuddhiSts were IdealIsts from the begmmng, but they
were realists so far as they accepted the rt'al t'xistence of a I
transcendental absolute realIty 2 It has, m any case, a pOSItIOn I
of It& own, very far from ordInary realism, resemblIng perhaps
some modern theories whIch accept the realIty of external
as well 3S interna.l facts and a certam " co-ordmatl(1n " between
1 lin. C. Rhya DavlIls, op Cit, pp 17 fl., has WIth very fine dJ8crlDllDa.
tiOD traced the dIfferent shades of meanmg conveyed m the Pall CRnonlcal
texts by these term", which are emphatically declared to be synonymous.
lOp. Cit, chap Vlli
66
them, without the one . graspm~" the othf'r. The

(:inematographlc representation of the world and the ronvertIng of all the facts of the lDner and outer world composmg
an indiVIdual stream of hfe mto a ('omplex play of mterconnected momentary flashes, IS anythmg but realIsm.
The world 19 a Durag<,. The reahty underlymg It is ht'yond
our cogmtIOn. Niigiirjuna gave the rIght explanatIOn in calhng
it an empty (fanya) illUSIOn (miiya). Profcflsor O. Rosenberg
mSlRts upon the l11uslODlstlc tendeacy of Buddhism from
,the Yery outset.1 Even {or Buddhaghol1la not only outer
objects, but men were nothmg but pupPt'ts trymg to deceive
us ae; to their rf'ahty:l
That Qankara t'stabhshed hIS
IllUSIOnistic doctrme of Vediinta under BuddhIst influence
is at prescnt more or less generally accepted. But wc
must make the dIfference between the radical IlluslODlsm of
Qankara and NagarJuna and the half-way Illusiorusm of
prImItive BuddhIsm. The VISible world waf', as Viicaspa'tJmi9ra 3 says WIth reference to 8ankhya-Yoga, smnlar to an
illuSIOn, but not exactly an illusion (miiyel)(t na tu may;;).
The pOSitIOn of the Sankhya, acceptmg the transcendental
elements (gunas) as the only reality, was just the same.
Whether the anatma-dlumna theory was the personal
creatIOn of Qakyamum Budnha hImself, or not, IS a quite
irrelevant questIOn. In any case, we do not know oI any form
I Op Cit., chaps IV, vw, and xvw.

Vlllud/lk,.magga, XI, Warren, Buddklllm, p ]58. Mrs. C Rbys DaVids,
op Cit, demes In primitive Buddhism both 1IluslonJsm (p 65) and
Ideahsm (p. 75). When the root of phenomenal ell:lI!tenco IS declwed to
be Jlluslon (at,tdyii), and the process of hfe IS "empty ,nth 0. twelvefold
emptiness" (Vlllllddhl-M, XVll, Warren, op cit, P 175), It IS ddJicult
to deny llluBIODlBm altogether As to the different Interpretataons of
dluslon cf S. Dasgupta, HIStory, p 384 Professor 0 Rosenberg's chief
argument m favour of Ideaham was dralln from the fact that the obJects
of the outer world were components of ono 8af/lta7la, I.e. mternal to the
psrilonallty. But, consuierl'lg that m prImitive Ruddh18m all elements are
equally external to one another and Bal']lliina IS not a reabty, not a dharma,
thoro 18 no Ideahsm In thE' later sensE'. The mterpretatlOn admitted by
Mrs. RhYR DaVids, p. 75, namely, that" the mlcro("osm (I e pudgala)
apprehellded the macro("osm by way of Its sense-doors .., looks 4iangerously
hIle Balkdya-lrBh'
J'y;ua, IV, 13.
I
XV.
PRE-BUDDHAIC BUDDHISM
67
of Buddhism without this doctrine and Its corollary

claflsificatlOns of elements mto skandka, c"iyatana, and dleiitu,
the laws of their interconnexion (proti{ya-~amtltp;;da), and
the comphcated constructions whlCh these termiru involve.
This is also, RR Professor 0 Rosenberg rightly remarks, the
common foundation of all the ferms of Buddhism m all the
countrIes where thiS rehglOn flOUrIshes at present Falhng
to reahze that, some superfiCIal observers concluded that in
the northern countries Buddhism wa'J . degenerate" and
altogether a dIfferent rehf!1on. It 18 a salIent feature of IndIan
phIlosophy that Its history splIts mto several independent
lInes of development whIch run parallel from an early
begmnmg down to modC'rn times. Each development has Its
own fundamental Idea to start With, and the development
makes every effort to keep faithful to the start. Thus we
have the reahsm (iiramblta-'I.iida) of the Val!,lesika, the pluralIsm
(Mlnghiita-viida) of BuddhIsm, the evolutlOrusm (parmiimaviida) of Sankhya-Yoga, and the IlluslOrusm (t'tt,arta-!:lida) of
Vedanta. runnmg m parallel lmes of development from the
remotest antIqUlty, each WIth Its own ontology, Its own theory
of causation, Its own theory of cognItion, Its own Idea of
salvation, and Its own Idea of the orlgm of tile hmitatIons
(avulyii) of our experIence
We know of celebrated philosophers who have been engaged'
In more than one hne, but the hnes were always kept separate.
In Buddhism the development began In the dISCUSSIons of the
early Hinayana schools. The Sarvastlviidms establIshed a
catalogue of seventy-five elementa.
Tl:te SautrantIkas
excluded a number of them as mere names. the Miidhyannkas
VIewed all of them as contmgent (pltlya) upon one another,
and therefore declared the world to be an Illusion; the
VIJiiaD8viidms converted them mto Ideas, aspects of one
store-consciousness (alaya-vl,fiiiina), but the pluTahstlc fundamental idea remalDed; Its IdealistlC and IlluslODlstlC tendpncy,
which W,"S clear from the beginmng, was elaborately worked \.
out by later scholars.
68
THE CENTRAl. CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM
The possibIlity is not precluded that the foundation stone

of the aniitma-dltarma theory was laId before Buddha. Just
as Mah8.vira was not the first to proclaun Jainism, but only
adopted and gave lustre to a doctrine whIch eXISted before
him, just so Buddha may have adopted and spread a doctrme
whIch he found somewhere m that phIlosophIcal laboratory
wh1ch was the Ind1a of h1S tIme. He, mdeed, 1S reported to
have emphatically disowned the authorshIp of a new teachmg,
but claImed to be the follower of a doc.trme estabhshed long
ago by former Buddhas ThIS IS usually lllterpreted as a kmd
of propaganda deVice, but It IS not qUlte 1mprobable that
a real histoncal fact underhes these assertIOns.
Among that oldest set of Upamillads whIch for many reasons
are generally admItted to be pre-BuddhIstIc, but dISplay some
knowledge of the Siinkhya system. we find, along wIth Siinkhya
conceptIons, a statement that nught be an mdicatIOn of the
eXIstence of such a pre-BuddhIstlC form of the aniitma-dharma
theory. In the Kiithakopan~ad, WhICh belongs to thIS class, a
doctrine IS mentIoned that IS eVidently strongly opposed to the
momstIc view of an Immortal soul (atman), and favours Instead
a theory of separate elements (prthag-dhamliin pafyah) ThiS
theory IS repUdiated with the follOWIng remark " Just as
raInwater that has fallen down In a desert IS scattercd and lost
among the undulations of the ground, Just so IS (a philosopher)
who mamtaInS the eXistence of separate elements lost m
runnmg after nothmg else but these (separate elements)." 1
, Professor H. JacobI has shown that unorthodox opmlODB,
"opposed to the accepted soul-theory, are alluded to even m
the oldest set of the Upalllillads 2 These mdICatlOns are made
m the usual Upamfll&d style and anythmg but precise
What emerges from the passage of the Kiithaka Clted above
IS that there was a doctrme opposed to the reIgnmg soul-
'V.
1 Katkakop, IV, 14, cf Mrs and Professor

GeIger, op Clt,., P 0 In
another JI"llII&ge of the same text (1, 21) dhllrma apparently also means an
element, but a subtle and Immortal one.
.
I Ern,t Kuhn memorial volume (Mumoh, 1916), p 38.
xv.
PRE-BUDDHAlC BUDDHISM
69
theory, that it maIntained the existence of subtle elements

and separate elements (prtkag dharma), and that such a
doctrine, In the opimon of the author, dId not lead to salvatIOn.
Qankara, In his commentary, agrees that Buddhism IS alluded
to, but, very bluntly, he Interprets dharma as meamng here
Individual soul l As a matter of fact, dharma never occurs
wIth thiS meamng In the UpaDJf(I8.ds Its occurrence In the
Kiithalra leaves the impreSSIOn that It IS a catchword.
refemng to a foreIgn and new doctrIne, some aniitma-dharma
theory.2
Professor JacobI, 3 In a recent work, arnves at the conclusion
that at the epoch of whICh the Kiithaka is the most
characteristic exponent the theory of an Immortal IndIVidual
soul was a new Idea whICh, In all probablhty, enJoyed great
popularIty as a novelty and met WIth general approval.
1 In hIS commentary on the GaurirlfWida Kunka, where the term dharma
occurs, very clearly m tha ~enBe thE' Mci(lhyalltlJ..a mterpretatlon has gIven
It, namely, as somethmg unreal, a mere J.lluslOn, the real or the pBeudo~ankarl!. hkeWlse enforces the meanmg of an mdlvldual soul
B There are no traces of the BurldhlRt mE'anmg of dharma havmg been
known to Pii.mm, but there are some traces WIth rcgard to Its corollary.
the term lIa'f//.8kara or 8a7fUJkrla. When causatIOn IS to be expressed, he
makes 0. dd'ference hetween real effiCIency. I e one fact transgressmg Its
own e''I:Istenc'e and alIectmg the othl'r, whl(~h he calls prahyalna, explamed
a~ g.tn~ntarii<lhiina (the same a~ abrayiidhiina, para8parfJpakiira, or SImply
llpakiira), and an efhClcncy which IS ('ontrastE'd WIth It and concf'lvod as
two separate facts condltlOnlDg one another whl('h hf' SImply ('alls 8a'l(ldrta l
It 18 explamod as 8ata ui!arsiidkiinam 8amll!..iira(l, Ie" a force IS what produces (=("ondltlOns) an enhancement m (some) e't18tent" 1'1 the first case,
upakrta or upaskrta 18 used, m the second 8a7fUJkrta, of.n, 3,53, VI, 1, 139;
IV. 2,16, 1'1',4.,3. cf the Kii~,kii That the two parlbhiisu8, guniintaradhiinam and &ala utkar,,;dkiina'T{l 8a7fUJkiirah. refer to the Sinkhya and
BuddhIst vIews respectIvely IS probable In later lIterature the dIfference
between Ilpakiira and Simple 8amskiira 18 frequently referred to, cf.
Nyayab ndlltikii, ed. Peterson (B,bl Ind), P 13. dv,,,,dha~ ca 8a1uJkari
paraBparopakiiri ; cf SIZ Buddhl8t Nya.,a Tracts, p 4S II, San'adar9IJna8angraha, p. 10 (B,bl. Ind) BaliakiiTinah k.m bha. allya 'Ul'ak'llrtanh na ta.
That thp philosophIcal conceptIOns Involved In thiS dIfference w('re known
to Pi1I1lDI would appear trom the suggestive word p1'ahyalna = 'Upaklira,
as opposed to Ba'f//.8kiira. but th18 IS by no mellJls certsm The conceptIOn
of gutliintara-yoga = Vlkara 18 mentioned In M. bhr;lIya, ad v, I, 2
.A
81mJ.la.r contrast lies In adhityu- versus pralitya -Bam utpdda, of. Bh. Jala-BUtia.
DIe ,nd.8che PhilosophiC 10 Da" LICk/, des 081en8 (Stuttgart, 1922)
'10
THE CENTRAL OONCEPTJON OF BUDDHISM
There is, indeed, a wIde gap between thlS class of Upan~ads

and the older set, a difference In style, terminology, and
the whole mtellectual atmosphere. The Idea of a survivmg
I personallty, of a Self and even a Universal Self, IS not unknown
in the Veda. Its essence and its relatlOn to Brahma is the mam
topic of dISCUSSIon In the Upam~ads. But thIS Self lEI a psychophysical entIty, dIfferent explanatIons of Its nature are
proposed, and materialIstlC VIews are not excluded. The Idea
of an Immortal soul m our sense, a spmtual monad, a sImple,
uncomposlte, eternal, Immatenal substance IS quite unknown
m the Veda, mclusive of the older Upam~ads The new
conceptIon was accepted by the Jams, the Sankhyas,
Mimii.msakas, and later by all phIlosophlCal systems except
the materIalIsts and the BuddhIsts In the Sankhya the old
theory survIved, m the shape of the ltnga-r;ar"ira, along WIth
the adoptlOn of the new The attItude of BuddhIsm towards
both the old and the new theones was that of a most emphatIc
demal Scholars were always struck by the spmt of extreme
ammoslty whlCh undoubtedly reveals itself m the oldest
BuddhIst texts whenever the Idea of a soul IS mentlOned.
In the lIght of Professor JacobI's hypothesIs thIS may find a
natural explanatIOn m the feehng of eXCItement WIth whlCh
the new theory was met and assaIled by Its chIef opponentH,
for whlCh mere theoretIcal consideratlOns of abstract argument
seem msufliClent to account. In BuddhIst records we find
the old and the new soul-theorIes clearly dIStmgUl8hed. The
doctrme whICh mamtams the reahty of a Self correspondmg
to the psycho-physIcal IllIhvidual lS called iilma-vada, whereas
the VIew approachmg the doctrme of a permanent Soul IS
pudgala-vada All BuddhISts rejected the iitma-vada, smce
BuddhIsm (buddhiinurasatl.i) , phIlosophICally, means nothing
else than the dkarmatii, the theory of dkarmas, whlCh IS but
another name for aniitman, na~riitmya. But there are two
schools-the Vatsiputriyas and the Sammltiyas-whlCh are,
nevertheless, adherents of the pudgala-vada.. Accordmg to
the exposItIon of Vasubandhu, thIs means that the ~ntfJ1'nal
XV. PRE-BUDDHAIC BUDDHISM
71
s!andkas at a gIven moment constitute a certam unity, which,

is related to them as fire to fuel. l It had not the absolute
reality of a dharma, It was not included in the lists of dharmas,
but, nevertheless, it was not qUlte unreal. This pudgala
was also regarded as survlvmg, smce it IS mamtamed that it
assumes new elements at birth and throws them off at death. 1I
The pudgala of a Buddha seems to be an Ommscient Eternal
Spmt.3 The siitra of the burden-bearer, where pudgala IS
compared With the bearer and the skandhas WIth the burden,
was invoked as a proof that Buddha himself admitted some
reality of the pudgala 4 For all the other BuddhIst schools
pudgala was but another name for iitman. and theI- refuted
both theorIes by the same arguments. That the pOSItIon of
the Vatsiputriyas was wrong, I.e not m strict conformIty
WIth the dharma-theory, IS eVIdent, smce thiS theory admIts
no real umty whatsoever bE'tween separate elements. Therefore Self, Soul, personahty, indIVIdual, hvmg bemg, human
bemg-all these conceptIOns do not answer to ultImate
reahtles they are but names for some combmatIons of
dharmas, 1 e formulas of elements Ii If our SuppOSItion that
the aniitma-dltarma theory IS mentIoned m the KiiJ}uikopam~ad
IS correct, It eVIdently was dIrected agamst both the old and
the new Soul-theories as equally unacceptable But, on the
other hand, the tenaCIOUS effort of some BuddhISt schools
to save the idea of some real umty between the elements of
a personal hfe,G or the Idea of a spmtual prmCIple govermng It,
18 partly due to the dIfficulty of the problem and partly to an
old tradItIon. We find, mdeed, In the Brahmanas and the
1
SQIIZ Thef1T'Y, p 830
Ibld, p. 851.
a Ibid, p. 841
, Ibid, P 842. Udyotakara, In ills exposItion of iitlllat'f'ida (pp 338-49),

likeWISe mentlons thlS siitra as contradlctmg the doctrme of anatll'lan.
I Ibld, P 838
B The Sarvistlviidms explamed the uruon of the elements m a personaIdlY
by the operatlon of a spoc1&1 force (sa7fl8k1'ira), whlch they named priipH;
of. above, p. 23, and m the tables of elements m the AppendIX II, where
It is found under 1Jlprayulcta'8a7fl8kira, No 1.
72
UpanI",ads something hke a forerunner of the Buddhist

skandkas. The mdividual IS also composed of elements;
dunng hIS lIfetime they are unIted; the union ceases at death,
and through a reunion of them a new lIfe begIns.1 Curiously
\ enough, the number of these elements, or factors, as
: Professor JacobI prefers to translate the term palf}a.. is the
same as the number of the BuddhIst skandkas. The elements
: themselves are qUIte dIfferent, and thIS dIfference bears
WItness of the enormous progress achIeved by Indian
phIlosophy durmg the time between the prImItive Upa~ds
and the rIse of BuddhIsm In the BuddhIst system we have
a dIVISIon of mental facultIes mto feehng, concept, wIll, and
pure sensation, In whIch modern psychology would not have
much to change In the UpanIsads It IS a very pnmitive
attempt, giving breath, speech, sense of viSIOn, sense of
audItion and mtel1ect as the elements. But one pOInt of
SImilarIty remaIns the last and, eVIdently, the most
Important element IS In both cases manas The makrocosm,
or the UnIversal Soul, 11'\ hkewise analysed by the Upan~ds
mto five component elements 2 In the number of the
BuddhIst skandoos and m the pOSItIon of manas (= tnJoona)
among them we probably have the surVIval of an old tradItIon 3
It is only by such an mdlIect mfluence that we can explam
the astonIshmg fact of the SImultaneous eXIstence of dIfferent
claSSIficatIons of the elements for WhICh there IS no mtrmslC
reqUlItlment in the system When the aniitma-doorma theory
was definItely framed, WIth its theory of causatIon and theory
of cognitIOn, the classIficatIOn of elements mto .. bases"
of cognitIon (iiyatana) became qUIte natural and indispensable,
1 H JacObI, op CIt, P 146
Cf H Oldenberg, DIe Wella1UlCliauung
fkr Briikmana.Tezte, pp 88 if, 234.
I H. JacObI, op. CIt, P 146 Cf. H Oldenberg, II1e Lekre der

Upanwkaden, p M.
I A 81mIlar l'f'latlOD, a.s IS generally admItted, eXllts between the three
elements '8.1G/I, iipaa, annam of the Okiindogya, VI, aDd the three guntU
of the Sinkhyas
XV.
PRE-BUDDRAIC BUDDHISM
73
but the cla8SlficatIOn into skandhas was useless. It, nevertheless, was retamed m comphance with an old habIt of thought,
and such changes as were requU'ed by the progress of
phuosophlc analysis were mtroduced
Thus It is that the fundamental Idea of Buddhlsm-a
plurality of separate elements wIthout real unIty-had Its
roots in the prImItIve speculatIOns of the Upamsads. At
the tIme when a new conceptIOn of the Soul was elaborated
lD Brahmamcal CIrcles, some kmd of pre-Buddhalc BuddhIsm,
under whICh we understand the anatma-dharma theory, must
have been already m eXIstence. ThIs tIme IS the epoch of the
Kiithakopantsad, whIch, as Professor Jacobi pomts out,l
mI~ht also be the tImE' of pre-JmlstIc JmDlsm. the tIme of
Par~vltnatha, 1 e the eIghth century B C.
XVI.
SUMMARY
To summarIze The conceptIon of a dharma IS the central pomt of the

BuddhISt doctrme. In the hght of thIs coneeptlOn BuddhIsm
dIscloses Itself as a metaphySIcal theory developed out of one
fundamental prmClplE', VIZ. the Idea that eXIstence IS an
mterplay of a plurahty of subtle, ultImate, not further
analysable elements of Matter, Mmd, and Forces These
elements are techmcally called dharrnas, a meanIng whICh
thIS word has m thIS system alone BuddhIsm, .accordmgly,
('an be characterIzed as a system of RadIcal PluralIsm
(sangkata-vada) 2 the elements alone are reahtles, every
combmatIOn of them IS a mere name coverIng a plurahty of
separate elements The moral teachmg of a path towards
FInal Dehverance IS not something addItIOnal or extraneous
to thIS ontologIcal doctrIne, It IS most mtlmately connected
WIth It and, in fact, IdentIcal with It.
lOp. Cit, P 150
As contrasted Wlth the iirambha-vada, wluLh mamtams the reahty of
the whole as well &8 of the elements, and the parwiima-vada, which ascribes
absolute reahty only to the whole.
I
74
The connotation of the term dharma implies that1. Every element is a separate (prthak) entity or force.
2. There IS no inherence of one element In another, hence
no substance apart from Its quahties, no Matter beyond the
separate sense-data, and no Soul beyond the separate mental
data (dharma = aniitman = mryiva).
3. Elements have no duration, every moment represents
a separate element, thought 18 evanescent, there are no
movmg bodies, but consecutive appearances, flashmgs, of
new elements In new places (k~an1katva)
4. The elements co-operate With one another (sarp,skrta).
5. This co-operatIng activity IS controlled by the laws of
causatIOn (pratit,lla-samut piida)
6 The world-process IS thus a process of co-operatIOn
between seventy-two kIndR of subtle, evane~cent elements,
and such IS the nature of dkarmas that they proceed from
causes (ketu-prabhava) and steer toward~ extmctlOn (mrodka)
7. Influenced (sasram) by the element amd,llii, the process
IS m full swmg
Influenced by the element praJna, It has a
tendency towards appeasement and final extInctlOn In the
first case streams (santana) of combmmg elements are
produced which correspond to ordmary men (prtkag-Jana) ,
In the second the stream represents a samt (arya)
The complete stoppage of the process of phenomenal Ide corresponds
to a Buddha
8. Hence the elements are broadly dIVIded mto unrest
(dultkka) , cause of unrest (dukkha-samuda,lla = amdya),
extInctIOn (mrodha) , and CalL'le of extmctlOn (miirga =
praJna).
9. The final result of the world-process ]~ Its suppreSSIOn.
Absolute Calm all co-operation IS extInct and replaced by
Immutablhty (asamskrta = mrvana).
Since all these particular doctrmes are logICally developed
out of one fundamental prInCIple, BuddhIsm can be resolved
In a series of equatlollS dharmata = na~riitmya = ksamkatva = sa1fUJkrtatva =
XVI.
SUMMARY
75
pratuya-samulpannatva = siisrava-anasravatva
samkleravyavadiinatva = duhkha-mrodha = Barp,sara-nlrvana
But, although the conception of an element of eXIstence has
gwen flse to an Imposing superstructure In the shape of a
consIStent system of philosophy, Its mmost nature remainS
a rIddle. What IS dharma 1 It IS Inconceivable! It IS subtle!
No one wIll ever be able to tell what Its real nature (dkarma-
svabhiiva) IS! It IS transrendental ,
76
THE CENTRAJ, CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM
APPENDIX I
VASUBANDHU ON THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF THE
SARVArmVADA
SCHOOL
The fifth rhapter (kofa-sthana) of the Abhulharma-kot)a

(v, 24-6) containS a detruled exposltlOn of the argument
between the SarvastlvadIns or ValbhaSlkas and the Sautrantikas
upon the queAtlOn of the reahty of future and past elements
(dharmas), written accordmg to the method of later dlalectlcs.
It IS dlVlded In two parts, piirvapak:~a and 'Uttarapak~a
In the first the Valbha~lka makes a statement of hIS case,
and he 18 attacked by the Sautrantlka, he answers the
questIOns and trIUmphs over the opponent. In the second
th!' parts are reversed the Valbha~lka puts the questIOns
and the Sautrantlka answers them and secures the final
vIctory As a conclUSion the'Valbhitslka gives vOICe to hiS
despaIr at the Imposslblhty of concelVlng the transcendentally
deep essenre of the elements of eXistence The translatIOn IS
made from the TIbetan text of thr Pekmg edItIOn of the Bstan!lgyur, Mdo, vol. 64, fol. 279, h. 5-285, a. 2. Some explanatlOns
have been Introduced from YaQoIDItra's Commentary, and the
TIbetan commentary of Mchlms-pa, whICh IS the standard
work for abhtdharma throughout Mongoha and TIbet.
AN
EPISODICAL INVESTIGATION INTO THE POSSIBILITY OF PAST

AND FUTURE EFFICIENCY
B~talll.l.!gyur,
f 2;11,
u (;
C,4,
(AbhullUJrma-ko~a, Kiirtkiis V, 24-6)

(The author estabhshes that some passIOns exist only at the
time when the corresponding objects are present, such are love
or disgust towards sense-objects But there are other passIOns
of a general scope, such as preconceIved dogmatical Ideas, delusion,
a doubtIng turn of mInd, etc , these have a beanng towards all
obJPcts whether past, present, or future The follOWIng questlon
IS then raIsed,)
But are thiS past and thiS future really eXlst,ent or not i If
they are, It would follow that the elementary forces (samsktira)
(whIch are actIve In the process of hfe) mUjlt be pennanent (i.e
unmovable), smce they exIst through all tune. If they are not,
APPENDlX I
VASUBANDHU ON SARVASTIVADA
77
how is It 00 be explained that a. man is attracted to (object'!

past and future) by such (passion as he experienced formerly, 01'
will be subject to m future) ~
The Va~bha~tkas do not admit those plements (whICh combme
m the process of hfe) to he permanent, SInce they are subject
(00 the actIOn of four energies whICh are) the characterIstic
appurtenance of such elements (VIZ the forces of origInatIOn,
dacay, eXlstence, and destructIon) But, on the other hand, they
emphatICally declare that" the tImes" (I e everyone of the three
tImes) are eXistent In reahty
The Sautrantbka asks, for what reason 1
(PART I - The case Jor Everlastln,q Elements)
The Va~bha~lka answers The tImes are always eXIstent Ki1rlki1, v,

(1) because thiS has been declared In Scnpture, (2) because of the
double (cause of perceptIOn), (3) because of the e"lstence of the
perceptIon's object, (4:) because of the productIOn of a result (by
preVIOUS deeds) Smce we mamtam that all thiS exlSt.~. we profesR,
the theory thBt everythmg eXlSts (SarI1astwuda)
(1) Because tillS has been declared w Smpture -Our Subhme 2,9, h 7
Lord has declared C'the elements of matter, 0 Brrt,hren, the Y~olll
past and the future ones, are Impermanent, not to speak of the
present ones ThiS IS perceIved bv the perfect samt, endowrd, IlR
he 18, WIth WIsdom Therefore, he IS regardless of past sonsoobjects, he does not reJOIco at future ellJoymellts, he ellterto,\U9
disgust and aversion m rcgBrd to the prescnt onos, he IS engaged
10 keppmg them off)
0 Brethren I If some kmd of past matter ~ilJ, lJ 7
did not eXlst, the perfect samt endowed With Wisdom could not
be regardless of past sense-obJeots, but, smoo they are CXL&tCllt,
he (enJoys the prlVllege of) dlsregardmg them If some kmd of
future matter wero not eXlStent, the WLBe and perfect samt could
not be free from rejOlcmg at future enjoyments (smce hLs
mdppendence would have no object) But future sense-objects
do exIst, etc "
(2) Because of the double (cause of perception) -It IS declared 280, a 2
10 Scripture ' "conscIOusness, when operatmg, 18 conwtIoned by
(elements) of a double kmd" What are they ~ The sense of
viSIOn and colour (for a visual conSCIousness), and 80 on (an organ
of perception and Its respective object for each of the SiX kinds
2~
78
280, a
YII~'om
280,0.
!SO,
11 2
Ko.llkii. v, 2.i
TIlE CENTRAl. CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM
of conscIousness, the last being) the intellect itself and its nonsensuous objects 1 (for conSCIOusness purely mental)
Thus these first two reasons for adlDltting the existence of thE'
past and the future are taken from Scnpture, but there are
others, too, wmch are founded on argument
(3) Bl'Catlsl' of the existence of an object -If there IS an object,
Its cognition can arise; If there IS nom', neither can Its cogmtlon
be produced ]f the past and the future were not eXIstent, the
objects (of the correspondmg cogmtIOn) would be non-exIStent,
and, as non-exIstent, they could not be cognized
(4) /J('C(l!Ise of the p,oductlOn of a rcsult (by former deeds)If the past did not eXIst, how could a dped, good or bad, attam,
after some lapse of time, Its frUItIOn, smce, at the tIme when the
lattl'r appears, the cause whICh has produced retnbutlOn IS gone
(A fonn!'r deed, good or bad, does eXist In reahty, because, when
It becomes Tlpe, It produces fruItIon, just as a present one does.)
For these reasons we Vaibhii~~~as mamtam that the past and
the future necessarIly l'Xlst ThIs leads to the theory that everythmg IS eXIstent, and our school 18 known by emphatically
adhenng to the prmclple of such UDlversal eXistence
(Sarriistwilda) Accordmgly (It IS said above m the mnemonic
verse): "smce we mamtalll that all tins eXISts, we profl'ss the
theory that everythmg eXlSte' Those who malntam that everythmg, past, future, and present. eXIsts are advocates of Universal
I'XJstence (SuTviistaoiidms) On the other hand, those who make
a rustlDctlon, partly admitting ann partly denYlDg thiS theory,
are termed the DlstmgUlshmg School (l'wha1!JavcidJns) They
malDtalD that the prescnt plements, and those among the past
that have not yet produced their fruitIOns, are eXistent, but they
deny the existence of the future ones and of those among the IJast
that have already produced frUItIOn 2
Sautriinttka -And how many branches are there among thesc
advocates of uDiversal eXIstence!
ratb1uis~ka.-There are four branches, lDasmuch as they maIDtalD (1) a change of eXlstl'nce (bham-pannama), (2) a change of
aspect (lak,ana-parmama) , (3) a change of condition (avasthaparlfliima), or (4-) contmgl'ncy (apeksii-pan~ma) The thud IS
1
Manak and dharmrila.

Cf above, p 43, D 3.
APPENDIX I' VASUBANDHU ON SARVASTIVADA
79
all nght The dIfference 10 tnne reposes on a dIfference of

condItIon (I e functIOn of th!' !'lements).
(I) It was the vt'nerable DharlIldtrata who mamtamed the 280. b :1
vIew that eXIstence (bhava) changes In the course of tnne, not
substance (flral'ya) He IS known to have been argumg thuII:
when an element enters dIfferent tImes, Its eXIstE'nce changes,
but not Its essence, Just as when a golden vessel IR broken, Its
form changes, but not Its {'olour And when mIlk IS turned mto
curds, Its taste, consIstency. and dIgestIve value are gone, but
not Its colour 1 In the same manner, when an element, after hav10g
been future, enters mto a present tIme, It gets rId of Its future
eXIstence, hut not of the eXlstl'nce of ItS essence, and when from
present it llecomes past, It casts away Its present eXIstence, but
not the eXIstence of Its substance.
(2) It was the venerable Gho.a who a!lSumed a change In thE' 2'10, b fi
aSllect of the elements (la~'~alla) He IS known to have profE'ssed
the theory that, when an ('lement appears at dIfferent tImes. the
past one retams Its past aspl'Ct, WIthout bemg sevE'red from It~
future and preqe>nt ..~pects, the future has Its future aspect,
WIthout be>mg altogether deprIved of Its pa~t and present aspect.'1,
th(' present lIkeWIse retams Its present aspect, WIthout completdy
losmg Its past and future aspects Just as, when a man falls Into
paSSIonate love WIth a female, he IS not altogether deprived of hIS
capaCIty of love towards other females (but thIS capaCIty IS not
promInent)
(3) .A {'ha.nge of {'onrutIon (avastkii) 1'1 advocated by the 2!11. II
vrnerable VasumItra He IS known to have mamtamed that,
when one clement mamfests Itself at ddferent tImes, It changes
In condItIOn, and reCClve'J dIfferent deSIgnatIOns accorrung to the
conditIon whICh It has reached, WIthout changmg In substance
(When an element i~ III a conrutlOn m whI('h It does not yet Yl190m
I produce Its functIOn, It IS called future, when It produces It, it IS
called present ;"";hen, havmg produced It, It ceases to work, It
,IS past, Its substancE' remaInmg the s!:Yle) Just as In au abacus
the same ball rrcClVCS different slgmficatIons aCllorrung to the
place It IS thrown In If It IS thrown In the place for umt'J It
means one, If In the pla{'e for hundreds it means a hundred, If
In the place for thousands It means one thousand.
lOr, If riipa stands for I/IJQrupa. "Its eSlence. ,.
80
81, a. 3
"IlQom
'SI, a, 7
81, h, 1
(4) An advocate of contingency (aJlelsii) IS the venerable

Buddhadeva, Ht! IS knoWn to' have mamtained the principle
that an element In the course of time receives thiS or that
denommatIon on account of ItS relatIOn to the former and the
next moment. (An element IS future With respect to the former
one, be It past or l)resent, It 18 present With respect to 0. {armer,
I e Ilas1, one or luth respect to the next one, I e future one, It
IS past WIth rcspect to the next one, be It prescnt or future 1
Just as the same female ma.y bc called a mother (lnth respt'Ct to
her children) and 0. daughter (with respect to her own
mother)
Thus It IS thJ.t all thl'se four (lines of thought) are 110 many
varll'tle~ of the theory which maintains Umversal EXIstence As
regards the first of them, It IS nothing else than the doctrine of the
changmg mamfestatlOns (of one eternal matter) Therefore It
must be Included m the Sankhya system (which has already
bE'en fE'Jected) As to the second, It 18 a confUSIOn of all times,
8mce It nnplies (,O-tlXlstence of all the aspech (of an element)
at the same time Thc passIOn of a man may be promment
towards one female, and merely I'xlStent (lIDpprceptlbly) towards
another one, but what has thlS fact to do WIth the theory It IS
supposed to Illustrate f Accordmg to the fourth e'(planatlOn,
It would follow thtLt all the three times are found together,
mclueled m one of them Thus ill the scope of the past time w!'
can rustlngulsh a former and a follOlvmg mom('nt They Will
represent a past and a future tIme Between them the mtermeruate moment WIll correspond to a present timE' Thus It IS
that among ull proposed explanatlOns the (remammg one alon!'),
the thIrd m number, IS right, that whIch mamtam~ a change of
condihon (or function) Accordmg thereto the differeuce In bme
reposes on the dIfference m funchon: at the hme when an
element does not yet actually perform Its functIon It IS future,
when performmg It, It becomes present, when, after havmg
performed It, It stops, It becomes past
Sautriillhka -Although I perfectly understand all thIS, I do
not see my way to admit that It Implies a real eXistence of the
past and of the future For, If the past IS really eXIStent and
the future hkewlse, what mduces us (to make II. distinction
between them and) to clill them past and future 1
APPENDIX. I
VASUBANDHU ON SARVAsTIVADA
81
Va~b1ui8Ika -But have we not already explained It the time

of an element L'3 settled m accordance with the time of lis function.
Sau!riil'lttka.-If this be the case, an eye whICh does not look
at the present moment will not be present, because It does not
perform Its functIOn l
Valbluinka.-It is present (because It performs Its other
functions): It 1'3 the llnmedlate cause (of the ne'{t moment of ItS
e'nstence and the remote cause) deternllmng (Its future character).
(Although an eye that dol'S not look IS not perfornung It~ function,
It, nevertheless, IS effiClent In unmediatt'ly produclllg and forecasting the homogeneousness of ItS future With Its past and In
producmg Its, so-c.llIed, co-uperatlVe result I In that sense It IS
present)
Sautriinllka -In that case the past wJll be the same as the
present, SInce the past likeWise produces such results-the pa'3t
vlCwed as a cause of homogeneousness In COllSecutlve moments,2
as a general moral cause,a and as a cause requIrIng retrIbutIOn 4_
all these causes would be present smoe they may plHform theIr
actual functIOns at the present moment
Va~bhiiRlka -I call present a cause whICh exhibits at the present
moment a double functIOn-that of glVlng an Immediate result
I The SarvistlVlidlns estabhsh severalluncls of causal relations between
the elements If ega moment of the sensil of vIsion produces In the next
moment a ViSUal sensatIon, It 18 termed Mrana.hetu and Ita result
ac1klpatl-phala. ThIS rdatlOn WIll be absent In the uise of an lOefficlent
condItion of the organ of VlSlon But there Mil other relatiOns between
the moments of thiS organ When tho next moment III lURt the same as
the foregomg one, thus cvolung 10 the observer the Idea of duratIOn, thIS
relatIOn III termed Babkiiga.Aelu as to a ntBlplndaphala If th18 moment
appears 10 a stream (Ba7ltana) \linch IS defilod bv the presence of paSSIOI18
(1:le9"), th18 defiImg character IS mherlted by the next momonts, U no Btoppmg
of It IS produoed Sueh 11 relatIOn IS railed 8arvalraga.kelu as to nuyandaphala. FlJllIl.Iy pvery moment 10 0. strOlim ll! under the 1011 nenre of former
deeds (rorma) and ma.y, 1D Its turn, ha.ve an m6uenee on future avents
Tlus relation IS termed Vlpaka.helu l1li to vlpiikapkala The SimultaneIty
of the lDsepa.rable elements of matter Illll produce a cooperatlve result
(puruBakara.phala) Thl'8e last three relatIOns must be eXIStent evon In
the CIISO of a non.operatIve moment of the sense of vISIOn. Cf. Ab. K,
11,50 ff.: 0 Rosenberg, Problema, chap xv.
I Sabh4ga-helu.
Sarvalraga-hetrt
, VipIJ1'a-ketu.
Ml'blln.pa., 11,
166, a 4,
82
and that of deternuning the character of its remote future. A

past cause, although It may produce a result at the present
moment, does not, at present, determme Its general character
(wluch has been prevIously deternuned). Therefore the past
IS not the same as the present
SautrantUca -If the time IS settled according to efficiency, an
element may be past masmuch as Its power of deterDllning the
general character of a remote result belongs to the past, and It
may be present nevertheless, smce It produces the result of the
present moment Thus a confusIon of the charactenstlC SIgnS of
all the three tImes will arise, and I mamtam that you are gmlty
of such confusIOn Your standpOint leads to the absurdIty of
assummg actual or seml-actual past causes (I e semI-present
elpruc.>nts), smcc the cause of homogeneousness and other past
causes may produce a (present) result A confusIOn of the
essentIal natures of the three tImes IS the consequence.
281, b 3
lSI, h 4
Ko.rlkt1, ",
~s I,
II "
.281, h, G
THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUnnIDSM
(PART
2;'
II -The case against Et'l!rlasttng Elements)
Saulriilltzka -To thiS we must makc the followmg reply:What IS It that ke~ps (an ~I('ment from e'\:hihlting ItS action) ?
And how IS (thc tlmc of thiS actIon to be determlllcd)? If It,
the time of an element's eXistence, does not dliler from the
essence of the elC'ment ltself, there wlll altogether be no time
If the element In the future and In the past eXists Just In the
~ame seme as In the present, why IS It future and past? The
essence of the elements of elustence (dltarmata) IS deep 1
If the essence alone of the elements of eXistence persists
throughout all the threp times, but not their function, what IS It
that constitutes an Impediment to thiS functIOn? What IS It that
sometimes mduces them to perform and sometimes keppa them
back from })erformmg their functIon ?
Vaebhiisllca -The functIOn IS performed when all the necessary
conditIons are present
Sautriintlka -ThiS won't do' because (accordmg to your
theory) these condItions arc always present Agam, as to the
functIons themselves, they hkeWlse may be past, future, and
present They then require an explanatIOn' m theIr turn.
W1l1 you admit the exlstence of a second function (whIch Will
APPENDIX I; VASUBANDHU ON SARVASTIVADA
83
deternune the tIme of the first) ~ or will you suppose that it

neither IS past, nor future, nor present, but that It, nevertheless,
does eXist? In thIs case this functIOn WIll not be subject to the
elementary forces of hfe (81mskrta) and Will represent an immovable eternal entity (asal'f'Skrla). For this reason you cannot
mamtaIn that, as long as an element does not yet porform ItS
function, It IS future.
Va~~tka -If the functIOn of an element were something 281, b 7.
different from the clement Itself, your objectIOns would be rIght.
But 8lnce It IS not ddlerent, they do not hold good
I. Sautrlinttka -Then there IS no tIme at all' If the funchon IS
fhe same as the subst.ance, the elements Will always remaIn
Identical For what reason arc they sometImes called past,
.somehmes future, and sometImes present 2
, l'atbh~/ka.-An clement that has not yet appeared IS future,
one WhICh has appeared and not yet dIsappeared IS prl'Sent,
one whICh has dIsappeared IS past What is It you find unfounded
In thIS explanatIOn?
Sautriillttka - Thc followmg POInt needs here to be establIshed;If thE' past and the future eXist III the same sense as the present,
as realItIes, why IS It, then, that, beIng eXistent III the same sense,
they are future and past 2 If the substance of the same element
IS alone (permanently) eXIstent, what IS the reason that It IS
spoken of as " havlllg not yet appeared" or " gone"? What 18
It that does not appear later on and whose abRence makes us
call It " past" 1
Thus It IS that the notIOn of three times wIll altogether have
no real foundatIOn, as long as you don't accept the VICW that the
elements appear mto hfe out of non-existence and return agam
Into non-existence after haVIng becn eXlstmg. (Your theory
ImplIes eternal e'tlstence of the elements)
I
Va1bluiRtka.-It IS absurd to mamtaln that It ImplIes eternal
_exIstence! There are the four forces (of orlgmatlOn, decay, maIntenance, and destructIOn) to which every elcment IS subject,
and the combination (of the permanent essence of an element
With these forces produces Its Impermanent mamfestatlOns In lIfe).
Sautrlinttka -Mere words' They cannot explam the orlgtnation
and decay (which are gOIng on In the process of lIfe). An element,
aeeordmg to thiS View, IS permanent and impermanent at the
84
'tHE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM
same time. This, indeed, is sometlung qtute new! It has been

said on this OCCIiSlOn .182, a. 7
Mamtamed eternal essence,

DeruE'd {'ternal bemg'
SAnd yet no difference between
" 2 This essence and this being
'TIS clearly a capnce
Of the Almighty'
I 'TIS spoken by HIS order r
II
:82, b 1.
(ValbMRlla -But Buddha has said that there" IS" a past

and there " IS " a future)
SQutrant~lca.-We, llkewl8e, mamtam that there " 18" a past
and there " 18" a future But tlus means that what has been
formerly "IS" past, and what. m the (pre'ICnce of Its causes),
will haPlJen " IS "future They eXist m thl8 sense only, not m
reality
VatbhiiR1ka -Who has ever malntamed that they eXist lust In
the same sense m whICh the presf'ut eXists 7
Sautriilltika.-How can one eXist otherWise ~
Vatbkiilitka -The essence of the past and of the future IS
(always) eJClstent
Sautriinftka -If they are always eJQstent, how IS the
(remarkable result) brought about that they are called past or
future 2 Therefore the words of our Subhme Lord, "there 1B
a past, there 18 a {uture," must be understood m another sense
He proffered them when dlscussmg With the Ajivlkas (who demed
moral responSlblhty for past deeds). He strongly opposed theu
doctone, whICh demed the connexlOn between a past cause and
a future result. In order to make It known that a former cause
and a {utule result ate something which happened :formerly
and Will happen In future, he categoncally declared: "There u
a past, there is a future" For the word "IS" acts as a
particle (which may refer to somethmg existent and to nonexistence a8 well), As e.g. people will say: "there u absence of
ha:ht" (before it has been kindled), "there \8 a.bsence of hght aftet
(It has beE'n put out)," or the " light ts put out, but I did not
put it out". When Buddha declared that there" is" a past
and there" is" a future, he USl'd the word "is" in that senae.
APPENDIX I'
85
Had it been otherwise, It would be absolutely ImposSIble

to account for (the notions of) a past and a future.
VatbkiiBtka -But, then, how are we to understand the words 282, b I;
of our Sublunc Lord when addressmg the Laguda~tkhiyako.
wandermg ascetics (the bearers of a tress on the head and a stIck
m the hand)? Why dJd he declare: "a deed (whIch reqUIres
Immedl&te retnbutlOn) IS past, IS accomplIshed, IS finished, IS
gone, has dIsappeared, but, nevertheless, It does eXIst." What
did these ascetIcs really deny ~ Not that the accomphshed deed
was past, (but that It could have some actual eXIstence, I e.
Bome effiCIency. Hence the words of Buddha Imply an actual
,eXIstence of the past).
Sautmnhka -(No ') He meant that a force to produce 2U, b 7.
rf'tnbutlOn is drIven by a past deed mto the run (of combmed
elements whICh constitute an mdIvldual) Were It eXIstent m
reahty, It would not he past ThiS IS the only way m whICh thiS
passage needs be understood, because on another occaSIOn, In
the sermon about" Non-substantialIty a& the Ulhmate Truth '',1
the Rubhme Lord has slloken thus. "when the organ of VISion
appears mto hf!', there IS ab~olut('ly nothmg from whICh It proceed9, and Whf'll It vamshes, nought there IS to which It retIres.
Therefore, 0 Brethr('n, thiS organ of VISIOIl has no former
eXIstence. Then It appears, and aft!'r havmg be('n eXIstent It
vamshes agam" If a future organ of vIsion were eXIstent,
Buddha would nCVE'r have declared that It appearE'd out of nonC,(lstence (out of nothmg)
Va~bh(i8,ka-(Thls passage means that), as far as the present 28:1, Il 2
tIme IS concerned, It dId not eXIst, and then llppcarE'd (m the scope
of thIS bme).
Sautranttka -Impossible' 'l'tmc HI not somethmg ddIerent
from the obJect (eXIstIng III It)
Vawka"ka --But may not Its essenr!' have not been present
and then have appeared ?
Sautranhka -ThIS woul<l only proye that It had no (real)
futuIe rXIstence
(The secoruJ ar,qumel1t of the San'o,stuiidms refuted)

Sautrlinttka.-Now your second argwncnt IS drawn from the 283, a. 3
cIrcumstance that cognItIOn, when arIsing, reposes on two factors:
1 Paramdrlka-~iinllal'i-8Iitra,
Sarpyuktiigama,
>'111,
22 (McOo\('rn).
86
~3, a. 8.
~3,
b. I.
a perceptive faculty and a correspondmg object. Here we must

at first (col\Slder the mstance) of mental cognItion reposing on
the operation of the mtellect and on a mental (not sensuous)
object 1 Is tlus oUJect a real cause in the same senBe as thl'
Intellect 1 or is It a mere (paSSIve) ob]E'ct reahzed by the Intellect ~
1 It were a real active cause, how could events whIch must happen
af1;(>r the lapse of a thousand !Ilons, or those which never will
happen, pos~Ibly constitute an a.ctIve cause of the corrcspondmg
cogrution 7 And thc Fmal Deliverance, whICh IS synonymous With
the total cessatIon of {'very operation of all the ell'ments of
eXistenCE', how can it constitute a really actIve cause of Its own
conceptlOn t But If, on the other hand, such ob]<,cts are mere
paSSIve obJccts of the operatlllg mmd, then I mamtam that they
may be future and may be past
VatbhaRlka -If th{'y altogether do not e'!lst, how can they
llosslbly be oh]ects ~
Sautriint,ka -Their eXlstence I admIt, (undE'rstandmg hy
eXIStence) that vpry form In whICh they arl' cOllC{,IVl'd by us at
tIle prespnt moment m the present place
Vatbhii',ka -And how are they concClved ~
Sautriintlka -As past and 0.9 future If somebody rrmpmbers
a past obJcct or a former feelmg, he has never been ubserved to
say" It eXISts ", but only" It did eXist".
(The third argument oj tlte Sarvast!viidllu e.Lalllllled)
SautranttAa -As (to the cognItIOn of past and future) sense
objects, the past onps are remembered III that very form III which
they were experlCnced when they Vlere present, and the future
olles are known to Buddhas Just In that form III wluch thpy Will
apllear at the tlmp when they will be present
Valbka,lka.-And If It bp Just thp same eXistence (as the present
one) !
Sautriillhka -Then It IS present
Vatbhlistka -If not!
Sautriillltka.-(It IS absent. and thu,) It IS proved that absence
can be cognIzed Just as well (as prpsence)
Vaabllluzka -But (wIll you not admLt that the past and the
future) are fragments of the present Itself ~
1
dharmah, 1 e 64 rikarllUU, ciyatana No. 12
APPENDIX I: VASUBANDHU ON SARVAsTIVADA
87
Bautrant&lca -No, because we are not conscious of dpprehendmg

frdgments
Vatbha~t!a -But, then, It may represeut the same stuff, with
the mere (dIfference that In the past and the future) Its atoms
may be dlsJomed !
Sa'lltriilltlka -In that case, atoms will be eternally eXIstent,
and (all the proce'>s of hfe) wIll consist In their either combmIng
or dls]ommg There will altogether be no new orlgmatIon,
no real extmctlOn, and thus you will become gudty of adhermg
to the (heretical) uoctrme of tIte A.jivlkas,
Moreover, you wIll be contradlCted by the scriptural passal;le 283, h 4
(referred to above)' "when the organ of VISIon IS produced,
It does not come from some other place, when It disappears, It IS
not gOIng to be stored lip In another pldce, etc"
On the other hand, It IS ImpOSSible that feelIngs and othpr
(mental phl'nomena), which have no atoIlllc structure, should be
dIVided llltO fragments If remembered, they hkt'wlse are
remembered m that very form m whlCh they dId appear and were
experIenced And, If you suppose that they contmue to eXIst
In the same form, they must be eternal If they do not, It wIll
be proved that (a non-exIstent feehng) may be apprehended
(by memory) Just as well (as an eXistent one IS apprehended by
self-perceptIon)
Vatbhiivd(a -If non-existence IS capable of beIng apprehended, 283, b 6,
you must add to (the hst of all thIngs cogmzabll', Ie) to the
twelve bases of cogmtlOn (iiyatana) , a new category, the thIrteenth,
non-existence
Sautranttka -SUPPOSIng I thInk about the ab~ence of a
thIrteenth category, what wIll be then the object corresponding
to my thought ~
Vatbhiistlca -It wIll be thIS very (category, I e ItS) name
Bautriinhka -And what 18 It (generally speaking) that we
apprehend, when we are expectmg to hear a word whlCh a~ yet
IS not pronounced I
Vatbhii.uka -It IS nothing else tha.n thiS very word
Bautranhka -Then a person who deSires not to hear tills word,
WJll be obhged to pronounce It ,
Vawhiiftka -It, may be the future conrutlon of tills
word ~
88
k4, a
4, a 5
Sautriinttka -If It IS something existent, why does It produce

an Idea of absence ~
Valb/uiR,ka -Then it may be Its present absence 2
SautriintdaJ.-No' It IS thp same (If trus present absE'nce IS
something eXistent, why docs It produce an Idea of non-exIStence?)
ValbM8tka -Then It may be the charactenstIc sign of a
future, (thIs SIgn IS absent at present, and gives nse to the Idea
of non-existence)
Sautrnnltka -This Sign consists (m the fact that the future)
wIll appear mto cXlsu-nre out of a prevIOus non-existence Thus
It IS that both eXIstence and non-exIstence may be objects of
cogmtIon.
Vatbka~tka.-And how do you explam the words of the future
Buddha, who has spoken thus. ., that these persons know or
perceive trungs whlrh do not eXIst m the world-thiS IS
ImposSIble I " 1
Sautranttka -Th!'se words (do not mean that non-existence
cannot be an object of cogmtlon, but thE'y) have thl' followlDg
meanmg -" there are other, manifestly deluded persons (who
have not yet attamed the dIVIne pow!'r of VISion they) perrelve
trungs that never dId eXIst I prrceIvc only eXIatmg (rcmotr)
thmgs" If, on the contrary, ev!'ry pOSSIble thought had only
eXIQtmg thmgs for ItS ohj('(t, what reason could thpre have been
for doubtmg (the accuracy of thp assertIOn of such people about
what they were percClvmg by thE-lr power of dIVIne nSlOn) 1
or what would hwe bl"en the dl!Terrnce (hl'tween the bodh~8attt'a's
real power of vIsion and the mcomplete power of these men) 1
It IS IneVItable that we should understand the passage In thiS
sense, because It IS confirmf'd by anotht'r scrIptural passage,
whICh bl'gms WIth the words " come unto me, ye monks, my
pupds'" and goes on until the followmg words are spoken:
" what I am tellIng hIm In the mornmg becomes clearer at mght,
what I am conversmg about at mght becomes clearer to hIm next
mormnlt He ",Ill cogmze the eXIstence of what dol'S eXll!t, the
non-exlstl'nce of what does not eXISt Where somethmg stIll
hlght'f ex\"ts, he wlll know that there IS somethmg still
hIgher. and where nothing hIgher (,XlSts, he will know that (It IS
the FInal DelIverance, that) there IS nothIng hIgher than that' "
Therefore the ar~ument (ID favour of J. real eXIstence of the past,
APPENDIX I:
89
that you have drawn from the Bupposed fact that) our Intellect
can have only eXIstent thmgs for Its object-thIs argument 18
wrong.
(The fourth argltment of ike Saroostwiirhns examlnerl)

Sautriinttka -As to your next argument (m favour of the real 2114, II i
t'Xlstence of the past, VIZ because It has a real) result-we must
observe that we, the SautrilntIkas, never did mamtam that a
rC'sult c.an hI' produccd from a past del'd (directly).
l'mM(iflka -How IS It produced, then ~
Sautranli~a -(This deed) 18 the bl'gmmng of a pecuhar cham
of event'! (m thc coursE' of wInch the result appears sooner or
latt.r) A more d(,taIled explanatIOn of tins pOint wIll be gIven
later on, whrn we wIll refute the theory (of the Vatsiputriyas,
who) mamtnm the eXIstence of an mdlVldllal 1 (As to your View,
It IS mH.mfestiy mconslstent) What result can a past deed
produce accordmg to thIS VIeW" 2 If the past and the future are
actually I'XIstent, the re~ult WIll nC'cpssanly Ite pre-existent
rrom all rtermty
Va~bha.~tka -(But we assume the eXistence of tile force of
generatlOll 2)
S(lutrii1Iilka-Well, then, It wIll bp estabhshed that thiS force 284, h 1.
Itself appears after havmg prevlouRly been non-('xI~tent I In fact.
If everythmg WIthout any exceptIOn IS pr('-('xistent, there can be
nothlllg that could ha.ve a force to produ(,e ~llythlllg I III the end
It comes to the same as the theory of thC' followers of rar~aganya
Aeeordmg to them there IS nCither productIOn of somethmg new
nor C'xtm('tlOn of sornethmg eXIstent. ",hat f'XlstR 18 always
f'Xlstpnt, what does not ('lIst WIll ncv('r hl'come eXlstent.
Va~bhi1s!ka -But the force (of a past deed) may consist ill
" makmg present" (some already el'lstmg clement) 1
Sautr(int!~a -How IS tIlls" making prrsent" to lw understood? 2114, L 3
V/tlbkii~~lra -It consists In removIng (the rcsult from one)
place to anothl'r
Sautranhka -Then tllC result would be C'ternally pre-existent
And. as to non-exIstent (,lements, howcan they (he madc to change
l)lac p ) 2 MoreovC'r, such "removing" m!'ans productIon (ot a
motIon, I f' of something) whICh preVIOusly dId not ('XIst
1
Ab K.
IX, trtlll~lated In
my IiOlll Tl,el'1I
90
~,b
5.
,b.7.
THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM'
Vaw~ika -It may consist 10 a " specification" of the (everJBBtlng) es~ence of an element ~
Sautriintllca - Tlus, again, would prove that there is productIon
of what prevlOusly did not t'XlSt. To conclude: the prinCiple of
UnIversal EXistence, as far 8S ex!'geticalliteratur!' IS concerned,
where It Impb!'s an actual eXistence of the llast and of the future,
does not hold good On the contrary, It IS all right If we strICtly
conform to the words of ScrIpture, whl're It IS declared that
"everything exists"
Valblul,lka -And 10 what spnse has It been declared In
ScrIpture that" everythmg etlSts " ?
Sautriinttka -0 Brahmm8' It has been declared, " everythmg
eXists" : that means no more than" the elements mcluded In the
twelve categories (iiIJatana) are eXIstent"
ValMa,lka -And the three times (arc they not Included among
these !'lements) ~
Sautriinttka -(No, they are not ') How their eXistence IS to
be understood we have already explaIned
(The San't"istwadm ret'Crts to IllS first argument)

Valbkiislka -If the past aud the future did not e:nst, how could
It be pOSSible that 8 man should be attracted by (a past and future
paSSIOn) to a (past or future object of enjoyment) ~
Sautliilltika -ThIS hecomes poSSible because past passIons
leave reSIdues (or produce seeds), whICh are the causes of new
passIOns; these seeds are eXlst!'nt (a.ud the samt has the capacity
of keepmg them down, of bemg mdependent of them) Therefore, 10 man can be bound by (past accesses of) passlOn And It
18 III thIS sense thllt he can be a.llured by (future or past) objects,
because the seeds of these paSSIOns, WhICh are directed towards
(past and futur!' enJoyments), are always present m him
OOnclUSlM
Mcblm~.plI,
,167. b 7
a.1.
ValoM,lka (does not feel dIScountenanced by thIS series of

arguments, and says) We Valbha.'lkas, nevertheless, mamtalll
that the past and the future cert9.lnly do eXISt. But (regardIng
the cverlastmg essence of the elements of eXlStenCI1, we confess)
that thiS is somethmg we do not succeed III ~xplamlllg, theIr
essence IS deep (It IS transcendental), since Its eXistence ca.nnot
APPENDIX I'
91
be estabhshed by ratIonal methods 1 (And a9 to the use we make

of the notIon of tIme In common life, It IS contradictory We use)
the e~prl'sSIon "what appears vamshes" (Implymg that the
same element appears and disappears, e g ) " some mattt'r appears
and dlsappears". But we hkE'wIse, say" one thmg appears,
another disappears ", ImplYing that one element, the future one,
enters mto life, and another one (the present one), stop, We also
speak of the appeanng of tlIDe (Itself ' t.he time IS eome "),
because the element whICh enters mto hfe I' mcluued In the notIOn
of hme. And we speak about bemg born " from tIme", SInce
the future Includes man.v moments (and only one of them act'I.lIy
enters mto lIfe)
End of the Eplsodlcal Il1t'cshgahon

I The Pekmg and Narthang Dstan.l!gyur read hf'ro dra'ii.bar "" IW880
ThiS may mean that the remark of the \'Rlbh;i~lka apphos to the elementq
of mmd alone, I e the elements that ('annot be ('arrled from one place tu
another Hut Sallghabhadra's text pomtq to a readmg b~ad.par ml 71U R.!1O,
whll'h Ilndoubtt'dly IS the correct one, ~mcp It IS supported by the translatIOn
of HlUen.Tsang The corruptIOn mu.t be ,-ery old, hIDce the Mock.prmt
of thl! Aga m?nastery, which iii founded all old Kourl ei commg frum Derge,
repeats It Ilnd It IS ret:llned by !\lclulI1s-pa
APPENDIX II
TABI. .ES
OF THE
ACCORDING
ELEMENTS
TO
THE
SARV AS'l'IV ADINS
GENERAL VIEW
All elements of eXIstence (Barl'am = i:J dllarma,,)
U1uisrala (75)
.. Influenced" by pluJ1ia
\a8ra.'!& (72)
"Influenced 'by allrlg"
ballUlkrta (72)
samskrta (72)
the ~<lme elementq, but

"co operatIOn" alJatmg
71. elements" co operahng" In full S\UIIg
'Upaddna 8kandhct
elements" attached '
to life
Ulluaral'U skundlla
the bltme ciementq, bu t

attachment fading
I
I
dllllklta 8a7nltlwlla
111t11ga
(/rya
pI/hay Jana
I
sail/sura
u8am,krta (3)
" non co OpelII.
tlng"
extmctlOn of
the elements
mrodlia
bllddha
nl1 "/ina
empIrIcal eAI&tence
IIhsolute eXIstence
~I----~--------------_I
I
75 elements
96
CLASSIFICA.TION OF .ALL ELEMENTS OF EXISTENCE
(Sarvam
= anatman = 12 iiyatanas = 18 dkatus =
75 dkarrnaa)
I. First General Dwuion

72 dharmas.
3
co-operating, unpermanent
non-eo-operatmg, unmutable
..
II. Second General Dwuwn

.. Influenced" by pa8l110n8, proce88 of life
1.
IGBrGtIa
ancilrGva
In full
swmg.
.. unmfluenced " by pasSIOns, process of hfe abatIng
and suppressed
The first item corresponds to the seventy-two samskrtadharmas as far as they co-operate m the productlon of an
ordmary hfe (prtkag-jana), the second contams the three
eternal elements (asa'f!UIkrta) and the sa'f!UIkrta as well, 10
those cases when hfe IS bemg gradually suppressed and the
mdividual becomes a samt (iirya)
Th~rd
III.
1.
2.
3
4
dulakhll
aamudaya
7I.lrodM
mArgo
General Dtvuwn, mto four stages (satya)
unrest}
= the 72 BasraVG-dhllrmtJ.
Ita cause
eternal peace = the 3 aBa71l8kr1a

l aniiBTavaita cause
= the remammg a7lliBrava ) dMrma
IV. Fourth General Dwtston

from the vlew-pomt of the part played by the elements 10
the process of cogmtion, mto six subjective and SIX objectlve
" bases" (iiyatana) of cognItIOn
I Sn: lIlternal bases (lJdl'ytitmlJtiyata.RIJ) or receptl ve facult.lell
II SIX external !'ases (btihYIJclYlJtu7I.lJ) or objects (lnsuylJ)
(mdTlya)
Sense of VISion (clJksur-mdnya-
7 Colour ..nd shape (ruptl-tiya-
ayallana)
2. Sense of audition (~rotra. mdrlya
tana)
8 Sound
(~bda-tiyatallG)
tiga.tlJnlJ )
3. Sense of smelhng (gkrtina-lIIdrlya-
9 Odour (ga7ldka ti!llJtlJna)
tiyatana )
4,
Sense of taste (Jlk/Ju 17Idrlya
10 Taste (raea.-tilllJlanlJ)
tiyata.na)
5 Sense of touch (ktiya 17Idnya

tiyalllJIIG )
6 Faculty of the mtellect. or consCiousness (ma7lll-,ndrIYIJdga.ttlntl )
11 TangIbles
(~ta"'lIa-tilllJ
la11a)
12 Non-sensuolls obJects (dkarma-tiyGtIJIIG or dkaf'7lUlh).
APPENDIX II
97
TABLES OF ELEMENTS, IV
In thIS classLiicatlOn the eleven first Items correspond to

eleven elements (dharm!J), e~ch mcludmg one. The twelfth
Item contaIns all the remammg sixty-four elements, and It IS
therefore (,alled dharma-ayatana or SImply dharmcih, i.e the
remaimng elements.
V. Fifth General
Dtv~swn
mto eighteen classes (dkiitu = gatra) of elements represented

m the compositlon of an indIVIdual stream of hfe (santana)
m the dIfferent planes of eXlStence.
I
81'( mdnyn".
cakaur-dhiitu, sensl" of Vllllon
~o!ra-dhiitlt,
3
45
gll1'iilla-dllii,lIt,
Jllwa-dhiitu,
mya-dhiilu,
mano-dlliitu,
13
14,
1.;
16
17
HI
a.udltlon
smt'llmg
taste
toul'll
fa.cultv of
mtelleot
II. SllI: vlRayaa

7
8
9
10.
rapa.dha/u, colour
~bda-dhiitu,
sOllnd
gandha-dIVUu, odour
rasa.dM/u, taste
11
12
8praatavya.dhatu, tangibles
dharma-dMtu, or dltarm(ill.
nonsensuous objects
III 1:.12: t!J1iunas
V Isull.l con~C\ou~ne"., (cak,ur-l"J,"iann-dhalll)
Audlt.ory
(rolll"-llpililta-dl,atu)
Olfactor,)
(lI'mil/v I 'pial/a dhdtu)
Gustat.ory
(Jlhtil-I"Jlidllu-dluitu)
Tal'tlie
..
(1..dyu-t',pitlna-dllCltll)
NOli l!e!lSllOU~ ..
(mnno-I"Jlitilta dlu.itu)
Ten of these dhatus contaIn one dharma each (Nos 1-5

and 6-11), the dhiitu No 12 contaInS SIxty-four dharmas
(fortY-SIX cattta, fourteen ctlta-t'lprayukta, three asamskrta,
and amJiiapt~) , conSCIousness, representmg a smgle dharma, 18
spht mto seven dhatus, No 6 and Nos. 13-18
On the seIlSUOUS plane of eXIstence (kama-Dhiitu) the
IndIvldual streams (santana) are composed of all the eIghteen
dhiitus. In the world of "Reduced Matter" (rupa-DMtu)
the dhiitus Nos. 9-10 and 15-16 are absent, and the
indIVIduals are composed of only fourteen dkiitus. In the
Immatenal Worlds (arupa-Dhiitu) they are composed of only
three dhlitus, Nos 6, 12, and 18, SInce all matter and sensuous
conSCIousness does not eXISt there.
The SIX m~ayas are Vt~alla In regard to the SIX ~ndr2yas,
but alambana In regard to the SIX mJiiiinas.
7
98
VI.
Sw;tk dwiswn, of the seventy-two active elements

(sa'Tfl.sKrta-dkarma) into five groups (skandha)_
1. f'upa-skafldlll1
vedanii-alandha
3 aaRJiUi-alandha
4 6fJ,7(UJk(iTa-alandha _
5. vIJiiana-8I..andlla
2.
the physical elements, matter

feehng
conception.
will and other forces
pure consclousnt"88 (Without content)
Together.
11 dharmas.
1
1
58
1
72
"
"
"
"
Group means collectlOn, v~if dhannas past, present, and

future, remote and near, pureand defiled, etc. 'l'he asamskrta
are not mcluded
the other aniisrava,
the siisrat'a alone
m(jian.a-~,,,a:naM,
i e. elements
are meant, t.wlltr_lPS
synonyms are rana
of " attMiIdft.~
", duhkha-samudaya "cause of
eXistence", dr~t~-sthtti "the place
in
eXistence of personality obtams",
" Simply, smce by existence Simply the
....lOsteIlce of ordmary men lS meant.
When the skandhas embrace aU the samskrta-dharmas,
~ the siisrat'a and anasrava as well, they recelve, m contradlstmctlOn to the upadana-skandhas, other names. adhvanah
"the (three) tlmes ", kathii-t'ast1t "objects of speech ",
samhsarana " elements to be suppressed ", savastuka" havmg
empirical reahty", or "bemg subJect to causahty". The
skandha No.4 contams all the cattta-dharmas, except t'edanii
and sanJi'iii, I e forty-four mental faculties wlth cetana,
the w1l1 as the prmclpal one, and fourteen general forces
(Cttta-v~prayukta) .
THE SINGLE ELEMENTS OF ]l;UTTER (ROPA), MIND (CITTACAITTA), FORCES
(VIPRAYUKTA-SAMSKARA), AND ETERNITY

(ASAMSKllTA)
A MATTER (RCPA)
cakaur.mdrlya, translucent matter (Tilpapraaada) conveymg vlSua.1
2
~f'O'f'fHfld7'lya.
sensations
tralUllucent matter (rupa.pra8ada) conveymg auditory
sensations
APPENDIX II: TABLES OF ELEMENTS, VI, A
3
4-.
5
6.
7.
8.
9.
10
II
99
g1lr411a4ndriya, translucent matter (rupaprlUiida) conveymg oIfaot01'v

sensations
"Tltl/!.11111nya, traDl!lucent matter (riipapraBdda) ronveying task>

sensatlons
kaya-indr,ya, translucent matter (riipa.pra&iida) conveYlng tactlle
sensations
rilpa,vIRQya, VISUal sense.data.
-;abda.lJl8IZya, audltory
..
gandka.!JIBDya. olfactory ..
rasavl8IZya, taste
"
spraR/4vya.lJ,saya, tactlle "
avtJnaptl, unmandested matter, th. vehIcle of moral quabhf'L
Matter IS dIVIded Into pnmary (blt':""- = rnaltiibhiUa) and

secondary (bhauhka). Four atoms of prm.qry matter, one
from each maltiibltiita, are necessary to support C"'e bhlluttl..aatom. Only No. 10, the tactIle dass, contams bot~ all the
primary and some lIecondary kmds of taCtiblbty: ,'1 the
other classes contaIn only becondary, supported, km<1 f)f
matter.
The Four Unwersol Elements of Matter (malUiMilta)
1
2
3
4
prth,vi, element mandeetmg ItseU as hard.stuff, or repulSIon.

ap,
"
vIscous-stuff, or attractlon.
teJas,
heatstu If
fralla,
mOhon-stuff.
..
At'lJnaptt IS a varlety of karm.a. ActlODR can be elther

mental (cetanii) or physlcal-corporeal and vocal acts (kiiY'&kaand viicika-karma). They are also dlvlded mto mamiest acts
(v~Jii.apti) and unmanifested oneS-O!I!IJ1iaptZ. The latter are,
for our habits of thought, not acts, but their results, they are
not phYSIcal, but moral. If a nOVIce has taken the vows he
has committed a phYSIcal, vocal actIOn, whICh IS vZJnaph,
but the lastmg result IS some moral excellence hIdden lD
conSCIousness, and thIS IS aV?Jitaph. It constItutes a lInk
between the act and Its future retrIbutIon; it IS, therefore,
the same as sa'YfUlkiira, apiirva, adrsta of the Brahmamcal
systems. Although by no means phYSIcal, smce It lacks the
general charactenstlc of matter whICh IS Impenetrability
(saprattghatva), .It nevertheless IS brought by the
Sarviistiva.dms (not by others) under the head of rupa,
100
because of lts close conneXlon with the phYSIcal act upon

which It follows as a shadow cast from an object always
follows that object.
B.
CONSCIOUSNESS,
PURE,
W;l'l'HOUT
CONTENT
(CITTA.
.~~'''~~r- Vr.JiANA)
"l"',uu."u'., sixth, perceptive

or abstract,
the precedmg
the mano-v'J1iilna.
wIlen assormted with the
3.
"iq"I,OWlUeISB when assocmted With the
acn'Je
pure conscIOusness when aSSOCiated with the
taste sense.
the same pure conSClOUSneB8 when aSSOCiated with the
tactile sense.
the same pure consciousness when associated with a
prevIous moment of the sa.me run of consciousness
without particIpatIon of any of the five senses
C.
TUE
FORTY-SIX
MENTAL ELEMENTS
(CAITTA-DHARMA)
OR FACULTIES INTIMATELY COMBINING WITH THE ELEMENT

OF CONSCIOUSNESS (CI'rTA-SAMPRAYUKTA-SAMSKA.RA)
They are dIvIded mto1

2
3
4-.
5.
6.
10
10
6
1
10
8
Together.
46
a.
kl,~a-ma1uibkUmila-dharma
aJeut;a1a-mahlzbku1P,ka-dkanna
upakle"a-(paritla-)bhu1J1tka-dkarma
R1UlIala-bkum,lca-dkarma
lloral l;orccs
Ten General Mental Faculttes present In every moment of

Consciousness (ettfa-mahiibhumlka)-
1. vedand
2. _II)M
3. celand
4.
cltla-mahlibku1n,lca-dhaTma, llental J.'aruitles

kuftJla-makabkum,ka-dkarma
}
Bpa~a.
fa.culty of feehng (plea.sa.nt, unplea.sant, mdifierent).

concepts (oapable of coalcscmg Wlth a. word)
will, oonsCIOUS effort (cdta-ablnBa1fl8kara,
..
cltla-prcupanda)
sensatIOn (comparable to a first" conta.ct ..

between object, sense-orga.n, and conscIousness)
APPENDIX'II
5 cllanda.
6. praJiiii.
101
la~ulty of dE'SIre (abhapretl' IYUltllllY abllllaaa)
..
(= mati)
understan<hng,
Ra/l.kirllii
7. 8mr"
8. mana&tkdra
9. adhtmok8a
10 8!1madh,
TABLES OF ELEMENTS, VI, C', a
"
tI'a
dl'lmminatlDg
(gena
tlkarmiil} pU'paniva pra.
1)/'c'yante).
memory (re/a8o 'pramlJfakl
attentIon.
mchnatlOn(l1/ambanQsya gUlIalo 'vadkdrallam).
cont,'tlntration (!,ena clltam prabandhena
ekatrtilambane varIate)
b. Ten Universally" good" Moral Forces, present m eoory

favourable moment of Cot,,,~ousneS8 (kuliala-nw,hii
Mum tka).t
1. rraddha
2 virya
3. upeksa.
4 hri
apa/rapa
6
7
8
D.
alobha
adveaa
ahlmlHi
pra8[ I lrabdh&
fa~ulty
"
of bE'hef m rei.."Ibubon, the l'~lty of mmd, the

reverse of passIOn (Clt6JsYC; 1lraaGdakI
('ourage m good actIons (kura14.kngiiyii'1l
ce!aBo 'tgatsakah).
f'quammlty, mddference (CIttaBga aU'IMa.
yadyogat clttam aniibhogaf/'l vartate).
&hynE'sq, modesty, humilIty, being uharned
WIth reference to oneself (gauraflam). The
reverse of IV. 1.
aversIOn to things oble('tlOnable. feeling
(hsgll&~ WIth reference to other peoples'
ob}('choIlR ble actions (aMuye bliayatiarS:ltii.).
Thc reverse of IV, 2
o.bRencc of love.
absence of hatred
('aUBllIg no lIl}urv
mE'nial d('xterIt,} (cdla8!!a l.armanyatii., cd/as!!"
liifl""wam)
10 apramaaa
arqUlfmg and prescrvmg good qualItIes

(1o.u1alchull/l dl,arlllun{lIn prat.iambha.
1/I~et'anam).
c 8u; Untversally " Ob.~cured' Elements present m every

unfavourable motnRnt of Oonsc/Ou.~l1ess (Heramahabhumzktl)1. moha
(= avwya)
2 pramiida
3. Iravsidya
arraddha
5.
,tyana
fo.<'Ulty of 19norance, tht' reverse of praJr/ii (I, 6). and

therefore the prImordIal cause of the
commotion (dukkha) of the worldprocess.
I'arelessness. the reverse of aprmniida, II. 10.
mental heaViness, clumsmesB, the reverse of
prasrabdllz,
IT, 9
wsturbed mmd, the reVE'fSe of ',ratldha, II,!.

sloth, mdolencE', mactl\'e temperament.
102
THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHtSM
6. audtlltattla
These
SIX
faculty of being addJcted to pleaaure .nd .porte,

ea.ngwne temperament (cetIJ8o' nUpG9Gmah,
nrtya..gicad'-frngara.lJ/lfya-ala",mra.myawl.
dluJtya.8amngraya.d4na.karmaka~ CIJ\eaa,ko
dharmali).
faculties are not always absolutely bad; they

be IndIfferent (at'yiikrta) for the progress
but they are nevertheless always
:aIIII~tl[U = khsta) by promotIng the
(satkiiya-anugriika-dr8t~
jA,(.tuettratav em) are the follOWIng
" Elements present tn every

ConsC'lOus'YU!ss (akufiilamahiifaculty
of
ureverence
yrul-yogad
(agauravam
gune~u
apraligatd,l
gunavatBu ca pudgawau
gaurat'tZtn fla karol.), arrogance, want of

humility (oblUJya.vaga-varlztd) The reverse
of II, 4 (gaurava-prabdvandl'O dil4rmak)
not feelmg mdlgnant at oftences done by
others (avadye Badbhzr garhde bhaya-adar~&tvam). The reverse of II, 5.
anapatrapya.
e. Ten Vunous Elements of
lWHted
occurrence (upakle9a-
(paritta- )bhUm~ka-dkarrna)1. krodha
faculty of .nger,
VIOlence (vyapiida-vunrpaa-varJdah
Batt.iiaallvayoT iigMtah)
2 mraksa
3 mataaTya
hypocrisy, deceit (of courtiers and others)

envy.
Jealousy
approvmg obJectionable thmgs (Biivadya-
iT8yiJ
5. pradaaa
vaatu-parlimarga)
6. 1J,1117p8Ci
7.
8.
9.
10.
upa1l4h!J
maya
fiJlya
mada
cauBmg harm, menacmg

breakmg fncndshlp
deceit
perfidy, trickery
compI.cency, self-.dmu.tlon (of
mana,
\'I, 7)
These ten elements are described as purely mental (manothey are never associated with any of the
bhum~ka eva);
1 pra'i~
= gUf/HtMniya.
APPENDIX II
TABLES OF ELEMENTS, VI, 0,
103
five varieties of sensuous consciousness (na panca-1}1jniinakiiytkiiM, they cannot combine With the four alternat.mg
klet;as (raga, dve,a, mana, '!J1.Ctkttsa), but with moOO = avulyii
alone, the purely mental kle9fl They mu'>t be suppressed by
knowledge (dr~tt-heya), not by roncentratlOn (bMit'anii-heyo)
For all these reasons they are classIfied as VIces of a hmlted
scope (paritta-bkUmlka)
EIght Elements not hat'lfU/ any defilHte place In the nbo")e

system, bItt capable of ente. ,'"'q ~nto 1:a7l0US combmafwns
(am!Jafa-bhibm-dharma ) I
l..au1..rtga
maddha
( - mdrii)
:3 utarka.
4
t'lriira .
5 niga
6 dvem
7 1niina
t'lcl1..&t8ii
faculty of repE'ntmg
absent-mmdedness,
dre~'Uy
state of mind
a searchmg state of mmd

a fIxmg state of mmd.
love, passion
hatred
pride, an e'tageratcd opInion of one's 0 vn
pre-emml'nce by real or Imagmed quahlicil
tlon~ (cf 1Ilada, V, 10)
" a doubtmg turn of mmd
"
Kaul..rtya IS brought under thIS head because It neither hail
a place among the umversal faculties, nor has It a defimtely

" good ., or defimtely " bad" slgmfirance' It can mean repentance for a bad deed and being sorry for hanng e g overdone
m chanty.
JJllddka can also have vanous moral a!lpects
rllarka and t'wiira are ulllversal only m the kiima-Dkiitu
Raga, d1'l'{la, mana, and t'lc~kltsii are four kler;os, the fifth
bemg lIIoha placed In III, 1. Molla IS a uDlversal "defiler ",
cntermg m every unfavourable conSCIOUS moment, but the
other four "defilers" cannot combme wIth one another, If
there IS riiga assocIated with one's consciousness, there can
be no aSSOcIatlOn wIth dveRa at the same tIme Thus It lli that
ln every favourable, "good" moment, consCiousness 11\
assoClated WIth at least twenty-two elements. the ten
unIversal ones (1, 1-10), the ten umversally good ones, and
mtarka, 'I.'ward (VI, 4-5). If repentance (YI, 1) IS added, the
104
THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF Bl;DDHISM
number wdl increase by one. In every unfavourable or

" bad" moment the mlDimum number wIll be twenty
elements: the ten umversal ones (I, 1-10), the SlX universally
" obscured" (III, 1-6), the two universally bad (IV, 1-2),
and t'1.tarka, vu:iira (VI, 4-5). If all the saf!Ulkrta-lakRanas,
cttta itself,its laksanas and
are taken mto account,
the number wIll
(cf. p 30, n. 2).
dlofficult to dIstmgUlsh all
let alone In a moment,
ContradIctory
cannot enter Into the same
cOltltx'ad:;etlon is often only on the surface,
an InactIve and an exuberant
In every VICIOUS moment, it IS some
and some active partIcIpatIon. Whether the
the conSCIOUS state shall be more paSSIve or
depends on the occasIOnal predominance of
dement over the others. In every moment, or mental
ate, there always IS one predomInant clement, Just as In
material substances we have earth, water, fire, and aIr,
accordIng to the predommance of one of the rnahiibhutas
(cf. p. 13). Among the uDlversally good elements lDdifference
(upek~ii, II, 3) and InChnation (adlnmoksa, II, 9) are not contradictory' they are dIrected towards dIfferent obJects
lDdIfference towards pam and pleasure, and InChnatIOn towards
good deeds, they can go together. But apramiida (II, 10) and
prarniida (III, 2) are the reverse of one another, not mutual
absence alone, and therefore they never can combIne
r Itarka, Y tciira.
Vllarka and 1'lciira are sub-conscIous operations of the
mind (na m~aya-dharmau). Vtlarka IS "an mdistinct
murmur of the mmd" (mano-Jalpa) , whIch IS searchmg
(parye~aka) after ItS obJect. In ItS Initial stage (anatyukaavasthiiyiim) It IS SImply a move of will (cetanii-m~e~a); when
emergmg into the conSCIOUS plane (alyuka-avasthiiyarn), It
APPENDIX II
TABLES OF ELEMENTS, VI, C
105
becomes a certain thought (praJna-t'1resa). l'tcara is also an

"indistmct murmur of the Dllnd ", but it IS attemptmg to
fix (pratyavek~aka) Its object, It has the same two stages;
It IS also characterIzed as a refinement (suhmatii) of the
coarser (auoonka) mtarka. Smce both these functIons are
assoClated wIth sense-consCIousness. they very nearly approach
the Kantlan doctrme of synthesis of apprehenSIon preceded
by the Dllnd running through a varIety of sense-lIDpreSSlOns,
as far as they are sub-conscklls operatIons of the mmrl
precedmg a defimte sense perceptil)n. The V 8lbhuf;ihs
mamtaIn that there IS some mtarka (-- mkalpa) In every
moment of conSCIOUsness, they then call it svabklim-t'1kalpa, but Vasubandhu seems to admIt "pure qensatlOn "
(reme SmnhchkeIt) wIthout any partICIpation of diqcursIVe
thought (mkalpa). Cf. Ab. K. I, 30, Il, 33. Vyiib J@.,yo,
In 1, 44, accordmg to Professor B Seal (Positlve Scuncea,
p. 18), trans pure Intuition (ntrmciira-mrv~kalpa-praJ11ii)
and "empIrIcal" mtUItIOn (samciira-mrvikalpa-praJfiii) ,
the latter contams the three relations of Space, TIme, and
CausatIOn, In addItIOn to pure consclOusness.
J)
FORCES
WHICH
CAN NEITHER BE
INCLUDED
AMONG
MATERIAL NOR AMONG SPIRITUAL ELEMENTS (ROPA-CITTA

VIPRAYUKTA-SAMRKAltA)
fort'e whRh controls the collectlOn of the elcmcnts
In an mdlvldual stream of hfe (8anliina)
a force which ()('caslonaIlv keeps Borne elements In
apriil"h
llbeyance m an mdlvJ(lual 8antana
a. force producmg generahty or homogeneltv of
mkii.YQ-8aeXIstences. the counterpart of the realIStIc generaLty
bkiigatii.
of the Yalc:e~u..as
a forC'e w}uLh (automllhC'ally, 88 a result of former deeds.)
aaal'lJ,ilka
transfers an mdl\ Idual lllto the realms of unLonsclOUS trance
a force stoppmg C'ODSClousnC'S9 and produC'mg the
aaal'lJiiluncons('lOus trance (through an cffort)
aamapath
a force stoppmg conS(,lOU9nesS aud producmg the
ntrodAahIghest, seml-C'onsClOUS, dreamy trantf'
aamapatt&
the force of hie-duratIOD. a force \\hlch at the tIme of
Jivda
birth forecasts the moment of death, Just as the
force With whIch an arrow IS dIscharged forecasts
the moment when It wlll fall down
praph
2
3
5.
6
7.
0.
106
8. J411
OrigmatlOn}
the four aa11lB7erla-lakRatl4l.
Buhsilltence
of p 39 above
decay
3am
extinction
andyata
the force Impartmg BtglUficance to words
nama-ktiya
the force Impartmg Significance to sentences
pada-ktiya
1 yan.1ana-kiiya the force Impartmg SIgnIficance to articulate Bounds.
9. "1",,
10.
ll.
12
13.
14.
E.
1
IMMUTABLE ELEMENTS (ASAMSKltTA-DHARMA)
4m('u
2 prah8allkhya-
the mamfestatlOns of an clement

actIon of understandmg
havmg rE'ahzed that the
ers'OnlUuy 1'1 an 1I1uslOn a kmd of
BubstltutE'd for thiS wrong Idea.
produced not through knowledge,
a natural way. through the e'l:tmction of the
that produced a mamfestatloI', as e g the
extmctlOn of the fire when there IS no more fuel.
nlTudl.a
INTERCONNEXION OF ELE)IENTS (HETUPRATYAYA)
6 HETU
5 PHALA
Buhabhu-hetu
1
purumzkiira-phala
BU'IlJlTagu!la-hetu J
8abhiiga-hetu
3
2 mllyanda-pltala
8arvalraga-hrtu
t'l pii1..a-het u
3 t'llii1.a-phala
PRATY,"YA
(~
1. llc1u-pratgaga
2, aamananlara-pratyaya
3 iilambana-1J7'alyaga
4 adh,patl'lJralyaya
t~
birana-hetu
4 adh,pah-phala
5. t'I!/lmyoga-pltala.
As to the meanmg, d pp, 30 II Samanantara-prat!layu

(= upasarpana-prat.'laya) IS sInulllr to the samal'ay,-kiirana of
the Yai~e<;Ikas. Alambana, cf. p 59, n. 1. Adhlpatt-pratyaya
and kiira1la-nelu are SImilar to the kara11a (= siidJUl!atamam
karallam) of the VaI~'e'nkas. Vlsam.'l0ga-pJlala IS nlrt'iina.
G.
THE
TWELVE
CONSECUTIVE
STAGES
IN
THE
REVOLVING LIFE-PROCESS
(4vasthlka or priikarfl~ka pratitya-san~utpiida)

I.
FORMER LIFE.
delUSion (callta-dharma, III, 1).

(= karma)
EVER-
APPENDIX II
TABLES OF ELEMENTS, VI, G
107
II. PRESENT LIFE
3. t.JJM7UI
4. 7!iima-rtipa
5. RtJr/-dyata7UI
6. Bpal'f6
7. vedanii
8.
e,,,,,1i
9 upadana
10. bhava
first moment of a new Ide. the moment of

conception (~ praIl1an'["'-~'117ti/ltl)
the five ,ktul!lI'aa m the embryo before the
formation of the SI'Dse.organs
the formation of the organs
organs and consciousness begin to co-operate
definite sensatIOns
awa.kenmg of the sexua.l mstmct. begmmng of
new karma.
va.f10us 1- lrBUlts In Ide.
Ide. Ie Va.1D'18 conscIous a.ctlvltles (- Laml"
bluZl'fJ)
III.
11 Jah
12 Jaramarana
FUTURE LIFB.
rebirth
new bfe. decay. and death
The five skandhas are present durmg the whole prl..l}ess, the
different stages recel,-e their names from the predoll'inant
dharma (d. p. 28, n. 3) The first two stages mdicate the orl~in
of the lIfe-process (du~kha-8amudaya).
In regard to a future hfe Nos 8 -10 perform the same
functIon as Xos. 1-2 m regard to the present lIfe. Therefore the serIes represent:; an ever revoh'mg "wheel ".
INDEX
.Abkulharma-lo~a,
PROPER NAMES
1.
1,20,60.
111168"'1.
Ablndharma-I',bhii'lii.-riistra, 2
AbludharIn18ts, 27
mona.~tery (Tl~ansbal1kl~~l
~Qvagho,a, 5
Aga
AJiVlka, 5, 21, 84, 87 .
"1'..
Asanga, 3.
".,'
Astrachan, 4
Bahu-dhiitula-,J, II.... '
.Hhadan~3~
IIfJ'Ii/fI'...ilr.G
,li, 711, 80
.Ar.a1l'./nndu-fika, 38, 69
~J:!ir
e'lka, 19, 6,'j
P
,69.
45,46
"l4iNJiIIrtIta-t;itnllafii,-8iltra, 85
~it!I,311
.lI'!i'!t'll, Bertrand, 53
flammltiya, 70
HRnghabhadra,91.
Ramyuktagama, 64, 85
Siinkh~a, 4, 12. 14, 16, 22, 27, 28,
,l7. b3, 64,68,69,80
SfwUya-lurtlrii. 16
l'It;nkl,ya-BlUra, 38
HdnJ..hva-Yoga, 4!J, 47, 51, 54, 67, 86
Harva-daI~ana-sangraha,
au,..",,,",,_ 3, 18, 19, Ii!

f'/rl'MtoaL....iinh-siitra, 37
laudapiida-k-ird:ii.,69
Gho~a, 46, 79
Hluen-Thll8ng, 43, 91.
Hume, 27.
.Tama, -18m, 34. 49, 51, 68, iO, 73
Kiif;lkii-(vrth), b9.
Ki<;YRpiya, 43
Kant, 19. 54, 101
Katkfl-vatthu, 38, 43
Kiitlla!opllnlhad, 118 Jf
KRa'(l,Q,-bhanga-811i1lk" 38
Kumiimliibha, II
LiLguqa<;'lkhiYllka, 8.1.
![idhyauuka,U7,69
Mahivira. 68
MrtM-Riil/UI01'ilrla-sillla, 61
Mclums-pa, 76. 99.
Mimimsaka, 63
NiigirJ,ma, Ci, 61
NalyiiYlka, 39
63
SIlIviistn.ida, -dm. 2, 5, 7, 24, 26, 31,
40.41,42,45,53,63,6;;,71, 7b, 77,
78, BI
Halltr;!ntJJ..a, II, 23, 24, 36, 40, 42, 63,
117,76ff
Hu<;,ruta, 29, 37
Thera-vada,5, 17.30
TlIIIguZ,3
llddyotakara, IR, 71
f7pamMld, bI, 69, 70, i2
"ii,ca~patl-(ml~ra), 27,4;;, 66
Val bha~lJ..a, bU, 7b ff
- - Kaymman, 63
V RI~e~IJ..R, bii. 67
YRI'MRganva, 89
Vasubandhu, th" old, 3
- - the great, ]. 2, 3, 23, 20, paS81m
Va~umltra, 46, 60, 79
V.ltsiputriva, 2';, 70, 71
\ IbhalYdviidm, 4:1, 711
l'lJ1;(jna-matra-Htrltlhi, 27
YIJliiina'ada, -dID, 24, 63, 05, 67
Vmita!le\'a, 24
V"jisa. 4~. 4Ci, 40, 47, pU88lm
YI1~omltrd, 2, 3, 5,21, pa.alln
Yoga, 44,,l5
INDEX
II.
SANSCRIT TERMS
abhldharma. 29. 31. 38, 39, 47. 50.

paS81111
abhJS8.!p.skaroh (cetani), 20
aku9&la.. liO, 102
aku9ala-mabi-bbumikadbarma. 100.
102.
atlQaya-adhana, 69 n.
atyiiha-avasthil. 104
adnta. 21, 31.
adVelja, lUI
adhlpatapratyaya, 106
adblpa.tlpha.la., 81, II>\)
adillmo~a, 101
adhitya-samutpiLda, 69 n
auhyavasiya, Hi
adhyatma.ayatana. 7, 61, 96
adbvan.42,43,45,98
anatyiiha.avastha, 104
a.na.patrapya, 102
. anitman, 25. 52,58, bb, 6t!, b9. 71, 72,
73
anilsro.vo., 49. 52, 95. 96, 98
arutyo., 25, 38
anltyo.til. 39. 106.
anlyata-bhiimlko..dharmo., 100, 103
anutpo.ttJ-dharma, 42, 51>.
anupaIlvo.rtana, 30.
anu"ayo.,3li
anna. 72.
anno.-vIge~a.. 30
ap.99.
apatro.p&, 101
apek3a.. 45
apek'!i,-parmiima, 7t!
apiirva, 31, 99
apratlsankh\ii.ll1rodha, lOb
aprati\,&, 102
apramii.do., 101
apriptl, 2:3, lOa
ariipa.l>hiltu, 10, 97
ariipmo dharmih, 15
alobho.,l01
avaco.la, ]0
av&sthii, 45, 47
avasthiiparmilma,78
aVl}llo.pta( .riipa), h, 7, 99
o.Vldyi, 29, 3:1, 35, 74, 95, 101, 103,
106. 107
avyilqta, 31, 32. 102
o.~raddhi, 101
&saJp.skrto., 6, 15, 40, 53, 83, 95, 106
asan}lllsamipattl, 23, 105
asato. utpido.h. 311, n. )
a.hl!p.si. 101
ikiQa. (empty spare). 106
(foodstuff), IS.
itman, 4. 25
109
iitma\iida, .dm, 2'>

ii\atana, 3, S ff, 7.!. 87 90 96
iipaq,72
' ,
iirambha\iida,6i 73
iir\a, 49, 95
;;'r~a.satya, 48, 9R
iilamhana, 1i, 59, 9;
iilarnbana.prat:,aya, WG
alaya'\"IJiHina., 6.3, IIi
alocana,63
~ &sthlka.pratihll.so.mutpiida, 106.j.
a~ra. I, 58, 59, u;
a.,rayo. 1tka, 59
~rlta., 4b
i~rlta3&tl..a, lit
isanJil.!ka, 105
iihril.. va, 102
mdrl}a. ]2, 17,33,6.3,1./1.97
irana, 13, 39, 99
ir~'i, 102
utkar~a, 22, 29, 69 n
utpatb, 10, 52
utpattldhllrma, 42, 48
utIJiida,39
udgro.hanll, 18
upo.kilr.. (.enIl8 sam.klira), 22, 69 n.
upakle9a.( paritta.. ).bhiiuukadharDla,
100, 102
upa( aya, :11. 33
uparaya'Ja, 33
upal'a ~ a~antiinll, 'j~
upan.iha, W:!
lIpalak.ana.40
lIpa~arpauapraty8ya,
lOb
lIpiitliiua, 10;
up.idana.~kandba,
4J, 4/1, 9.3, OS
upiidiiV8.riipa, 3b
upek~li, 101
.. uuiirlka,WI
auudhatvo., 102
kathii.vaRtll, 9t!.
kal'Ilna,106
karlDJt, I!J, 31, 3J if , 99. 100
kaJpo.llii, HI
kaJpaniipoclha, Ill, fib
kiima-J>lultu, 10, 97
ki.iya.m!lrl\ a, 1:J
kiiy" mdl'l)lliiyataull, %
kii~Il.(mdn)a.)dh.i.tu. !l7.
1..0.) 11..\ IJiiilna.Jhiitll. If), 9.
kii\lkll karma, 99
kiirana.bctu, 81, 106
kaut ..a, 26, 40, 42, 4b
kiila,42
ku~alo. mahii bhiimll..a.tlho.rma, 100,
101
krtaJ.a, 20, n 6
110
ka.u krtya, 103.

kausidya., 101
krlYii., 39, 41
krodha, 102
khllta, 20, 102.
kl~, 33, 35, 49, 103
kl~-mahi-bhiimlka-dh&l'Dla, 100, 101
kll&lla, -lka, -lka.tva, 37, 38, 41, 42, 45,
li6,74
gatl,39.
gandba-iivatana, 8, 96.
gandha-dhitu, 97
guna., 14,22
DlIll!-QJI1&1':ma. 100
,7.21.105
19.32, 100
~e~, 104
.oll!, 40, 100.
.11.,101
,39,100
105
,lbvii-mdr1va-ii.vo.tana, 8, 96
Jlhvi-(mdrlya.-)<Ihittu,97
Ilhvi-vIJiiiina-dbiitu, 10, 97,
]iva,25
JiVlta, 105
tattva, 27, n 3,28.
tan-mii.tra., 12.
tama~, 12
tittkii.hki gatJb, 41.
tnnii,107
tc>J&8,99
dubkha, 48 tJ. 98
duhkha-samudaya., 9~.
dntl-miirga, 51.
dnt1-lItmtJ,98.
dn>tl-heya, 10.l
dravya, 19,26, 4ii
dvara,8
dve~a. 103
dhammii., 3, 48
dharma., prelllnlooTY defimtlon, 6.
- - full ronnotatlon, 14, pas8tm

dharma = tattva, 27. n 2
dharma-iiyatana, 8, 15, 16, 96
dharmatii, 25, 00, 74, 82
dhalma-dharml-bhiva.27
dharma-dbiitu, 9, 59, 97,
dbanna-praVlcaya, 49. 101

dharma-mitram, 62.
dharma-lak'&I)a,42
dbarma-I!&nketa, 28.
dharma-svabhiiva, 42, 95
dharmiib, 8, 15, 16, 59. 78, 86, 96. 97.
dharmm. 27. 45
dhii.tu (tke 18), 3, 9, 14, 32, 33, 97.
Dhiitu (tie 3), 10, 97.
nii.ma. 7, 24
niima-kii.ya, 106
niima-riipa, 7, 107
mkii.ya-sabhiigatii., 24.
6iri,103
mtya,42
mdiina, 28, 32
Illmltta,18
Illrantara-utpida, 39, 60, n 2
mranvaya-vmiic;a, 38
mrodha, 3, 48, 95
mrodha-samipattl, 23, 105.
mrJiva (mJJivo). 27
mrvana, 7, 15.25,53,95
mrvl(ii.ra-mrvlkalpa-praJiiii., 10li
mYrta, 102
mvrta-avyii.lqta, 102
m~yanda, 34
ulI'vanda-phala, 81, lOG
uitii.rtha (Icchm (II 8en ~,,), 27, n :1
neyii.lthlL (jJ01J11lrIT BPnsr), 27, n 3
nalriitm~R, 25, 711,74
pan('IL-V1Iiiiina-kii.)lka, 103
paua, 24
pada-kiiva, 106
paramiirtha-sat, 41, li6
paraspara-upakii.ra, -m, 69 n
parlc chltt!, .11:1, 19
parmii.ma duhkha, 48
pannii.ma-vida, 47,63,73
paritta-bhiimlka, 103
paryeMal.a, 104
pudgala, 4, 9, 25, 71
pud~aIa-"iida, -dID, 25, 70
puru~a, 1/;, 63
puru~a-kii.ra-phaIa, 106
prthaktva, 31!
prthag-lanll,95
prtha/!:-dharma, 15
prthlvi (not a BUbstance), 27, (an
element), 99
palllil(ahka, 34
praliiaph, 23
praJiiii. 30, 33, 50, 95, 10l
praJiiii. amaIii., 35, 50, 51
praliiii IIniisrllvi, 50
praliiii-V1~eea, 104, 105
pratJklj8.na-parm8.ma, 44.
pratlbuddha, 51
prahmok~a, iiI.
INDEX
pratlyatna. 69
pratJvljiiaptl, 16, 51
pratlllAnkhyi-mrodha, 51,106.
pratleandhl-Vl]iiina., 107
pratumrllonllo ,65.
pratitya, 8, 55
~atitya-Ramutpida, 28, 29, 55, 10Q
pratyavekRaka, 105.
pradisa, 102
pramiida, 101.
pra~rabdhl, 101
prasankhyana, 5).
prasrabdhl, )01
pruk~lka-pratitya-samutpida, 106--7.
prana,72
praptl,26.
bii.hya-ayatana, 7, Ill, 96.
buddhanuQasani (= dharmatii), 25, 70
bodhlsattva, S3, 88
hrahma,41
bhava, 98.
bhava (-= karma bhava), 107
bhava, lIi. 79
hbiiva parmdma, 7R
bhdvanii. (= \ioana), 19
bhiivanii. hl'\a, 51, 103
bhuta, 28,30,36,37
bhautlka, 14,28,30,30,37,40
mati. 30. 50, 10l
mada.l02
mana . ndrlya iiyatana, 8, 96
rnanaq, 15, 65, 72, 78
manasl"iila, 10)
manoJalpa, 104, 105.
mano dhitu, 104. 105
mano-bhiiml1.a, 102
mano-vllii~\na-dhdtu, 9, 10, )7
mah~-bhuta, 12, 13,39,40
mah.i purn.a, 34
miitsarya. 102
mdna.103
m~\y.i,102
m.irp;a, 48, 96
mlddba.l03
moho., 101. 103.
mrak~a, 102
rdolJ.a,98
rasa-iyatana, 8, 96
rasa-dhatu, 97.
r.1ga, )03
rups, 6, 7, 11 ff, 98, 99
riipa iy&tana, 7, 8, 1b, 96
rupa-eltta-vlprayu1.tasaQlskiira, 22,
10;)
tupa-dharma, 12.98,99.
riipa-dhatu, 9, 97
rupa-Dhiitu, 10, 52, 91
riipa-prasiida.12,33,98,99
Jakeana, 20,30, 37,40,45,47, 106
hnga-~arira,
111
12
loka, 10.98
vaelka-karma. 99
vasan", 19,32.
vIkiira. 69 n
\lkalpa,56, 105
vlc.ira, 103, )(14, 105
\ lcIlutbii, Hl3
Vl]liaph, 12
vl]iiitna, 6, )5. 16, 18. 19. 63, 72, paBBtlll.
vIJiiiina (= pratJsandhl.vljiiiina), 107.
vltarka, 103, 104. 105.
vlpiika, 32, 33, 34.
vlpii1.a-]a, 33, 35
\lpiJ.a phala, 31, 81, 106.
\lpiiJ.d,-hetu, 31, 81, 106
VIl'itkP.-santitna, 34
vlprayukta. -amskitra., Iii
\ lruddba. dharma sallisarga, 38 n.
\lV<lIta voids, 67
\lqaY<l, 12, 17,59.97
\I"~m)oga. phala, lOb.
\lhml,d.l02.
\irya, 101.
ved<lnii. 6, IS, 100. 107.
vtdana-,J.andha., 6, 98.
v)<lnJa.na.,24.
,~anJana-"ii.ya, 106
\a"tJ,4.)
~ abda ayatana, 7, 96.
\abda dhitu, 97.
\Jthya, 102.
\.intdo,2;)
\ uddha-pratyaJ..,a, 56
\ f<lddha, 101
\rotra-mdnya.-iiya.tana, 97.
lrotrdo (mdrlya-)dhiiu, 10.97
lrotra \lJiiiilla-dhitu, 10,97.
'atka., 59
'<III .ivata.na, 107
~dd dhatuka 37.
'ldo,I-vIJiiiina-k.iyih, 17, 58.
holmYOjra, 40.
salJl&l..oira, 6, 7, 20, 21. 22, 23, 29, 39,
53. "9 11 , 106, pa8slm.
,ams1.iira-vIge,a, 33.
.amskara.-samilha, 5
~<lmskiira~amiiha8antiua. (-= Caltra),
23
Ramsk.ira &J.andha, 6, 18. 98.
'am~kfta-dharma, 22. 39, 40, 6q n,
83, 9S, 96.
bam,krtatva (= pratitya. samutpannatva).28
~amskrta-lakqanaDl, 39, 106.
samsthdna, 11
sa.nkle~<I.,.yavadd.na, 75
8anghita paramiinu, 14.
sanghita-viida, b7, 73
112
sarva, 5, 9, 95, 96
sarvatragahetu, 29, 36, 40, 106
sarvadi asb, 42
sahakiirm, 69 n
san!'etayatJ, 19
sanJiiii, 6, 17, 100
sanJiii.skandha, 6, 98
satkiLyadr~tJ,
50, 51. 66
lIat.kiiya.anugliha.dntl.samprayukta,
102
sat.kiryavada, 44, 47
Hattva, 12, 25.
sattvikhya, 32
satya, 48, 96
samQsaral,la, 98
santina, 9, 19,26,35,97, pa89lm
sapratlghatva, 11,99.
sabhiga.Ja, 33
sabhip;a..nl,yanda, 33, III
sabhigahetu, 31, 33, 81, 106
samanantara.pratyaya. 106
samidhl, 30, 101.
samidluvl\,e~, 33
samipattl, 10,52, lOS
samudaya, 41!
samprdJukta.hetu, 106
samprayoga, 30.31,36
sambhiiya.kiintv&, 20, n 3
Printed by
St8p"el~
sii.pt'k~ika,
27
siminya,24
~Iilambana, 17
sAriipya, 56, 57, 64
sisrava, 49, 97, 98
styana, 101
sthltJ, 39, 106
sparc;a. IS, 17, 55, 100, 107
spra'tavya.a.yatana, 8, 96
8pr~tavya.dhitu, 97
amm, 101
sphota,21
svapllavl<;'l'~a, 33.
8va.prakii~a, 54
svabhiiva,40
svabhiva, Ikalpa, 20;)
svalak"ana, 26, 41, 56
hadaya.vatthu, 18
hetu.pratyaya, 106
hri, 101
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PRIZB PUBLIOATION lUND

TH. STCHERBATSKY, PH.D.,

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY THE

ROYAL ASIA'l'IC SOCIE'['Y

74 GROSVENOR STREET, LONDON, W 1

STJ:PHJ!.N AUSTIN AND SON"! LTD

PRINTFR"I, III RTrORD

NON'BUBBl'ANTlALI'ry OF TIlE ELEMENTS

UNREST OF TIlE ELEMFlNTB

I Vasuhandhl1 on the flmclamental IlfIncrpll'

The central conception of Buddhism and the

1N a recent work Mrs. M. Geiger and Professor W. Geiger

THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION 01' BU'DD8l8Ji

Pali 8OUlCe8 is not so much one of time as of school. Nothing

other dJviuons mto dAcU", are mentioned in the .&llll-dlliitll__riIIw, cil.

THE CENTRAl, CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM

Transbalkaha, in the governments of Irkutsk and Astrachan,

The occasion upon whIch Buddha hImself is supposed to

THE CENTRAL CO!<lCEPTION OF BUDDHISM .'

The physical elements of a personahty, mcludmg its outer

A second, more detar1erl, classdicatIOn of the elements IS

I Rl'I: mt 'rnal b\ses (mf/lyillllll'

Colour and shape (rilpa.aya.

1 Among the phYSIcal clements there IS one c~lled aVIJiiaph whIch

a Or a shghtIy dlffermg fivefold dlvlSlon

THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM

3. Sense of smelling (ghriin-entlnya-

4. Sense of taste (Jlkv.endriya-

10. Taste (raBa-iil/alana).

5. Sense of touch (Uy-endrlya-

6. Faculty of the Intellect or consClousness (lIIana-lIulrtya-

12. Non-sensuous obJects (dllarmaayatana or dkarmcili).

In this claSSification the eleven first items correspond to

synonym is "everything" (8aroam). When the principle /

The dIvision of the elements of existence into eighteen

element of the body, can ha.rdly be doubted.

THE CENTRAL CON(,EPTION OF BUDDHISM

Veual consclousness (cak8u"''''Jiiiina.dhiit1l.).

Consciousness, whiCh 1S but one element (dharma), is split

Matter (TUpa) or the physical elements (rupMo dkarmiih),

THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM

IntImatIon of something (mJnaptt), IS an element (rilpa-dkarma)

36, Tibetan text, p 63, and Ya~ comment)

atomic, and is represented by five dIfferent kmds of atoms.

THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM

are brought under the" head of tangibles (iiyatana No. Il).

of a Buddhist element. ThIs deVice made It an easy task for

VI. ELEMENTS OF MIND

THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM

For this reason the term" elements" (dharmJih) is a sufficient

represent the next degree, a real sensatIon {8parfa).1 The

THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM

the system a "heart-stufi" (hadaya-vattku) which supports

the whole of the Nyaya-Valgeslka school 1 It now

THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM

human being. 1 A moment of this kUld of wI accompanies

foroes beoa.use they are slmIlar to the Will (cetana).

THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM

upakara-but simply as a condItion, a fact, upon which

seems to be that it is the subtle form of a substance,

mrma'Biid1IallG would be equal to 8cz1flBkrtadllarma. The mchvldual Ide,

THE CENTRAL CONCEPTION OF BUDDHISM

simultaneously some atoms of translucent sOlmd matter

NON-SUBSTANTIAUTY OF THE ELEMENTS