Research Methodlogy

Course:
Research Methodology
( MGT 602)
Instructor
Ayyaz Mahmood
Assistant Professor at CIIT
BS,MBA,MS, PhD(thesis under evaluation)
12 years of teaching at University and 9 years of
Industry experience.
Supervised a number of MBA and MS thesis.
Published papers and attended conferences.
Introduction
Overview of the course :
Business research is an organized and deliberate
process through which organization effectively learn
new knowledge and help improve performance.
Introduction
Objectives of the course :
To understand and develop a systematic
approach to business research
To emphasis on the relationship between
theory , research and practice
To Integrate different research activities in an
orderly fashion
Outcomes of the course are :

To formulate research questions
Develop theoretical framework
Develop hypotheses
Learn to select from different research
methodologies
Develop skills for data analysis and
interpretation.
COURSE OUTLINE:
Course Intro Building blocks of science in research [1]
Broad problem area , Preliminary Information Survey [ 2]
Literature Review [2]
Literature Review[2]
Theoretical Framework [3]
Theoretical Framework[3]
Hypothesis Development [3]
Hypothesis Development[3]
Elements of Research Design (purpose, investigation type, researcher interference, study setting)[4]
Elements of Research Design (unit of analysis, time horizon, Measurement of variables) [4,6]
Measurement of variables (operational definition) [6]
Measurement of Variable (Scales) [6]
Validity and Reliability [6]
Data Collection Methods (Interviews , Questionnaire) [7]
Data Collection Methods (Questionnaire, observation) [7]
Sampling (Probability Sampling) [8]
Sampling (Non Probability Sampling) [8]
Experimental Design [5]
Refresher on Statistical Terms [9]
Introduction to SPSS
Introduction to SPSS
Data Analysis and Interpretation ( Getting data ready for analysis) [10]
Data Analysis and Interpretation (Feel for Data, Testing the goodness of Data) [10]
Data Analysis and Interpretation (Descriptive Statistics)[10]
Data Analysis and Interpretation (Inferential Statistics( Person Correlation, Hypothesis Testing t-test, ANOVA, Chi Square)[10]
Data Analysis and Interpretation (Inferential Statistics( Hypothesis Testing, Multiple Regression) [10]
Data Analysis and Interpretation (Inferential Statistics( Mediation, Moderation, Rank) (Hand out)
Research Report contents (Sample report)
Business Research Scenarios

A. A manager observes that the customers are not pleased
Are my customers satisfied from my product/service ?
B. It is observed that hydro construction project projects
tend to have a low successes rate.
What could be reasons behind it. ?
C. The new product introduced is not doing so well.
Have we selected the right market, features or price ?
For all the above scenarios management needs to find
reliable and creditable information to understand the issue
and then take appropriate decisions in order to achieve
performance
Information
Reduces
Uncertainty
I dont know
if we
should
reduce our
product prices?
Define Business Research

Business research is defined as the systematic and
objective process of gathering, recording and
analyzing data for aid in making business decisions.
Research information is neither intuitive nor
haphazardly gathered.
Literally, research (re-search) -search again
Business research must be objective
Detached and impersonal rather than biased
It facilitates the managerial decision process for all
aspects of a business
Research Methods
Is the way in which research studies are
designs
procedures
by which data is collected are analyzed.
We would be focusing on the survey methodology
in which the research is conducted by collecting
data and analyzing them to come up with answers
to various issues of interest.
The different areas of problem could be related to
Finance, Accounting, HR, Marketing etc.
Types of Research
Two purpose of research are
To solve a currently exiting problem in the work
setting
(Applied Research )
To add to the general body of knowledge
(Basic Research)
Applied research is when research is done with the

intention of applying the results of its findings to
solving specific problem currently being experienced
in the organization
e.g.
To improve the attendance at an X organization
A transport service can be introduced, Has
flextime improve the employee performance at a
university)
Basic research done mainly to improve our

understanding of certain problems that are
commonly occur in organizational setting and how to
solve them
e.g.
increase the productivity of clerical workers in
service industry,
increase the effectiveness of project oriented
business
Research Philosophy and Choices
Important assumptions about the way in which one

views the world.
These assumptions effect the research strategy and
the methods you choose and practical
considerations.
Researcher concerned with facts, such as the
resources needed for manufacturing will have
different view on the way research
Researcher concerned with the feelings and attitudes

of the workers towards their managers in that same
manufacturing process.
Their strategies and methods probably will differ
considerably and what is important and significant
Philosophy of Choices
Deductive
Develop a theory and hypothesis (or hypotheses)
and design a research strategy to test the
hypothesis
Inductive
Collect data and develop theory as a result of your
data analysis
Characteristics of Good Research

Purposive: Definite aim (Help reduce turnover,
absenteeism, complete projects on time )
Rigor: Sound methodological design, systematic and
scientific. Avoid individual biases. (Manager
interviews few employee on their preference for flexi
time and device policy)
Testability: After properly selecting the
cases/respondents and collection of data logically
developed hypothesis statements can be tested
using statistical tests.
Replicability: Applying the same method the finding

from more than one study suggest the same results.
Precision and Confidence: Study of the whole
universe of item, events or population of interest is
not possible. But we try to come close to reality as
possible (precision)and also be confident of our
findings that they are correct (confidence).
Objectivity: The interpretation of the results should
be based on facts, not on our own subjective feeling
Generalizability: Applicability of the finding on a

variety of firms/organization
Parsimony: Simplicity in explaining the phenomena is
preferred, rather than managing many factors and
their effect (45% variability is explained by 4
variables and 48% variability is explained by 10
variables)
Management and Behavioral science result are not
100% scientific or exact. We deal with measuring
subjective feelings , attitudes, perceptions. Meeting
all the characteristics of good research is difficult
Hypothetic-Deductive Method of Research

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Observation
Preliminary Information gathering
Theory formulation
Hypothesizing
Further data collection
Data Analysis
Deduction
Observation
One senses certain changes are occurring
New behaviors are surfacing in an environment
When one considers the situation important then
move to the next step
E.g. Customers are not pleased as they used to be.
Are customers at the store are grumbling or
complaining.
Preliminary Information Gathering

Know more about what has been observed
Talk to more people about it( other employees,
customers)
Know what is happening is happening and why.
E.g. Talk to customers if they are happy with the
product or service. The customer might be happy
with the products but the problem is that the
required products are out of stock and sales
person are not helpful. The salesman input on this
issues reveals that the factory does not deliver on
time so in order to satisfy the customer the
salesmen communicates different delivery dates.
Hypothesizing
Some testable or educated supposition are made
E.g.
If sufficient inventory is made customers would
be less dissatisfied customers
Accurate and timely information of the delivery to
the sales person can also reduce the dissatisfied
customer.
Further Scientific Data Collection

Data with respect to each variable in the hypothesis
need to be obtained.
E.g.
Measure the current level of customer satisfaction
and measure the satisfaction level when the stocks
are made readily available.
Measure the current level of accuracy of
information to sales person on the stock and the
satisfaction level of customer and then measure
them again once the level of information has
increased.
Data Analysis
Data gathered statistically is analyzed and see if the
hypothesis have been supported or not.
E.g.
Do an correlation analysis of the tow factors
like level of information and satisfaction.
Deduction
Arriving at a conclusion by interpreting the meaning
of the results of the data analysis.
E.g.
If the customer satisfaction has increase by certain
amount when the availability of information and
the stock.
We could recommend that these two factors
influence the satisfaction of the customers
Recap lecture
We tried to examine what research is?

Research Philosophies and choices
We considered the two types of research
Hall Marks of Research (Purposive, rigor, testable, replicabilty,
precision and confidence, objectivity , genralizability and parsimony)
The seven steps of hypothetic deductive research

method
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Observation
Preliminary Information gathering
Theory formulation
Hypothesizing
Further data collection
Data Analysis
Deduction
Lecture No : 4
(Theoretical Framework)
Recap
Literature Review involves searching and
documenting
There are different formats of Documenting
(APA)
There is a structure of review (importance,
objectives, definitions, relationships identified,
gaps)
Theoretical framework is representation of your
belief on how variables related and why
Variables are of 4 different kinds
Theoretical Framework
After conducting literature review, survey and
defining the problem (research questions)
We develop our theoretical framework
Theoretical framework is a conceptual model of how
we theorarize the relationships among several
factors that have been identified to the problem.
Problem is depleting sales
Factors influencing are quality of products, price,
competition etc ( based on the literature)
Based on the previous literature we discuss the

interrelationship between the different variables
which are of interest to us and concerns the
problem.
By developing this kind of conceptual framework
would help us claim and test certain relationships.
i.e. From this framework we develop hypothesis
statements which are then tested to find out if our
theory was valid or not
Quality
Price
Competition
Sales
Types of Variables
Dependent
(Criterion Variable)
primary interest
Describe or explain the variability or predict it.
We study what variables influence dependent
variable
So by studying these we might able to find a
solution of the problem
E.g. Sales are low , employee loyalty is
dropping
Independent
(Predictor variable)
Which influences the dependent variable
The influence might be positive or negative
When independent variable is present the
dependent variable is also present.
With each unit of increase in independent
variable there is an increase or decrease in
the dependent variable
E.g. Advertising on sales, recognition on
loyalty
Exercise : List the independent variable

A manager believes that good supervision and
training would increase the production level of
the workers.
Moderating Variables
Moderating Variables have strong contingent
(conditional) effect on the independent dependent
variables relationship.
i.e. in the presences of the a third variable the
relationship between the independent and
dependent is modified
Distinction between Independent and

Moderating Variable
Some times one gets confused as to when a variable

is to be treated as independent variable and when it
becomes a moderating variable
Situation A
Quality of
Training
Programs
Growth
Need of
employee
Willingness to
learn new ways
Situation B
Willingness
to learn
new ways
Quality of
Training Prog
High/Low
Growth
Need
Both the scenarios have 3 variables

First scenario training programs and growth
needs are independent variables that
influence the dependent variable
Second scenario dependent variable stays the
same growth need becomes the moderating
variables
i.e. only those who have high growth need will

become more willing to learn new things
when quality of the trainings is increased.
Hence the relationship between dependent
and independent variable become contingent
(conditional) on the existence of the
moderator.
The linear effect of training and growth need on

willingness
The effect of training is contingent on high/low growth

need (slope/intensity)
Mediating/Intervening
A variable which surfaces between the time the
independent variable operates to influence the
dependent variable.
Temporal /sequential quality
Surfaces as a function of the independent variable
Exam diff
Exam
Performance
Exam
Difficulty
Stress
Exam
Performance
Workforce
Diversity
Organization
Effectiveness
Integrating Moderating, Mediating Variables
Is a conceptual model
Foundation of the research
Logically developed, described and elaborated
network of association as a result of interviews,
observation and literature survey.
So we identify a problem
Identify the important variables from literature etc.
Logically developing network of associations and elaborate
Generate hypotheses and later tested
Components of Theoretical Framework

Identification of variables ( name and type)
Discussion how and why these variables are related
Direction of the relationship need to be theorized
and discussed (positive/negative)
Discussion on why these relationships exists, support
from previous research.
A schematic diagram
Note: Must read example on page 93
Recap
Types of Variables
Independent, Dependent, Moderating, Mediating(
Intervening)
Examples of their relationships with each

other
Developing of Theoretical Framework
Variables, logical Relationships, Directions,
Explanations
Lecture No : 8
(Research Design-continue)
Recap
We covered some of the research design elements
We talked about the research purpose
(exploratory, descriptive, hypothesis testing)
Type of investigation
(causal, correlations)
Extent of researcher's interference

(High,moderate,low)
Study Setting: Contrived and Non-contrived

Organizational research can be done in the natural
environment where work proceeds normally (i.e., in
non-contrived setting) or in artificial, contrived
settings.
Correlation studies are invariably conducted in noncontrived settings, whereas rigorous causal studies
are done in contrived lab setting
Correlation studies done in organizations are called

field studies
( factors influencing in a call center its employees
turn over ).
Studies to establish cause and effect relationships

using the same natural environment in which
employees normally function are called field
experiments
Example:
employees who have been given recognition and
employee who have not been given recognition.
Cause effect studies in contrived environment in

which The environment extraneous factors are
controlled are termed as lab experiments.
Example:
Select all new employees with the same scores in the
entry test and provide one group training and the
other no training and controlling that they are not
exposed to any senior employee who could guide
them.)
Unit of Analysis: Individuals, Dyads, Groups,

Organizations, Cultures
The unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation
of the data collected during the subsequent data
analysis stages.
Individuals: If the problem statement focuses on how

to raise the motivational levels of employees in
general, then we are interested in individual
employees in the organization and would like to find
out what we can do to raise their motivation.
Here the unit of analysis is the individual.(managers

perception on the factors which influence the
success of the project)
Dyads: If the researcher is interested in studying twoperson interactions, then several two-person groups,
is known as dyads and will become unit of analysis.
For example, analysis of husband-wife(are they

satisfied with the education provided by the school)
in families and mentor-mentee (perception on the
benefit of mentoring).
Groups: If the problem statement is related to group

effectiveness, however, then obviously the unit of
analysis would be at group level.
For example, if we wish to study group decisionmaking patterns, we would probably examining such
aspects as group size, group structure, cohesiveness,
and the like, in trying to explain the variance in group
decision making.
In such cases the unit of analysis will be groups.(use
of I.T by the different department)
Organizations: If we compare different departments

in the organization, then the data analysis will be
done at the departmental level - that is, the
individuals in the department will be treated as one
unit and comparison made treating the department
as the unit of analysis.
(Conservation of energy initiatives by public and
private organization)
Cultures: If we want to study cultural differences

among nations, we will have to collect data from
different countries and study the underlying patterns
of culture in each country, here the unit of analysis
used will be cultures.
(Moral values of Eastern vs Western cultures)
Time Horizon: Cross-sectional versus Longitudinal

Cross-Sectional Studies
A study can be done in which data are gathered just
once, perhaps over a period of days or weeks or
months, in order to answer a research question. Such
studies are called one-shot or cross-sectional studies.
(data collected from project managers and their
psychological well being between October till
December)
Longitudinal Studies
In some cases, the researcher might want to
study people or phenomena at more than one
point in time in order to answer the research
question. For example, the researcher might
want to study employees behavior before and
after a change in the top management, to
learn the effects of change.
Or when data on the dependent variable are

gathered at two or more points in time to answer the
research question, are called longitudinal studies.
(use of electricity by a city in summers and then in
winters)
Scenarios
Following are some scenarios , for each indicate how
researcher should proceed, giving reasons:
1. Purpose of the study
2. Type of investigation
3. Researcher Interference
4. Study setting
5. Time Horizon
6. Unit of analysis
Recap
Research Design elements
Study setting
Time Horizon
Unit of analysis
Secnarios
Lecture No : 9
(Measurement of Variables/Operational Definition)
Recap
Research Design elements
Study setting
Time Horizon
Unit of analysis
Measurement of Variables
In order to find answers to our question and in order
to test our hypothesis we need measure our
variables of concern.
Why the need for measuring

To test the hypothesis the variables need to
measured.
Finding the answers to our questions is possible
when we have some statistics/ numbers .
Some variables are easily measurable e.g. Height,
salary, hours worked.
Some are not so easily measured motivation level,
success level of projects, satisfaction, loyalty etc.
Questions like
1. How long have you been working in this
organization?
2. What is your marital status ?
3. How much is your salary ?
4. What was the cost of last project ?
But some variables are abstract and subjective e.g.
satisfaction, happiness, achievement motivation,
effectiveness of the organization.
5
One cannot simply ask what is the achievement

motivation level of your employees.
But before we start measuring the variables its
abstractness needs to be addressed.
There are ways to in which the abstractness of the
notion could be simplified into observable
characteristics.
6
For instance Thirst cannot be seen but we expect

that a thirsty person would consume lots of liquid.
Hence the behavior of the thirsty person is that he
would drink fluids.
If several individuals say they are thirsty we can
measure thirst by measuring their consumption of
liquid, although the concept itself is abstract.
7
Reducing abstract concepts so they are measurable is

called operationalizing.
Operationally defining a concept so that it becomes
measurable is achieved by looking at the behavioral
dimensions, facets , or properties represent by the
concept.
Steps to Operationalization
one needs the define component of the
concept.
Under each concept possible quantitative
measurable elements need to identified.
Against each developed concepts specific
questions could be formulated. The questions
could be supported by secondary data,
observation or self report
9
Operational Definition
10
The operational definition of Learning could be

stated as The ability to recall the lesson, it is also
the ability apply the lesson learned to practical
situation and finally it is the understanding of a
lesson.
Even though these dimension have to an extent
reduced some of the ambiguity but we still need to
further classify what is meant by understanding,
application so that we can measure learning as a
whole.
11
With some effort we can define what is meant by

understanding , i.e. the ability to answer questions
correctly and give appropriate answers. We also
define what is application, which is the ability to
solve problem by applying the lesson learned and
integrate it with other relevant material.
Now we are in better position to measure the
concept learning.
At this stage we can develop questions which
address the synthesized concepts and obtain data
on them.
12
13
14
15
16
17
What is not operational definition

It does not define the correlates of a concept
i.e. motivation and performance are two separate
concepts and they might be correlated we cannot
substitute one with the other
Motivation can lead to performance but we do not
measure performance by motivation.
We need to differentiate between the reasons
(factors/antecedents) with dimensions.
Dimensions are the sub components of a concept
and factors/ antecedents the causes of the concept
18
We operationally define concepts and ask questions

that are likely to measure the concept.
So for abstract concepts we need to define the
subjective feelings and attitudes.
For straight forward variables , objective data is used
such as salary, number of tee shirts.
A number of subjective concepts have been
opertionalized by the subject experts and we can use
them for research.
19
Recap
Measurement is necessary to give answers or to the
research question , or to test our hypotheses.
The opeationalizing of certain subjective variables
are necessary for measurement.
The abstract concepts are broken down to
dimensions and its elements.
Questions are formulated on them
Not to confuse dimensions with antecedents
20
Lecture No : 10
(Measurement of Variables/Scales)
Recap
Measurement is necessary to give answers or to the
research question , or to test our hypotheses.
The opeationalizing of certain subjective variables
are necessary for measurement.
The abstract concepts are broken down to
dimensions and its elements.
Questions are formulated on them
Not to confuse dimensions with antecedents
Scales and Measurement

We have operationalized the concepts and converted
them into dimensions and elements
We also have attached questions with these
elements against which we would collect some data.
Each question needs to measured
Measurement is the process of assigning numbers or

labels to objects, persons, states of nature, or events.
Done according to set of rules that reflect qualities or
quantities of what is being measured.
Measurement means that scales are used.

Scales are a set of symbols or numbers, assigned by
rule to individuals, their behaviors, or attributes
associated with them
Types of Scales
Four types of scales are used in research, each with
specific applications and properties. The scales are
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
Nominal Scale:
Simply the Nominal scale is count of the objects
belonging to different categories.
Ordinal Scale:
The ordinal scale positions objects in some order
( such as it indicates that pineapples are juicer then
apples and oranges are even more juicer than
pineapples)
7
Interval Scale:
It can gives us information as to what extent(level)
one is juicer than the other.
How much better is the pineapple than the apple
and orange is better than the pine apple.
Is pine apple only marginally better than the apple .
Ratio Scale:
It is most comprehensive scale, has all characteristics
of other scales.
Nominal Scales
Nominal scales are used to classify objects,
individuals, groups, or even phenomena.
Examples of nominal variables:
Gender
State of residence
Country
Ethnicity
Nominal scales are mutually exclusive

(meaning that those items being classified will fit
into one classification).
These scales are also collectively exhaustive,
(meaning that every element being classified can fit
into the scale).
10
As it might appear on a questionnaire, examples of

nominally scaled questions included:
What is your class rank at CIIT?
1.Freshman 3. Junior
2.Sophomore 4. Senior
11
The numbers themselves do not have meaning

(we could have used letters, too),
They are used just to identify the possible
responses to the question.
Thus, in evaluating responses to this you cannot
use the mean.
Permitted statistics; frequencies (% and counts,
modes )
12
Nominal scale is always used for obtaining personal

data such as gender or department in which one
works, where grouping of individuals or objects is
useful, as shown below.
1. Your gender
___Male
___Female
2. Your department
___Production
___Sales
___Accounting
___Finance
___Personnel
___R & D
___Other (specify)
13
Ordinal Scales
These scales allow for labeling (or categorization) as
in nominal scales, but they also allow for ranking.
Example: Rate these vacation destinations in terms
of how much you would like to visit from one to five
with one your most preferred and five your least
preferred.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Bermuda
Florida
Hawaii
Aspen
London
14
This type of scale can provide information about

some item having more or less of an attribute than
others, but no information on the degree of this.
Permitted statistics: Frequencies, median, mode
15
Ordinal scale is used to rank the preferences or usage

of various brands of a product by the individuals and
to ranks order individuals, objects, or events as per
the examples below.
16
Rank the following personnel computers with respect

their usage in your office, assigning the number 1 to
the most used system, 2 to the next most used, and
so on. If a particular system is not used at all, in your
office, put a 0 next to it.
____Apple
____Compaq
____Comp USA
____Dell Computer
____Gateway
____Hewlett Packard
____IBM
____Packard Bell
____Sony
____Toshiba
17
Interval Scales
Contains the information available in ordinal scales
(ranking) but with the added benefit of magnitude of
ranking.
Interval scales have equal distances between the
points of a scale.
These scales can contain a zero point, but they are
subjective and are not meaningful (0 C = 32 F).
Temperature is an example of a interval scale
Permitted statistics; mean, median, mode, as well as
more advanced tests.
18
On a scale of one to five, with five meaning you strongly

agree, and one meaning you strongly disagree consider this
statement I believe my college education has prepared me
well to begin my career.
1
Strongly
disagree
18/5/2015
Somewh
at
disagree
Neither
Somewhat
agree
Strongly
agree
19
Ratio Scale
The most comprehensive scale
Has all of the characteristics of the other three with
the additional benefit of an absolute, meaningful
zero point.
Examples include:
Weight
Sales volume
Income
Age
Permitted statistics same as with interval data.
20
A ratio variable, has all the properties of an interval

variable, and also has a clear definition of 0.0. When
the variable equals 0.0, there is none of that variable.
Variables like height, weight, enzyme activity are
ratio variables.
21
Temperature, expressed in F or C, is not a ratio

variable. A temperature of 0.0 on either of those
scales does not mean 'no temperature'.
However, temperature in Kelvin is a ratio variable, as
0.0 Kelvin really does mean 'no temperature'.
22
Ratio scales are usually used in organization

research when exact numbers on objective as
opposed to subjective factors are called for, as in
the following question:
How many other organizations did you work for
before Date joining this system?
18/5/2015
23
Please indicate the number of children you have in

each of the following categories?
---- below 3 years
---- between 3 and 6
---- over 6 years but under 12
---- 12 years and over
How many retail outlets do you operate?
24
Comparison between scales

The researcher would like to know what is the
percentage of people who like Pepsi, 7up, Coke,
Miranda?
Choose the soft Drink you want to order.
Pepsi
7Up
Coke
Marinda
25
The researcher would like to know among the 4 soft

dinks which they prefer the most ,assigning 1 to most
and 4 to the least
Pepsi
7Up
Coke
Marinda
26
The researcher would like to know what extent the 4

drinks are liked
On a scale of one to five, with five meaning you
strongly like, and one meaning you strongly dislike
consider this statement I like/dislike this soft drink .
Pepsi
1 2 3 4 5
Coke
1 2 3 4 5
7up
1 2 3 4 5
Marinda 1 2 3 4 5
27
The researcher would like to know how many

Pepsi , Mrindia , etc you consume in a month
Pepsi: _____
7Up:
_____
Coke:
_____
Marinda:_____
28
29
Balanced or Unbalanced
How good a car is Honda?
Very bad
Bad
Neither good nor bad
Good
Very good
Poor
Fair
Good
Very good
Excellent
30
Forced or Unforced Choices

How good a car is Honda?
Very bad
Bad
Good
Very good
Very bad
Bad
Good
Very good
No opinion
Dont know
31
Rating Scales
32
Simple Category (Dichotomous) Scale
I plan to purchase a laptop in the 12 months.

Yes
No
33
Multiple-Choice, Single Response Scale
What newspaper do you read most often for financial news?

East City Gazette
West City Tribune
Regional newspaper
National newspaper
Other (specify:_____________)
34
Multiple-Choice, Multiple Response Scale
What sources did you use when designing your new home?
Please check all that apply.
Online planning services
Magazines
Independent contractor/builder
Designer
Architect
Other (specify:_____________)
35
Likert Scale
The Internet is superior to traditional libraries for

comprehensive searches.
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
36
Semantic Differential
A measure of attitudes that consists of a series of seven-point rating

scales that use bipolar adjectives to anchor the beginning and end of
each scale.
37
Numerical Scale
An attitude rating scale similar to a semantic differential except that it uses

numbers, instead of verbal descriptions, as response options to identify
response positions.
38
Stapel Scales
A measure of attitudes that consists of a single adjective in the center of

an even number of numerical values.
39
Constant-Sum Scales
A measure of attitudes in which respondents are asked to divide a constant

sum to indicate the relative importance of attributes; respondents often sort
cards, but the task may also be a rating task.
40
Graphic Rating Scales
A measure of attitude that allows respondents to rate an object by choosing any

point along a graphic continuum.
41
Lecture No : 11
(Goodness Of Measures)
Recap
Measurement is the process of assigning numbers or
labels to objects, persons, states of nature, or events.
Scales are a set of symbols or numbers, assigned by
rule to individuals, their behaviors, or attributes
associated with them
Using these scales we complete the development of

our instrument.
It is to bee seen if these instruments accurately and
measure the concept.
Sources of Measurement Differences

Why do scores vary? Among the reasons legitimate
differences, are differences due to error (systematic or
random)
1. That there is a true difference in what is being
measured.
2. That there are differences in stable characteristics of
individual respondents
On satisfaction measures, there are systematic
differences in response based on the age of the
respondent.
18/5/2015
3.Differences due to short term personal factors mood

swings, fatigue, time constraints, or other transistory
factors.
Example telephone survey of same person, difference
may be due to these factors (tired versus refreshed)
may cause differences in measurement.
4.Differences due to situational factors calling when
someone may be distracted by something versus full
attention.
18/5/2015
5.Differences resulting from variations in

administering the survey voice inflection, non
verbal communication, etc.
Differences due to the sampling of items included in
the questionnaire.
7. Differences due to a lack of clarity in measurement

instrument
(measurement instrument error).
Example; unclear or ambiguous questions.
8. Differences due to mechanical or instrument factors
blurred questionnaires, bad phone connections.
18/5/2015
Goodness of Measure
Once we have operationalized, and assigned scales
we want to make sure that these instruments
developed measure the concept accurately and
appropriately.
Measure what is suppose to be measured
Measure as well as possible
18/5/2015
Validity : checks as to how well an instrument that is

developed measured the concept
Reliability: checks how consistently an instrument
measures
10
11
Ways to Check for Reliability

How to check for reliability of measurement instruments
or the stability of measures and internal consistency
of measures?
Two methods are discussed to check the stability .
1. Stability
(a) Test Retest
Use the same instrument, administer the test
shortly after the first time, taking measurement in
as close to the original conditions as possible, to
the same participants.
18/5/2015
12
If there are few differences in scores between the

two tests, then the instrument is stable. The
instrument has shown test-retest reliability.
Problems with this approach.
Difficult to get cooperation a second time
Respondents may have learned from the first
test, and thus responses are altered
Other factors may be present to alter results
(environment, etc.)
13
(b) Equivalent Form Reliability

This approach attempts to overcome some of the
problems associated with the test-retest
measurement of reliability.
Two questionnaires, designed to measure the same
thing, are administered to the same group on two
separate occasions (recommended interval is two
weeks).
18/5/2015
14
If the scores obtained from these tests are

correlated, then the instruments have equivalent
form reliability.
Tough to create two distinct forms that are
equivalent.
An impractical method (as with test-retest) and
not used often in applied research.
15
(2)Internal Consistency Reliability

This is a test of the consistency of respondents
answer to all the items in a measure . The items
should hang together as a set.
i.e. the items are independent measures of the
same concept, they will correlated with one another
18/5/2015
16
Developing questions on the Concept Enriched Job
Validity
Definition: Whether what was intended to be
measured was actually measured?
18/5/2015
18
Face Validity
The weakest form of validity
Researcher simply looks at the measurement
instrument and concludes that it will measure what
is intended.
Thus it is by definition subjective.
18/5/2015
19
Content Validity
The degree to which the instrument items represent
the universe of the concepts under study.
In English: did the measurement instrument cover all
aspects of the topic at hand?
18/5/2015
20
Criterion Related Validity

The degree to which the measurement instrument
can predict a variable known as the criterion
variable.
18/5/2015
21
Two subcategories of criterion related validity

Predictive Validity
Is the ability of the test or measure to differentiate
among individuals with reference to a future
criterion.
E.g. an instrument which is suppose to measure
the aptitude of an individual, when used can be
compared with the future job performance of a
different individual. Good performance (Actual)
should also have scored high in the aptitude test
and vise versa
22
Concurrent Validity
Is established when the scale discriminates
individuals who are known to be different that is
they should score differently on the test.
E.g. individuals who are happy at availing welfare
and individuals who prefer to do job must score
differently on a scale/ instrument which measures
work ethics.
Construct Validity
Does the measurement conform to some underlying
theoretical expectations. If so then the measure has
construct validity.
i.e. If we are measuring consumer attitudes about
product purchases then do the measure adhere to
the constructs of consumer behavior theory.
This is the territory of academic researchers
18/5/2015
24
Two approaches are used to measure construct

validity
Convergent Validity
A high degree of correlation among 2 different
measures intended to measure same construct
Discriminant Validity
The degree of low correlation among varaibles
that are assumed to be different.
18/5/2015
25
To check validity through Correlation analysis, Factor

Analysis, Multi trait , Multi matrix correlation etc
26
Reflective vs Formative measure scales:

In some multi item measure where it is measuring
different dimensions of a concept do not hang
together
Such is the case of Job Description Index measure
which measures job satisfaction from 5 different
dimension i.e Regular Promotions, Fairly good
chance for promotion, Income adequate, Highly
Paid, good opportunity for accomplishment.
27
In this case some items of dimensions Income

adequate and Highly paid to be correlated but
dimension items of Opportunity for Advancement
and Highly Paid might not correlated.
In this measure not all the items would related to
each other as its dimensions address different
aspect of job satisfaction.
This measure /scale is termed as Formative scale
28
In some cases the measure dimensions and items

correlate.
In this kind of measure/scale the different
dimensions share a common basis ( common
interest)
An example is of a scale on Attitude towards the
Offer scale.
Since the items are all focused on the price of an
item, all the items are related hence this scale is
termed as Reflective Scale.
29
Recap
30
Lecture No : 12
(Data Collection-Interview)
Recap
Primary Data
Primary Data = information obtained exclusively for
current research
Personal Interview
Focus Groups
Panels
Delphi Technique
Telephone Interview Computer assisted telephone
interviewing and Computer administered telephone
survey
Self-Administered Surveys
Secondary Data
Company Archives
Gov Publications
Industry Analysis
Primary Data Collection Methods
Focus Group
Panels
Interviews (face to face, telephone, electronic media)
Questionnaires (personally, mail, electronic)
Observation
Other (projective tests)
Focus Group:
Usually consist of 8 to 10 members , with a
moderator leading the discussion for 2 hours on a
particular topic, concept or product.
Member are chosen on the bases of their expertise
on the topic.
E.g Discussion on computers and computing , or
women mothers , social networking etc
Less expensive and usually done for exploratory
information. Cannot be generalized
6
Panels:
Similar to focus group but meets more than once in
order to study the change or interventions need to
be studies over a period of time.
Members are randomly chosen
E.g effect of advertisement of a certain brand need
to be assessed quickly, panel members could be
exposed to the advertisement and intention of
purchase could be assessed.
When the product is modified then the response of
the panel can be observed
Observation measures:
Methods through which primary data is collected
without the involving people.
E.g: Wear and tear of books , section of an office,
seating area of railway station which indicate the
popularity, frequency of use etc.
E.g: The number of cans in the dust bin and their
brands, the number of motor cycles vs cars parked in
the university parking lot
8
Interviewing:
Collect data from the respondent on an issue of
interest.
Usually administered at the exploratory stage of
the research.
In case large set of respondents are needed then
more than one interviewer are used , hence they
need to be trained so that biases , voice
inflections, difference in wording are avoided
Structured and Unstructured
Un Structured:
No planned sequence of questions, help in exploring
preliminary issues.
e.g. Tell me something about your unit and department
, and perhaps even the organization as a whole in
terms of work, employee and whatever else you
think is important
Compared to other departments, what are the
strengths and weakness of your department
10
In case they identify a difference you can ask

How can you improve the situation ?
Encouraging the respondent to reflect on the positive
and negative aspects of it.
Try to pleasant and see if the respondent is not
comfortable.
11
Through unstructured the different major areas

might be exposed. It from these the researcher can
pick some areas as focus variables which need
further probing.
Now the researcher can device a more focused
approach and develop a more structured interview
emphasizing on some particular issues.
12
Structured:
Know at the outset what information is needed.
Focusing on factors relevant to the problem.
The focus is on the factors which have surfaced
during the un structured interview.
13
E.g: During the previous unstructured interview it

was identified that the department needs
improvement.
Now you can focus on questions which addresses
how to improve the department, i.e. the factors
which can improve the department
14
This can be done through face to face, over the

telephone or through the computers via internet.
Specific same questions are asked from different
respondents.
The information collected is tabulated and then the
data is analyzed.
15
The result could highlight the important factors

influencing the issues.
This information is of qualitative in nature which
could be then empirically tested and verified using
other methods like questionnaires.
16
Guideline for Interviews
Listen carefully
Motivate the respondents
How to take notes
Built proper trust and rapport with interviewee
Clarification of complex issues
Physical setting
Explaining the reasons for research and criteria of
selection
Face to Face
Adv :Clarify doubts, repeating, rephrasing, getting
non verbal cues
Dis : vast resources required, cost, anonymity
Telephone:
Adv : Wider reach in short time, some time easy to
discuss personal information over the phone
Dis: Can be terminated without warning, cannot have
a prolonged interview, non verbal cue.
19
Closed vs. Open Questions

Easy.
Cost of coding is reduced.
Quicker, standardized interviews.
Can be answered without thinking.
Pre-testing is a must.
Limit the richness of data.
Recap
The Data is collected from primary and secondary
sources
The primary data collect via
Observation, panels, interviews, questionnaires etc
Interview are structure and unstructured
While interviewing there are certain guidelines
There are structured and unstructed interviews
There are some advantages / disadvantages of face
to face vs telephone interviews .
21
Lecture No : 13
(Data Collection-Questionnaire)
Recap
The Data is collected from primary and secondary
sources
The primary data collect via
Observation, panels, interviews, questionnaires etc
Interview are structure and unstructured
While interviewing there are certain guidelines
There are structured and unstructed interviews
There are some advantages / disadvantages of face
to face vs telephone interviews .
2
Questionnaires
Data Collection is mechanism when the
researcher knows exactly what is required and
how to measure the variables of interest.
Types of Questionnaire:
Personally administered questionnaire

Mail Questionnaire
Personally Administered Questionnaires

Mostly local area based, org is willing to have a group
of employee respond to it.
It is Cheaper then interviews, helps remove doubts,
motivating respondents
Mail Questionnaires:
Wide geographical area can be reached, respondents
have flexibility of time , It is more cost effective but
the response rate is low,
Can improve by giving some incentives and doubts
cannot be clarified.
Guidelines for Principles
Content and purpose of question (Subjective/Objective)

Language and wording( Jargon/ Technical)
Type and Form (open ended, closed ended)
Positively and Negatively Worded
Biases ( loaded, leading, social desirable, double barreled)
Sequencing of Questions
Content and purpose of Question:

If the variables tapped are subjective feeling we
need to measure the dimension and elements ..
Use interval scales
If the variables are objectives/ facts a single
direct question may be asked.
Language and Wording of question:

The level of respondents have to be considered.
Slang and Technical jargon has to be avoided
e.g. Work is a drag, she is a compulsive worker. Tech
Jargon like organizational structure , 360 degree
appraisal
Type and Form of Questions:

Open ended vs Closed Ended
Positively vs Negatively Worded
Open ended vs Closed Ended

In open ended the respondent chooses any way they
like. E.g. any five things which interest him at his job.
In close ended the respondent have to make a
choice among the given alternatives e.g. out of the
list of 10 job characteristics rank any 5
Positively vs Negatively Worded :

Have some positive and some negative worded
questions to break the monotony.
E.g. Coming to work is great fun or coming to work is
no great fun
Biases in Questions:
Double Barreled:
Questions has more than one question within it.
E.g. Do you think that the course content is
adequate and it applicable at your work?
Ambiguous Question:
Respondent does not know what it means. E.g. To what
extent would you say you are happy?
Do you discuss you work with your boss regularly? Do
you go to movies frequently?
Frequently may mean once in a week, or once in a
month. Regularly may mean every day, or every week ,
or every month.
Recall Dependent:
Questions based on past experiences and rely on
memory.
E.g. After 30 years of work one would not
remember the first job details such as name of
the boss/ years worked in a department
Leading Questions:
Are worded in such a way that it would lead the
respondent to answer in a way that the
researcher would like to or want to give.
E.g. Dont you think that in these days of
escalating costs of living employee should be
given good pay raise?
Better.. To what extent do you agree that
employee should be given higher pay raise.
Example:
Dont you think that more women should be
promoted to decision making line positions in
organization
Loaded Questions:
Are when they are phrased in an emotionally
charged manner.
E.g. To what extent do you think management is
likely to be vindictive/(cruel) if the union decides to
go on strike.
Better. To what extent you favor strike To what
extent you fear that there would be a adverse
reaction from the management.
Did P.T.I Lose the elections in Punjab

Better P.T.I was not chosen in Punjab
Social Desirability:
Is when questions are worded such that they
elicit(draw out) socially desirable response
e.g. Do you think that older people should be laid off?
..better
There are advantages and disadvantages to retaining
senior citizens in the workforce. To what extent do you
think companies should continue to keep the elderly
on their payroll.
Exercise
If you have been in the company for fifteen years
please indicate the year of joining or the name of you
colleague.
Bad question as it is recall dependent
My colleague is good and efficient .

Bad Question: Double Barreled
Working Women should not have children.

Bad: Loaded question an emotional issue for women
Investment in children's future should be an

important goal of the administration.
Bad Question: Socially desirability
This job uses a lot of skills I have.

Okay no problem with the wordings
For this country to keep on remaining competitive

should we not spend more on research.
Bad: Leading question
Other Guide lines

Length (20 words)
Sequencing (funneling , same positive and
negative question)
Classification Data or Personal Data
Recap
Questionnaires
Mail questionnaires
Guide line for wordings
Content and purpose (Subjective vs Objective)

Language and wording ( slang/technical)
Types of formats (open / closed ended)
Positively worded and Negatively worded
Bias/ Favoritism(Leading, loaded, ambiguous, double
barrel, socially desirable)
Length of the question

Funneling
Lecture No :14
(Sampling Design)
Recap
Data collection Interviews and Questionnaires

Mail questionnaires
Guide line for wordings
Content and purpose (Subjective vs Objective)

Language and wording ( slang/technical)
Types of formats (open / closed ended)
Positively worded and Negatively worded
Bias/ Favoritism(Leading, loaded, ambiguous, double
barrel, socially desirable)
Length of the question

Funneling
Lecture Objectives
Define sampling, reasons for sampling, sample,

population, element, sampling unit and subject
Sampling process
Different sampling design
Sampling
The process of selecting the right individuals,
objects, or events as representative of entire
population is known as sampling.
Population
Sample
Relationship between sample and

population
Reasons for Sampling

Budget and time Constraints (in case of large
populations)
High degree of accuracy and reliability (if sample
is representative of population)
Sampling may sometimes produce more
accurate results than taking a census as in the
latter, there are more risks for making
interviewer and other errors due to the high
volume of persons contacted and the number of
census takers, some of whom may not be welltrained
Population
It refers to the entire group of people, events or
things of interest that the researcher wishes to
investigate.
Example: If regulators want to know how patients
in nursing homes run by a company in France are
cared for, then all the patients in all the nursing
homes run by them will from the population.
Element
An element is a single member of a population
Example: If 1000 blue collar workers(labor
workers) in a particular organization happen to be
the population of interest to a researcher, each
blue collar worker therein is an element.
Sample
A sample is a subset or subgroup of the
population. By studying the sample, the researcher
should be able to draw conclusions that are
generalizable to the population of interest.
Example: If there are 145 in-patients in a hospital
and 40 of them are to be surveyed by the hospital
administrator to access their level of satisfaction
with the treatment received, then these 40
members will be the sample.
Sampling unit
It is the element or set of elements that is available
for selection in some stage of sampling process.
Example: Sampling units in a multistage sample
are city blocks, households, and individuals within
the households.
Subject
It is a single member of the sample, just as an
element is a single member of the population.
Example: If a sample of 50 machines from a total
of 500 machines is to inspected, then everyone of
the 50 machines is a subject, just as every single
machine in the population of total population of
500 machines is an element
Parameters
The characteristics of the population such as the
population mean, the population standard
deviation, and the population variance are referred
to as its parameters.
Example: Average weight, , of all 30 year old
women in Australia, % of voters, p, in N.S.W who
think the Government is doing a good job to
control inflation.
The Sampling Process

Sampling is the process of selecting a sufficient
number of right elements from the population so,
the major steps in the sampling include.
1. Defining the population
2. Determine the sample process
3. Determine the sampling design
4. Determine the appropriate sample size
5. Execute the sampling process
The Sampling Process
Defining the population

Sampling begins with precisely defining the target
population. The target population must be defined
in terms of elements, geographical boundaries and
time.
Example: A target population may be, for example,
all faculty members in the Department of
Management Sciences in the V-COMSATS
network,
All housewives in Islamabad,
All pre-college students in Rawalpindi,
The target group should be clearly defined if

possible, for example, do all pre-college
students include only primary and secondary
students or also students in other specialized
educational institutions?
Determining the sample frame

The sampling frame is a (physical) representation
of all the elements in the population from which he
sample is drawn. Also termed as a List.
Often, the list does not include the entire
population. The discrepancy is often a source of
error associated with the selection of the sample
(sampling frame error)
Information relating to sampling frames can be
obtained from commercial organizations
Example: Student telephone directory (for the

student population), the list of companies on the
stock exchange, the directory of medical doctors
and specialists, the yellow pages (for businesses)
Determining the sample design

Two major types of sampling
Probability sampling
The elements in the population have some known,
non zero chances or probability of being selected
as sample subjects.
Non probability sampling
The elements do not have a known or
predetermined chance of being selected as
subjects.
Factors affecting sampling design

The relevant target population of focus to the
study
The parameters
investigating
we
are
interested
in
The kind of sample frame is available

Costs and Time are attached to the sample
design and collection of Data
Determining the sample size

The decision about the how large the sample size
should be can be very difficult one. These factors
affecting the sampling decision are
The research objective
The extent of precision desired(the confidence
interval)
The acceptance risk in predicting that level of
precision(confidence level)
The amount of variability in the population itself
The cost and time constraints
In some cases, the size of population itself
Executing the sample process

In this final stage of sampling process, decision
with respect to the
the target population,
the sampling frame,
the sample technique, and
the sample size have to be implemented.
Example:
A young researcher was investigating the

antecedents of salesperson performance.
To examine his hypotheses, data were collected

from the chief sales executive in the Pakistan
(the target population) via mail questionnaire.
The sample was initially drawn from the

published business register (the sampling
frame), but supplemented with respondent
recommendations and other additions, in a
judgment sampling methodology.
The questionnaires were subsequently
distributed to sales executives of 450 companies
(the sample size).
Non response and non response errors

A failure to obtain information from a number of
subjects included in the sample
Those who do respond to your survey are
different from those who did not on (one of the)
characteristics of interest in your study
Two important sources of non response errors
are not at homes and refusals
Reducing the rate of refusals

The rate of refusals depends, among other
things, on the length of the survey, the data
collection method and the backing of research.
Decrease
in
survey
length,
personal
interviews/questionnaire
instead
of
mail
questionnaire and the sponsorship of the
research often improve the overall return rate.
Recap
Sampling is the process of selecting the right
individuals
Sample is used to represent the whole data or
population
Sampling process include defining population,
sample frame, sampling design, sample size
and sampling process
Lecture No :15
(Sampling Design / Probability vs Non probility)
Recap
Sampling is the process of selecting the right
individuals
Sample is used to represent the whole data or
population
Sampling process include defining population,
sample frame, sampling design, sample size
and sampling process
Lecture Objectives
Differentiate between probability and non

probability sampling
Learn about the types of probability sampling, its
advantages and disadvantages
Learn about the types of non probability
sampling, its advantages and disadvantages
Issues relevant to sample design and collection
Probability Sampling
Unrestricted or simple random sampling
Technique which ensures that each element in
the population has an equal chance of being
selected for the sample.
The simple random sampling is the least bias
and offer the most generalizability.
The major advantage
sampling is its simplicity.
of
The
sampling
process
cumbersome and expensive.
simple
random
could
become
Example: Choosing raffle tickets from a drum,

computer-generated
selections,
random-digit
telephone dialing.
Simple random sampling
Restricted or complex probability sampling:
It is an alternate to simple random sampling
design, several complex probability sampling
designs can be used.
Efficiency is improved in that more information
can be obtained for a given sample size using
the complex probability sampling procedures.
The most common complex probability sampling
design
1. Systematic sampling
2. Stratified sampling
3. Cluster sampling
1.
Area sampling
4. Double sampling
Systematic Sampling:
Technique in which an initial starting point is
selected by a random process, after which every
nth number on the list is selected to constitute
part of the sample.
Sampling interval (SI) = population list size (N)

divided by a pre-determined sample size (n)
How to draw:
1) calculate SI, say (200/20)=10
2) select a number between 1 and SI randomly, i.e. 1-10
3) go to this number as the starting point and the item on the list
here is the first in the sample, e.g 3
4) add SI to the position number of this item and the new position
will be the second sampled item, e.g 3+10=13
5) continue this process until desired sample size is reached.
For systematic sampling to work best, the list

should be random in nature and not have some
underlying systematic pattern.
E.g: Office directory with the Senior Manager,
Middle manager .names are listed in each
department. This can create as systematic
problem
Stratified Sampling:
Technique in which simple random subsamples
are drawn from within different strata that share
some common characteristic. Within the group
they are homogenous and among the group
they are heterogeneous.
Stratified Sampling
Example: The student body of CIIT is divided into
two groups (management science, engineering)
and from each group, students are selected for a
sample using simple random sampling in each of
the two groups, whereby the size of the sample for
each group is determined by that groups overall
strength.
Cluster Sampling
Technique in which the target population is first
divided into clusters. Then, a random sample of
clusters is drawn and for each selected cluster
either all the elements or a sample of elements
are included in the sample.
Cluster samples offer more heterogeneity within
groups and more homogeneity among groups
Area sampling
Specific type of cluster sampling in which clusters
consist of geographic areas such as counties, city
blocks, or particular boundaries within a locality.
Area sampling is less expensive than most other
sampling designs and it is not dependent on
sampling frame.
Key motivation in cluster sampling is cost
reduction.
Area sampling
Example: A city map showing the blocks of the city
is adequate information to allow the researcher to
take a sample of the blocks and obtain data from
the resident therein.
Example: If you wanted to survey the residents of
the city, you would get a city map, take a sample of
city blocks and select respondents within each city
block.
Single stage and multistage cluster sampling
Single stage cluster sampling involves the
division of population into convenient clusters,
randomly choosing the required number of
clusters as sample subjects, and investigating all
the elements in each of the randomly chosen
clusters
Cluster sampling can also be done in several
stages and is then known as multistage cluster
sampling.
Example: If we were to do a national survey of the
average monthly bank deposits, cluster sampling
would be used to select the urban, semi urban and
rural geographical location for study. At the next
stage particular areas in each of these locations
would be chosen. At the third stage, banks within
each area would be chosen.
Example:
Double sampling:
A sampling design where initially a sample is
used in a study to collect some preliminary
information of interest, and later a subsample of
this primary sample is use to examine the matter
in more detail.
Double sampling
Example: A structured interview might indicate that
a subgroup of respondents has more insight into
the problems of the organization. These
respondents might be interviewed again and again
and asked additional questions.
Non-Probability Sampling
Convenience Sampling:
Sampling technique which selects those
sampling units most conveniently available at a
certain point in, or over a period, of time.
Convenience Sampling:
Major advantages of convenience sampling is
that is quick, convenient and economical; a
major disadvantage is that the sample may not
be representative.
Convenience sampling is best used for the
purpose
of
exploratory
research
and
supplemented subsequently with probability
sampling.
Judgment (purposive) Sampling:
Sampling technique in which the business
researcher selects the sample based on
judgment about some appropriate characteristic
of the sample members.
Example: Selection of certain students who are
active in the university activities to inquire about
the sports and recreation facilities at the university.
Recap
Simple random sampling and restricted
sampling are two basic types of probability
sampling.
Probability ( Simple Random, Systematic,
Cluster,
Single
stage/multistage,
Double
sampling)
Non Probability (Convenience, judgment)
Lecture No :16
( Sampling / Non Probability, Confidence and Precision, Sample size)
Recap Lecture
Systematic ,stratified sampling, cluster, area and
double sampling are the common types of
complex sampling.
Convenience, judgment, quota and snowball
sampling are the common types of non
probability sampling.
Lecture Objectives
Non Probability Based sampling (Quota/snow
ball)
Discuss about the precision and the confidence.
Precision and Confidence
Factors to be taken into consideration for
determining sample size.
Managerial implications of sampling.
Quota Sampling:
This is a sampling technique in which the business
researcher ensures that certain characteristics of a
population are represented in the sample to an
extent which is he or she desires.
Quota Sampling
Example: A business researcher wants to determine
through interview, the demand for Product X in a
district which is very diverse in terms of its ethnic
composition.
If the sample size is to consist of 100 units, the
number of individuals from each ethnic group
interviewed should correspond to the groups
percentage composition of the total population of that
district.
Quota Sampling
Example: Quotas have

been set for gender only.
Under
the
circumstances, its no
surprise that the sample
is representative of the
population only in terms
of gender, not in terms of
race. Interviewers are
only human;.
Snowball Sampling :
This is a sampling technique in which individuals
or organizations are selected first by probability
methods, and then additional respondents are
identified based on information provided by the
first group of respondents
Snowball Sampling
The advantage of snowball sampling is that smaller
sample sizes and costs are necessary; a major
disadvantage is that the second group of
respondents suggested by the first group may be
very similar and not representative of the population
with that characteristic.
Example: Through a sample of 500 individuals, 20
antique car enthusiasts are identified which, in turn,
identify a number of other antique car enthuiasts
More Snowball Sampling

More systematic versions of snowball sampling can
reduce the potential for bias. For example,
respondent-driven sampling gives financial
incentives to respondents to recruit peers.
Issues in Sample Design and Selection

Availability of Information Often information on
potential sample participants in the form of lists,
directories etc. is unavailable (especially in
developing countries) which makes some
sampling techniques (e.g. systematic sampling)
impossible to undertake.
Resources Time, money and individual or

institutional capacity are very important
considerations due to the limitation on them.
Often, these resources must be traded against
accuracy.
Issues in Sample Design and Selection

Geographical Considerations The number and
dispersion of population elements may
determine the sampling technique used (e.g.
cluster sampling).
Statistical Analysis This should be performed
only on samples which have been created
through probability sampling (i.e. not probability
sampling).
Accuracy Samples should be representative of
the target population (less accuracy is required
for exploratory research than for conclusive
research projects).
Issues of precision and confidence in

determining sample size
Precision
Precision is how close our estimate is to the true
population characteristic.
Precision is the function of the range of
variability in the sampling distribution of the
sample mean.
Population and Sample distinctiveness

Sample Statistics( Mean, Std Deviation, Variance) and
Population parameters ( Mean, Std Deviation,
Variance)
Compare the Sample estimates and population
characteristic. Where the estimates should be the
representative of the population charactertics
Sample statistics (mean, sd, ..) should be
representative of the population parameters(mean,
sd )
Issues of precision and confidence in

determining sample size
Precision:
How close are the estimates to the population.
While expecting that the population mean would it
fall between (+,- )10 points or (+,-) 5 points based
on the sample estimates is precision.
The narrower the more precise our statement is
E.g: The average age of the a particular class

based on the sample is between 20 and 25
Or it between 18 and 28.
How close are the estimates to the population.
Confidence
Confidence denotes how certain we are that our
estimate will hold true for the population.
The level of confidence can range from 0 to
100%. However 95% confidence is the
conventionally accepted for most business
research.
The more we want to be precise the less confident

we become that our statement is going to be true.
So at one level we want to be accurate in our
statement but on the other we taking a higher risk of
proved incorrect.
In order to maintain the precision and increase the
confidence or increase the precision and the
confidence we need to have a larger sample.
Determining sample size

Roscoe (1975) proposes the following rules of
thumb for determining sample size.
Sample sizes larger than 30 and less than 500
are appropriate for most research
Where sample sizes are broken into subsamples
(males/females, juniors/seniors etc.), a minimum
sample size of 30 for each category is
necessary.
Determining sample size

In multivariate research (including multiple
regression analysis), the sample size should be
several times (preferably ten times or more)
as large as the number of variables in the
study.
For simple experimental research with tight
experimental controls (matched pairs, etc.),
successful research is possible with samples as
small as 10 to 20 in size.
Tools and mathematical equations are available

to establish the right size of the sample.
Refer to the book for the sample size calculation
equation.
Standard Tables are available
Use a software like RAO calculator available on
the internet.
Types of Sampling Designs

Sampling Designs
Probability
Non-probability
Convenience
Simple
Random
Judgmental
Systematic
Quota
Stratified
Snowball
Cluster
Other Sampling
Techniques
Managerial Implications
Awareness of sampling designs and sample size
helps managers to understand why a particular
of sampling is used by researchers.
It also facilitates understanding of the cost
implications of different designs, and the trade
off between precision and confidence vis--vis
the costs.
Managerial Implications
This enables managers to understand the risk
they take in implementing changes based on the
results of the research study.
By reading journal articles, this knowledge also
helps managers to assess the generazibility of
the findings and analyze the implications of
trying out the recommendations made therein in
their own system.
Recap
Non Probability based sampling (
Precision we estimate the population parameter
to fall within a range, based on sample estimate.
Confidence is the certainty that our estimate will
hold true for the population.
Roscoe (1975) rules of thumb for determining
sample size.
Some sampling designs are more efficient than
the others.
The knowledge about sampling is used for
different managerial implications.
Lecture No : 3
Recap lecture 2
Broad problem: the entire situation where
one sees a need for problem solving and
research.
Literature Review: To understand the
problem more detail information is needed
Different sources of information is gathered
from books, reports, published research
papers etc.
Recap lecture 2
More aspects of research are exposed.
More variables which play an important role
are uncovered.
This allows us to develop a more robust
theory.
We start documenting a comprehensive
review
To conclude we are able to identify the gaps
and develop our precise problems
statements.
Lecture Objective
Revisit at literature review
Why literature review is important
Methods of writing a review
Contents of a review
Developing a theoretical framework
Identify the relationships and the theory
supporting the relationship
Describing Variables
Describing what are variables and the
different types
Purpose of Literature Review

Every research study requires the researcher to
review pertinent literature on the topic.
1. To avoid unnecessary duplication of research.
2. To identify variables that may influence the
problem
3. To identify promising procedures and
instruments
4. To limit the problem.
Two steps in conduction literature review

Survey of literature (search)
Documenting of the literature (write)
Survey of literature
Survey different sources
Books
Research Articles
Theses
Conference preceding
You can obtain them from
Libraries
Internet
Online databases (Full text, abstract)
Documenting the literature

Three activities are involved while
documenting the literature which you have
surveyed
Method of documenting the list of reviewed
articles. (Modes)
Referencing and quoting the studies (Cite)
Organizing and documenting the contents of the
reviewed articles (writing the review)
Method of documenting the list of

reviewed articles.
References / Bibliography is a list of work that is
relevant to the main topic arranged in an
alphabetical order.
The difference between reference list and
bibliography is that reference list is a subset of
the list of articles which have been referenced in
the research.
Bibliography is a list which includes all the
referenced and non referenced articles in your
research but are relevant to your research
Examples of Modes of Reference listing

There are different modes of referencing in business
research. For example the APA (Publication of Manual
of the American Psychological Association), Chicago
Manual Style, Harvard style, Turabian Style.
Each manual specifies with examples how books,
newspaper, research journal are to be referenced in
your research. Following are the example in APA style
Referencing and quoting the studies

Cite the references in the body of the paper
using author-year method of citation; i.e.
surname of author(s) and the year of
publications
E.g. Kaleem(2004) has shown.
In the recent studies of employee motivation
(Freeman,2007 ;Mitnzberg, 2007) it has
In 1997, Kyle compared the different models of
motivation..
As pointed out by (Tucker & Snell, 1989),..
Referencing and quoting the studies

(cont )
Organizing and documenting the

contents of the reviewed articles
While writing the review the text needs to arranged
in the following manner
1. Introduction -
Importance of the subject ,

states the purpose or scope of the review
2. Define the key concepts
What are the different definitions found in the
literature. Which definition is better or much closer
your research objective.
Organization of a Literature
Review:
3. Critical review Describe the relationships between the different
variables identified in the previous studies
Do not list one study after another, but rather

classify, compare & contrast as they relate to your
problem statement.
Organize the review around different themes.
4. Summarize
states the status of what exists on the topic and
identifies the gaps which provide the rationale for
your study.
Example of a short Review

Pg 44
Example of a short review

Introduction to Organization effectiveness
Identified the problem and the purpose
No consensus on the how to conceptualize
and measure OE
Summarize the previous work and identify the
gaps in the literature
Variables from different streams related to the
OE uncovered
Leading to the forming of the research
questions
Questions
What could be the dimensions used for
measuring OE ?
What factors effect the OE ?
Once the research questions have been stated
then one is ready to develop a theoretical frame
work of their research
While developing your theoretical frame work

you basically
Theorize on the bases of your belief that how
are certain phenomena's are related.
So theoretical framework is a representation of
your beliefs on how certain phenomena ( or
variables or concepts ) are related to each
other(model) and an explanation of why you
believe that these are associated with each
other (theory)
So there are two components to theoretical
frame work
Identification of variables and their
relationship
Describing the relationship with arguments
While identifying the different variables we need
to differentiate between the different kinds of
variables
Variables
Any thing that can take on different or varying
values is a variable
Values can be different at various times for the
same object or person or at the same time for
different objects or persons E.g.
Production units (Employee 1 (10 units on Monday) Production
units (Employee 1 (11 units on Tuesday)
Production units (Employee 2 (12 units on Monday)
Production units (Employee 2 (10 units on Tuesday)
Attendance at department x on Monday(10), Tuesday(2)
Types of Variables
Independent
Dependent
Moderating
Mediating
Types of Variables
Dependent
(Criterion Variable)
primary interest
Describe or explain the variability or predict it.
We study what variables influence dependent
variable
So by studying these we might able to find a
solution of the problem
E.g. Sales are low , employee loyalty is
dropping
Independent
(Predictor variable)
Which influences the dependent variable
The influence might be positive or negative
When independent variable is present the
dependent variable is also present.
With each unit of increase in independent
variable there is an increase or decrease in
the dependent variable
E.g. Advertising on sales, recognition on
loyalty
Moderating (surfaces in between the

independent and dependent at a given time)
Mediating (Effects the relationship between
independent and dependent)
Exercise : List the independent variable

A manager believes that good supervision and
training would increase the production level of
the workers.
Recap
Literature Review involves searching and
documenting
There are different formats of Documenting
(APA)
There is a structure of review (importance,
objectives, definitions, relationships identified,
gaps)
Theoretical framework is representation of your
belief on how variables related and why
Variables are of 4 different kinds
Lecture No : 5
(Theoretical Framework - Hypothesis Development)
Recap
Types of Variables
Independent, Dependent, Moderating, Mediating(
Intervening)
Examples of relationships with each other

Developing of Theoretical Framework
Variables, logical Relationships, Directions,
Explanations
We wanted to break down a problem into

easily measurable into testable cases.
Exercise
A production manager is concerned about the low
output levels of his employee. The articles that he
reads on job performance frequently mentioned
three variables as important to job performance: skill
required by job, rewards and satisfaction. In several
of the articles it was also indicated that only if the
rewards were attractive to the recipients, did
satisfaction, and job performance increase not
otherwise.
( Description and Discussion of the Variables)
In this section of theoretical framework we need to
provide the description of the variables and their
relationships with different variables. For example..
Rewards are two types, intrinsic and extrinsic ..,
where as job enrichment is making the job more
challenging and utilizes all the skills of the
employeewhen the.. . Rewards are known to
enhance the satisfaction of employees which leads to
higher organization performance But for some
employees the rewards are not attractive hence does
not contribute to the satisfaction of employee .etc
(Schematic Diagram)
Job
Enrichment
Employee
Satisfaction
Rewards
Attraction
for
rewards
Organization
Performance
Research Questions
Does job enrichment and rewards influence the
performance ?
Does the satisfaction intervenes the relationship
between rewards and performance?
Does the satisfaction intervenes the relationship
between job enrichment and performance?
Does attractiveness of the rewards moderate the
relationship between rewards and satisfaction.
Hypotheses Development
The research problem could be better solved when
we formulate the appropriate research questions.
The logically placed relationships need to be tested.
So we develop statements which would be easily
testable
Formulating such testable statements is called
hypothesis development.
Hypothesis Statements
A hypothesis can be defined as a logically speculated
relationship between two or more variables
expressed in the form of a test able statement.
Different Hypotheses statements can be drawn from
the theoretical framework developed earlier.
E.g.
Ha1: Job Enrichment leads to higher job satisfaction
Ha2: If rewards are offered the job satisfaction level be high
Ha3: Organization performance is effected by job enrichment
through satisfaction
The logical relationships have been now stated in a

testable format.
We need to statistically examine the relationship
between the variables Rewards and satisfaction
or Job Enrichment and Satisfaction
We need to also statistically establish that the
satisfaction mediates the relationship between
rewards , job enrichment and organization
performance
We need to statistically see if there is positive

correlation between these variables is significant
(large enough) then we would state that the
hypotheses have been substantiated(proved)
In social sciences we call a relationship statistically
significant when we are confident that 95 times out
of 100, the observed relationship will hold true.
It is through data analysis our logical relationships

are tested.
In case our hypothesis are not proved then we would
search for possible reasons. May be some other
variables which influence the relationship e.g. some
moderating variables.
It is again the literature which can provide us with
the directions. Hence a good literature review is
important.
Hypotheses Statement Formats

Hypotheses statements could be to test
Difference between groups
Relationship between variables
The statements could be in the shape of

Proposition (suggestion)
If-then Else statement
Theses statements could be direction or non

directional
Examples of different formats of Hypotheses

statements
Difference between groups
There is difference between the motivation level of men
and women
Relationship between variables

There is a relationship between age and job satisfaction
Proposition style
Employees who are more healthy will take sick leaves less
frequently
If-then else style

If employees are more healthy, then they will take sick
leave less frequently
Directional
The greater the stress experienced on the job , the lower
the job satisfaction of the employees
The motivation level of women is more then motivation
level of men
The age and job satisfaction are negatively related
Non Directional
There is a relations between stress and job satisfaction
There is a difference between motivation level of men and
women.
The way the statements are formulated is dependent

on the state of the research.
When little support from the previous research is
available then a more guarded approach is used to
form the hypothesis statements.
i.e. the direction of the relationship or the statement
on the clear differences are avoided.
But where ever direction is known from the previous
literature it is better to state the directional
hypotheses.
Null and Alternative Hypotheses

Null hypothesis is a proposition that states a definite,
exact relationship between two variables. i.e. it
states that the population correlation between two
variables is equal to zero or some definite number or
the difference between the two groups is zero
The alternative hypothesis is the opposite of the null
hypothesis. It is a statement expressing a relationship
between two variables or indicating difference
between groups.
Null is stated as no significant relationship between

the variables or no significant difference between
the groups exists.
Alternate is stated as there is a significant
relationship between variables or significant
difference exists between the groups.
The null hypotheses are formed with the objective of

rejection.
As when we reject the null hypothesis then all other
alternate hypotheses can be supported.
It is the theory which gives us the faith that the

alternative hypotheses are true.
Therefore we need to have strong literature support
for developing our theory on which are alternate
hypothesis are based
Exercise
A fourth and fifth hypothesis can be developed that is

HA4: Motivation mediates the relationship between need for
achievement and job involvement
HA5: Motivation mediates the relationship between work
ethic values and job involvement
RECAP
Keeping in view the literature review we develop
research questions to address the research problem.
In order statistically respond to the research
questions we develop the Hypotheses statements.
These statements are stated in such way that they
can be easily testable
Hypotheses statement are written in directional, non
directional formats for testing group differences,
relationship between variables.
We develop null and alternate hypotheses
Lecture No : 6
(Hypothesis Development)
Recap
We learned to develop Hypotheses
statements
Directional ,non Directions
Relationship or Group Difference type
Null and Alternate statements
Statistical Notations
When testing the group differences we need to
Obtain the Mean of the focus variable by each group.
Example:
Mean Motivation Level of a group is obtained and it
is denoted by
(Motivation of a group)
We need to compare the Mean Motivation Level of
Men vs Women
(Motivation-Men) Vs (Motivation-Women)
First we state our Null Hypothesis

i.e. There is no difference between the mean
motivational level of men vs the mean motivation of
women
So the for the Null Hypothesis we use the following
notations
Ho: (Motivation-Men) - (Motivation-Women)=0
Based on the prior knowledge/ literature we can

develop different types of variables
So the for the possible Alternative Hypothesis we
have one of the following statements and its
notations
(a) The mean motivational level of men more then
mean motivation of women
Ha: (Motivation-Men) > (Motivation-Women)
(b) The mean motivational level of men is less then

mean motivation of women
Ha: (Motivation-Men) < (Motivation-Women)
(c) There is no difference between the mean
motivational level of men vs the mean motivation
of women
Ha: (Motivation-Men) (Motivation-Women)
When testing the relationship between two variables

We find the Correlation between the two variables
It is denoted by
Either >0 <0 =0
For the Null Hypothesis statement we state that
There is no relationship between stress and
satisfaction
Ho: =0
Based on the available literature we can have

different alternate statements
The possible Alternative Hypothesis we can have
notations
(a)There is a positive relationship between stress and
job satisfaction.
Ha: >0
(b) There is a negative relationship between stress

and job satisfaction.
Ha: <0
(c) i.e. The is a relationship between stress and job
satisfaction
Ha: 0
Summarized Table of Statistical Notations for

Hypotheses
Relationship
Group Difference
Ho:
Ha:
Ho:
Ha:
Directional
=0
>0
OR
<0
a=b
a>b
OR
a<b
Non-Directional
=0
#0
a=b
a # b
Example 1:
In this example we identified that workforce diversity

is transformed into creative synergy which leads to
organizational effectiveness. We also said that the
synergy would be possible when the organization
have experienced managers to handle diverse
workforce.
Based on this information we just develop the
hypothesis statements
Ha1: The workforce diversity is related to creative

synergy.
Ha2: The higher the creative synergy the more the
organization effectiveness
Ha3: The creative synergy mediates the relationship
between workforce diversity and organization
effectiveness.
Ha4: The relationship between workforce diversity
and creative synergy is moderated by managerial
expertise.
Example:2
Different Hypotheses statements could be generated

Ha1:The more the loyalty the higher the organization
commitment
Ha2:Loyality acts as an intervening variable between
job level, age, length of service, pride of working for
the organization.
Ha2.1: Loyalty mediates the relationship between age and
organization commitment
Ha2.2: Loyalty mediates the relationship between length
of service and organization commitment
Ha2.3: Loyalty mediates the relationship between job level

and organization commitment.
Ha2.4: Loyalty mediates the relationship between pride
working for organization and organization commitment.
Ha3.: Only employees who do not have lust for job

hopping, would job level, age, length of service, pride
working for organization be related to Loyalty for the
organization .
Ha3.1: Lust for job hopping would moderate the relationship
between job level and Loyalty.
between age and Loyalty.
between length of service and Loyalty.
Etc
An other research question might be poised

Does the blue collar worker are more loyal or white
collar ?
To find the answer to this question a hypothesis
statement could be generated as follows
Ha4: There is difference between the loyalty level between
the blue collar workers(labor) and white collar
workers(officers)
Steps Following the Hypothesis testing
State the null and the Alternate hypotheses

Choose appropriate test based on the data collected
(parametric like Pearson correlation, t test, ANOVA)
non parametric like spearman s rank correlation,
Kendalls X2)
Determine the level of significance desired
Usually set to 0.05 can be more or less
See the output results of generated from the

software. See if the differences are significant or the
relationship significant.
If the differences/relationship are not significant
then we accept the null hypotheses other wise
accept the alternate
In case the you are using tables check if the
calculated values larger than the critical value, the
null hypotheses is rejected and alternate accepted
( More practice would be covered in later sections of the course)
Deductive and Inductive Hypothesis

The hypothesis generating and testing can be done
both through Deduction and Induction.
In deduction we first develop the theoretical model,
then generate hypothesis statements, data is
collected and then hypothesis are tested.
In induction new hypothesis are generated based on
the data already collected, which then is tested
In the initial session we discussed the case of the

Hawthorne experiments, where new hypothesis
were developed after the data already collected did
not substantiated any of the original hypotheses.
New Hypotheses might be developed after the data
is collected.
Creative insights might compel researchers to test a
new hypothesis from exiting data which when
substantiated would add to new knowledge and help
build theory.
Hypothesis testing with Qualitative Research:

negative case analysis
Hypothesis testing can also be tested with qualitative
data.
Example:
After interview we develop the theoretical
framework that unethical practices by employees are
a function of their ability to discriminate between
right and wrong, or due to need for money, or the
organization indifference to such practices.
Search for data prove the hypothesis to be false
When no support is found an there is this case where

an individual is deliberately engage in the unethical
practices even though he is able to discriminate from
right from wrong, and is not in need for money, and
the organization would not be indifferent to his
behavior.
He simply wants to get back to the systems because
the system would not listen to his advice.
This new discovery is different from the previous
hypothesis is know as negative case method and
enables to revise their theory.
RECAP
Hypothesis notations
Examples on how to develop hypothesis statements
Steps to test the hypothesis statements
Hypothesis testing through inductive method
Hypothesis testing with qualitative research
Lecture No : 7
(Research Design)
RECAP
Hypotheses statements are stated in such way that
they can be easily testable
Hypotheses statement are written in directional, non
directional formats for testing group differences,
relationship between variables.
We develop null and alternate hypotheses
We now want to design the research in such a way
that the data can obtained and analyzed in away that
we arrive at a solution
2
Elements of Research Design

Refers to the outline, plan, or strategy specifying the
procedure to be used in answering research
questions
It encompasses many issues.
We need to decide on the different choices.
To decide for any given situation

the type of investigation needed,
the study setting,
the extent of researcher interference,
the unit of analysis,
the time horizon of the study
To identify whether a casual or a correlation study
would be more appropriate in a given situation
4
The Research Design

Purpose of the
study
Exploratory
Description
Hypotheses
Testing
Types of
Investigation
Establishing:
-Casual
relationship
- Correlation's
- Group
difference
ranks, etc.
Extent of
Researcher
interference
Minimal: studying
events as they
normally occur
Manipulation
Study setting
contrived
non-contrived
Measurement
& Measures
Operational
Definition
scaling
categorizing
coding
1. Feel for
data
2.Goofiness
of data
Units of analysis
(population to be
studied)
individuals
dyads
groups
organizations
\machines
etc
Sampling
design
Time horizon
Data collection
method
3. Hypothesis
Testing
Probability/
Non-probability
Sample size (n)
one-shot
(cross-sectional)
Longitudinal
Observation
Interview
Questionnaire
Physical
measurement
Un-obstructive
THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Studies can be either exploratory in nature, or
descriptive, or they can be conducted to test
hypotheses.
The nature of the study - whether it is exploratory,
descriptive or hypothesis testing - depends on the
stage to which knowledge about the research topic
has advanced.
The Case Studies, which is an examination of studies

done in similar organizational situations, is also a
method of solving problems, or for understanding
phenomena of interest and generating additional
knowledge in that area.
Exploratory Study
Exploratory studies are undertaken to better
comprehend the nature of the problem, since very
few studies might have been conducted in that area.
Extensive interviews with many people might have to
be undertaken to get handle on the situation and to
understand the phenomena.
After obtaining a better understanding, more
rigorous research proceed.
Some qualitative studies (as opposed to quantitative

data gathered through questionnaire, etc.) where
data are collected through observation or interviews,
are exploratory studies in nature.
When the data reveals some pattern regarding the
phenomena of interest, theories are developed and
hypotheses formulated for subsequent testing.
Example: Managers of firm wants to explore the nature

of managerial work (Mitnizberg in 1970)
Based on the analysis of his interview data, he
formulated theories of managerial roles, the nature
and types of managerial activities, and so on.
10
Example : What is the role of virtual markets for e commerce ? (in 2005)
The recent development of the internet and the busy
life style of the people in the west, lots of the
individuals are showing interests in accessing
internet .
11
Descriptive Study:
A descriptive study is under taken in order to
ascertain and be able to describe the characteristics
of the variables of interest in a situation.
For instance a study of class in terms of the
percentage of members who are in their senior and
junior years, gender composition, age groupings,
number of semesters until graduation, and number
of business courses taken, can only be considered as
descriptive in nature
12
Descriptive studies that present data in a meaningful

form help to:
1. Understand the characteristics of a group in a
given situation.
2. Think systematically about aspects in a given
situation.
3. Offer ideas for further probe and research
4. Help make certain simple decisions (such as how
many and what type of individuals should be
transferred from one department to another
13
Example:
A bank manager wants to have a profile of the
individuals who have loan payments outstanding for
six months and more. It would include details of their
average age, earnings, type of occupation they are
in, full time/part time employment status, and the
like.
This information might help to ask for further
information or make an immediate decision on the
types of individuals to whom he would not extend
loans in future.
14
Example:
The ministry of science and technology wants to
know how many projects have failed, what were the
reasons. Out of the triple constraints (cost, time,
scope) how many failed due to scope constraint.
The information received can help tighten the scope
definition process at the MOST technology projects.
15
Hypotheses Testing:
Hypothesis testing is undertaken to explain the
variance in the dependent variable or to predict
organizational outcomes.
Similar to the kind of examples we had discussed in
the theoretical framework chapter
16
Example:
A Marketing manager would like to know the sales
of the company will increase if he doubles the
advertising dollars.
Here, the manager wants to know the nature of the
relationship between advertising and sales that can
be established by testing the hypothesis:
17
H0: There is no relationship between sales and

advertisement
Ha: If advertising is increased, then sales will also
increase
Ho: =0
Ha: >0
18
Example: The manager of a manufacturing firm

believes that the voluntary turn over is more of with
its female employees. The manager would like to
test the difference between the turnover rates of
male and female.
19
Ho: There is no difference between the turn over

rate of men and women
Ha: There is a difference between the turn over rate
of men and women
Ho:turn-over-men = turn-over-men
Ha:turn-over-men turn-over-men
20
So exploratory studies are focused on understanding

the characteristics of a phenomenon of interest.
A pilot study on small scale interviewing individuals is
done. ( What is an internet club)
A Descriptive study is when characteristics of the
phenomenon are known and we want to describe it
better ( How many internet clubs are in the city,
how many are open for 24 hrs etc)
A hypothesis testing is when we try test certain
theories. (Internet clubs have a cased a decline in the
social values )
21
Types of Investigation: Causal versus

Correlation
When the researcher wants to define the cause of
one or more problems, then the study is called a
Causal Study.
When the researcher is interested in outline the
important variables that are associated with the
problem, it is called a Correlational Study.
22
Example:
A causal study question:
Does smoking cause cancer?
A correlational question:
Are smoking, chewing tobacco related to cancer ?
A causal study hypothesis:
Smoking causes cancer.
A correlational hypothesis:
Smoking and cancer are related
Chewing and cancer are related
23
Extent of Researcher Interference with the

Study
The extent to which the researcher interferes with
the normal flow of work at the workplace has direct
bearing on whether the study undertaken is casual or
correlational.
A correlational study is conducted in the natural
environment of the organization, with the researcher
interfering minimally with the normal flow of work.
24
For example,
if a researcher wants to study the factors
influencing training effectiveness
(a correlational study),
the individual simply has to develop a
theoretical framework, collect the relevant
data, and analyze them to come up with the
findings.
25
Although there is some disruption to the normal flow

of work in the system as the researcher interviews
employees and administers questionnaire at the
workplace, the researchers interference in the
system is minimal compared with that in causal
studies.
26
In case of causal study the researcher would try to

manipulate certain variables so as to study the effect
on the dependent variable
Example.
Effect of lighting on employee performance
The researcher's interfere is high
27
Recap
We covered some of the research design elements
We talked about the research purpose
(exploratory, descriptive, hypothesis testing)
Type of investigation
(causal, correlations)
Extent of researcher's interference

(High,moderate,low)
28
Lecture No : 2
Recap lecture 1
We examined what is research?
Systematic effort to investigate a problem
Introduced the Types of research

Applied (solve a current problem of org)
Basic (improve understanding of a problem)
Why managers should know about

research
Identify problems , discriminate b/w good and bad research,
appreciate the multiple influences of different factors ,etc.
Hall Marks of Scientific Research.

Purposive, Rigor, Testability, Replicability, Precision/confidence,
Objectivity, Generalizbility, Parsimony
Building Blocks of Scientific Research

Observation, identification of problem area, Theoretical Framework,
Hypothesis, Construct, Concepts operations definitions, Research
Design, Data Collection , Analysis, Interpretation,
implementation/refinement of theory
Lecture Objective
To identify broad problem areas that are likely be
studied in Organization
What preliminary information in the work setting
can be collected.
To conduct a literature survey
To develop relevant and comprehensive
bibliography for any organization research area.
To write a literature review
To state research problems clearly and precisely
Outcomes
We will examine ways to identify variables that would be
relevant to the problem situation
We would be able to develop a literature review.
We would be able to developing specific problems
statements.
Research Process Steps

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Observation
Preliminary Data collation
Problem definition
Theoretical Framework(variables identification)
Generation of Hypothesis
Research Design
Data Collection & Interpretation
Deduction
Report writing (or other wise)
The Research Process for Applied and Basic

Research
Step 1 to 5 are part of the process to identify the
Broad Problem Area, literature review, problem statement,
conceptual framework and the hypothesis generation.
Step 6 and 7 are part of the design which involves planning of
the actual study , location, how to select sample, collect data,
and analyze data.
Step 8 and 9 denote the final deductions from the hypotheses
testing.
If all hypothesis are substantiated and research questions
are fully answered we would try to find different ways to
solve the problem.
If not all hypotheses not support we try to examine the
reasons for this
Broad Problem Area

Identify the broad problem area( observation / focus)
The broad problem area refers to the entire situation
where one sees as a possible need for research and
problem solving e.g.
Training programs are perhaps are not effective as were
anticipated.
An increase in the dis-satisfaction of Customers
Minority groups not making career progress
Broad Problem Area (cont..)

The specific issue might not be very clear.
The issue could pertain to
Problems currently existing in an organization
Areas where the managers believes can have
improvements
For better understanding of a Phenomena
Some empirically research is needed.
Example(s):
Current existing problem: (The removal is essential as it can
effect the routine operations of the organization)
People are not regularly attending their work.
Require Improvement: (The situation needs to enhanced to

ensure a better performance of the organization)
People might come but do not always show a 100% commitment to
their work
Conceptual Issue: (Define the concept, performance)

What is performance (org performance / Employee performance
.
How to measure )
Empirical: (Test empirically )

Attendance and performance related.
Broad Problem Areas

Flexi
Time
Career
progress
Management
of complex
project
Attendance
Sales
Preliminary Information Collection

The broad problem area is narrowed down to specific
issues for investigation after some preliminary
information gathering.
This may take the forms of interviews and library
research
i.e. we try understand the problem in more detail and
and develop a theory in which we try to illustrate the
possible variables that might influence the problem.
Nature of preliminary information collected

The preliminary information collected can be collected
from
Background info of the org/secondary information
Prevailing Knowledge on the Topic
Background Info of the org/secondary Info
Before conducting the first interview

Origin and history of the company -Size
Charter
- Resources
Charter
- Financial position etc
For example information gathered on the financial status of
organization can help identify if the organization cash flow are
bad that might indicate a high rate of return of the products.
This information could be used to gather further information
and discussion while interviewing .
We need to use good judgment as to what kind of

preliminary data is needed
Main idea is to identify the real problems
After the interviewing the researcher needs to tabulate
the various types of information and determine if there
are any patterns to the responses.
Prevailing Knowledge on the Topic

Certain factors are frequently mentioned e.g. untrained
personnel , un safe work environment etc
This gives the researcher a good idea about how to
proceed to the next step of surveying the prevailing
knowledge on the topic through literature review
The literature can help see how other have perceived
these factors in other work settings.
Literature Survey
Literature survey is the documentation of a

comprehensive review of the published and unpublished
work from secondary sources of data in the area of
specific interest to the researcher.
Library, books, WWW, magazines, conference
proceedings, thesis, government publications, and
financial reports.
Why have Literature Survey

A good literature survey ensures that:
Distinction between symptoms and real problem
Important variables are identified
Develop theoretical framework and hypothesis
Problem statement can be made with more precision.
Avoid in reinventing the wheel.
Recognition in the scientific community
Conducting the literature Survey

1. Identify the relevant sources
2. Extracting the relevant information
3. Writing up the literature review
Relevant source
Bibliographic database (article name, date, author..)
Abstract Database (all above + summary)
Full
Evaluating the Literature

Searching might exhibit hundreds of articles and books
Careful selection is needed
We need to find (A)Relevance (B) Quality of the
literature
(A) Relevance
Titles of articles/books
Abstracts of an article
Overview of the purpose

General research plan
Findings
Conclusion
Introduction in an article
Overview of the problem addressed
Specific research objectives
Ends with the summary research questions
Table of contents in a book
Quality
You need to ask
Is the research question / problem clearly stated
Does this study build on previous research
Used appropriate quantitative and qualitative tool etc.
You need to also check if it has been published in good journal

i.e peer reviewed , impact factor
Extracting the Relevant Information

From the articles extract these following information
Problem
Variables
Sample
Data collection
Data analysis
Results
Conclusion
Writing up the literature Review

Documenting of relevant studies citing the author and
the year of the study is called literature review.
Reference key studies , Reference books and article
which are latest
The literature survey is a clear presentation of relevant
research work done thus far in the area of
investigation.
All relevant information should be in a coherent and
logical manner instead of chronological manner
Writing up the literature Review(Cont..)

Introduce the subject (Importance + Purpose of the study
+ define the key concepts)
Identify the major research literature and the gaps
Finally discuss the variables and their relationship to
help you to formulate your frame work and hypothesis.
Article Effects of Flexi Time on Employee Attendance
and Performance
Examples of Bibliography and References

(APA)
Lehsin, C. B. (1997). Management on the World wide
Web. Engle wood Cliff, Prentice Hall.
More examples on pg 61
Referencing and Quotation in Literature review

Todd (1998) has show
In 1997, Kyle compared the dual careers and dual
Perter Drucker (1986) staff work should be limited to
few tasks of high priority.
More examples on page 64
Defining Problem Statement

After interviews and literature review the researcher are
in better position to narrow down the problem from the
broad problem area to more specific problem.
A problem statement is a clear, precise statement of the
specific issue that research intends to address.
A problem could be an interest in a issues where finding
the right answer might help to improve the existing
situation.
We need to be care full that we do not define Symptoms
as problems
Symptom Problem v.s. Real Problem

Symptom Problem: Low Productivity
Real Problem : Low moral
Solution to Symptom is increase in piece rate
Solution to Real Problem : Recognition
Examples of Well defined Problem Statements

To what extent has the new advertising campaign been
successful in creating a high quality , customer centered
corporate image?
How has new packaging affected the sales of the
product?
How do price and quality rate on consumers evaluation?
Does better automation lead to greater investment ?
Example of Broad Problem Area, Lit Review, Problem

Statement.
Broad Problem Area: Low productivity of employee.

Lit Review: faulty machines, low pay rate, low moral
Problem Statement: Is the low moral of employee at
plant x the cause of low productivity?
Exercise
Identify the Broad Problem area, define the problem,
and how would you proceed further.
Pioneers minivans and pickup take a big share of the
truck market , while its cars lag behind those of its
competitors. Quality issues like faulty electrical system,
and head lights are a major concern to the management.
Summary
Identify the first three steps in the research process
Identification of the broad problem area
Preliminary information gathering through interviews and
literature survey
Problem definition
APA format of referencing

Next lecture we would cover the next two steps of the
research process
Framework
Hypotheses

Research Methodlogy

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Course:

Outcomes of the course are :

Business Research Scenarios

Define Business Research

Applied research is when research is done with the

Basic research done mainly to improve our

Research Philosophy and Choices

Important assumptions about the way in which one

Researcher concerned with the feelings and attitudes

Characteristics of Good Research

Replicability: Applying the same method the finding

Generalizability: Applicability of the finding on a

Hypothetic-Deductive Method of Research

Preliminary Information Gathering

Further Scientific Data Collection

We tried to examine what research is?

The seven steps of hypothetic deductive research

Based on the previous literature we discuss the

Exercise : List the independent variable

Distinction between Independent and

Some times one gets confused as to when a variable

Both the scenarios have 3 variables

i.e. only those who have high growth need will

The linear effect of training and growth need on

The effect of training is contingent on high/low growth

Integrating Moderating, Mediating Variables

Components of Theoretical Framework

Examples of their relationships with each

Extent of researcher's interference

Study Setting: Contrived and Non-contrived

Correlation studies done in organizations are called

Studies to establish cause and effect relationships

Cause effect studies in contrived environment in

Unit of Analysis: Individuals, Dyads, Groups,

Individuals: If the problem statement focuses on how

Here the unit of analysis is the individual.(managers

For example, analysis of husband-wife(are they

Groups: If the problem statement is related to group

Organizations: If we compare different departments

Cultures: If we want to study cultural differences

Time Horizon: Cross-sectional versus Longitudinal

Or when data on the dependent variable are

Why the need for measuring

One cannot simply ask what is the achievement

For instance Thirst cannot be seen but we expect

Reducing abstract concepts so they are measurable is

The operational definition of Learning could be

With some effort we can define what is meant by

What is not operational definition

We operationally define concepts and ask questions

Scales and Measurement

Measurement is the process of assigning numbers or

Measurement means that scales are used.

Nominal scales are mutually exclusive

As it might appear on a questionnaire, examples of

The numbers themselves do not have meaning

Nominal scale is always used for obtaining personal

This type of scale can provide information about

Ordinal scale is used to rank the preferences or usage

Rank the following personnel computers with respect

On a scale of one to five, with five meaning you strongly

A ratio variable, has all the properties of an interval

Temperature, expressed in F or C, is not a ratio

Ratio scales are usually used in organization