HOROMONES

A biomolecule (a molecule produced by living cells, e.g., a protein, carbohydrate,

lipid, or nucleic acid) released by a cell or gland that transfers information
and instructions from one group of cells to another.
Hormones: a chemical transmitter substance produced by cells of the body
and transported by the bloodstream to the cells and organs on which it
has a specific regulatory effect.
Hormones are produced by various organs and body tissues, but mainly by
the endocrine glands, such as the pituitary, thyroid, and gonads (testes
and ovaries).
Each gland apparently synthesizes several kinds of hormones; the adrenal glands
alone produce more than 25 varieties. The total number of hormones is still
unknown, but each has its unique function and its own chemical formula.
After a hormone is discharged by its parent gland into the capillaries or the lymph, it
may travel a circuitous path through the bloodstream to exert influence on cells,
tissues, and organs (target organs) far removed from its site of origin.
The endocrine system controls body activities by releasing mediator molecules
called hormones. Hormones released into the bloodstream travel throughout the
body Results may take hours, but last longer.
Hormones act as chemical messengers to body organs, stimulating certain life
processes and retarding others. Hormones have powerful effects when present in
very low concentrations. General functions of hormones: Help regulate:
Metabolism and tissue maturation, Ion regulation, Water balance, Immune system
regulation, Heart rate and blood pressure regulation, Control of blood glucose and
other nutrients, Control of reproductive functions, Uterine contractions and milk
release.
Most hormones circulate in the blood, coming into contact with essentially all cells.
However, a given hormone usually affects only a limited number of cells, which are
called target cells. A target cell responds to a hormone because it bears receptors
for the hormone.
Hormones control the rates of many activities in the body. The rate at which each
hormone is secreted is controlled by a negative feedback mechanism
Negative feedback mechanism: Many molecular and physiological processes are
controlled by feedback mechanisms. Endocrine hormone synthesis and secretion is
controlled and regulated by a closed-loop system. Negative feedback loops maintain
optimal levels of each hormone in the body. If there are abnormally high levels of a
hormone in the blood, feedback to the gland responsible for its production inhibits

secretion. If there are abnormally low levels, the gland is stimulated to step up
production and secretion. In this way a homeostatic balance is maintained.

Major endocrine glands

Chemical Structure of Hormones/Types of hormones

Peptides & Proteins: Most hormones are either peptides or proteins and are
usually referred to as peptide hormones. (Receptor in/on cell surface so they are
secondary messenger inside the cell)
Thyrosine derivatives: they are amino acids, Amine hormones are derivatives of
the amino acid tyrosine. Some times they act as Peptides & Proteins or Steroids
Steroids: Made from Lipids (cholesterols) having backbone of steroid (receptor in
cell so primary messanger) Steroid hormones are produced by the adrenal cortex
and the gonads.
Hormone Receptors: Hormones travel via the bloodstream to target cells; they
affect only specific target cells. Target cells have specific protein or glycoprotein
receptors to which hormones bind. Synthetic hormones that block the receptors for
particular naturally occurring hormones are available as drugs.
A cell is a target because it has a specific receptor for the hormone

Most hormones circulate in the blood, coming into contact with essentially all cells.
However, a given hormone usually affects only a limited number of cells, which are
called target cells. A target cell responds to a hormone because it bears
receptors for the hormone.
Some receptors are located in the target cell. They are located either in the
cytoplasm or in the nucleus of the target cell. Once the hormone binds to the
receptor, the effects of the hormone take place.
According to their origin, hormones are divided into three groups,
1. Posterior pituitary hormones & related substances
2. Anterior pituitary hormones
3. Hypothalamic hormones
1. Posterior pituitary hormones & related substances
Pituitary gland is responsible for secreting nine hormones. Pituitary hormones
divided into a posterior and anterior portion.
Posterior pituitary is also known as the neurohypophysis, because it is continuous
with the brain.
Posterior pituitary stores and secretes two polypeptide hormones: Antidiuretic
hormone (ADH), Oxytocin
ADH is synthesized in the hypothalamus and transported to the posterior pituitary.
ADH is then released into the circulatory system and carried to the primary target
tissue in the kidney.
ADH promotes water retention and reduces urine volume.
2. Anterior pituitary hormones
Anterior pituitary is also known as the adenohypophysis, because it acts more as a
gland. Anterior pituitary hormones are called tropic hormones.
The hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary are connected to each other via blood
vessels.
The anterior pituitary produces six peptide hormones: prolactin, growth hormone
(GH), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH).
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): TSH is also known as thyrotropin.
TSH Stimulates the synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones from the thyroid
gland.

TSH secretion is controlled by TRH from the hypothalamus.

Thyroid hormones exist in two forms: Triiodothyronine (T3), Tetraiodothyronine
(T4) (also called thyroxine), Approx. 90% T4 and 10% T3 secreted.
Thyroid hormones are transported in the blood in combination with plasma proteins.
Approx. 70-75% of T3 & T4 are bound to thyroxin-binding globulin (TBG). 20-30%
are bound to other plasma proteins. Therefore, high half-life.
3. Hypothalamic hormones
Hypothalamus regulates the pituitary glands secretions.
Hypothalamus produces neurohormones that travel to the anterior pituitary via the
blood. Neurohormones then leave the blood and act on the cells in the anterior
pituitary.
The hypothalamic hormones either promote or inhibit release of the anterior
pituitary hormones.
The hypothalamus is the major regulatory area for the internal environment, acting
as an interface between the two control systems, the nervous system and the
endocrine system. As well as controlling the activities of the autonomic nervous
system.
It produces a large number of Releasing hormones involved directly or indirectly in:
Maintenance of homeostasis
Management of stress, i.e. disturbance of Homeostasis
Determination of the size, shape and sexual characteristics of the body
morphogenesis.
Eg. Corticoliberin, follitropin, gonadorelin etc.
II. Sex Hormones & Analogs
Hypothalamus and pituitary glands regulate sex hormones. Drugs that are used to
increase levels of female and male sex hormones or block their release or action
Most sex hormones & several analogs as well as adrenocortical hormones are
steroids. They are divided into five classes.
a) Androgens b) estrogen c) progestins d) contraceptive agents e) chorionic
hormones

Androgens: a male sex hormone, such as testosterone (a steroid hormone that

stimulates development of male secondary sexual characteristics, produced mainly
in the testes, but also in the ovaries and adrenal cortex).
Estrogen: any of a group of steroid hormones which promote the development and
maintenance of female characteristics of the body. Such hormones are also
produced artificially for use in oral contraceptives or to treat menopausal and
menstrual disorder.
Progestins: a natural or synthetic steroid hormone, such as progesterone, that
maintains pregnancy and prevents further ovulation during pregnancy.
Contraceptive agents: a drug helping to prevent/stop pregnancy.
Chorionic hormones: a chemical substance produced in the body which has a
specific regulatory effect on the activity of certain cells or a certain organ
Various forms of sex hormones and sex hormone antagonists (chemicals that block
the release or action of hormones) are used to treat disorders in which there are
abnormally high or low levels of sex hormones in the body.
Drugs that are used to increase levels of female and male sex hormones or block
their release or action
III. Adrenocortical hormones & analogs
Adrenocortical hormones & analogs are also steroids. They are substances
synthesized from cholesterol by the adrenal cortex also called suprarenal cortex,
whose activity is largely controlled by Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH) (which helps to
reduce stress, maintain healthy blood pressure and more) released by the anterior
pituitary.
They use several physiological functions associated with the cardiovascular system
& blood, the CNS, intermediate metabolism, stress etc.
Eg. Fludro cortisone acetate.
Effects of Aging/Age

What happens to the endocrine system when we get old?

Some experience a gradual decrease in secretion while others are not
affected to a great degree.
There is a decrease in growth hormone (GH).
Decrease is greater in people who do not exercise.
Decreases in GH may explain a gradual decrease in lean-body mass in these
people.
Melatonin decreases in aging people.
May influence sleeping patterns.

May also affect the patterns of other hormones like GH and testosterone.
Thyroid hormons- Decreases slightly with increasing age.
Age-related damage to the thyroid gland may also occur
There does not appear to be a age-related decrease in the ability to maintain
blood glucose levels.
However, there is an age-related tendency to develop Type II diabetes.