ASSIGNMENTS

MB 0034
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Set I

1. Explain the different types of research.

According to the intent, research may be classified as:

i) Pure Research

It is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it

in practice, e.g., Einstein’s theory of relativity, Newton’s contributions,
Galileo’s contribution, etc. it is also known as basic or fundamental
research. It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness. It
is not necessarily problem-oriented It aims at extension of knowledge. It
may lead to either discovery of a new theory or refinement of an existing
theory. It lays foundations for applied research. It offers solutions to many
practical problems. It helps to find the critical factors in a practical problem.
It develops many alternative solutions and thus enables us to choose the best
solution.

ii) Applied Research

It is carried on to find solution to a real-life problem requiring an action or

policy decision. It is thus problem-oriented and action-directed. It seeks an

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immediate and practical result, e.g., marketing research carried on for
developing a news market or for studying the post-purchase experience of
customers. Though the immediate purpose of an applied research is to find
solutions to a practical problem, it may incidentally contribute to the
development of theoretical knowledge by leading to the discovery of new
facts or testing of theory or conceptual clarity. It can put theory to the test.
It may aid in conceptual clarification. It may integrate previously existing
theories.

iii) Exploratory Research

It is also known as formulative research. It is preliminary study of an

unfamiliar problem about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. It
is ill-structured and much less focused on pre-determined objectives. It
usually takes the form of a pilot study. The purpose of this research may be
to generate new ideas, or to increase the researcher’s familiarity with the
problem or to make a precise formulation of the problem or to gather
information for clarifying concepts or to determine whether it is feasible to
attempt the study. Katz conceptualizes two levels of exploratory studies.
“At the first level is the discovery of the significant variable in the
situations; at the second, the discovery of relationships between variables.

iv) Descriptive Study

It is a fact finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the

simplest type of research. It is more specific than an exploratory research.
It aims at identifying the various characteristics of a community or

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institution or problem under study and also aims at a classification of the
range of elements comprising the subject matter of study. It contributes to
the development of a young science and useful in verifying focal concepts
through empirical observation. It can highlight important methodological
aspects of data collection and interpretation. The information obtained may
be useful for predication about areas of social life outside the boundaries of
the research. They are valuable in providing facts needed for planning social
action program.

v) Diagnostic Study

It is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is directed

towards discovering what is happening, why it is happening and what can be
done about. It aims at identifying the caused of a problem and the possible
solutions for it. It may also be concerned with discovering the testing
whether certain variables are associated. This type of research requires prior
knowledge of the problem, its thorough formulation, clear-cut definition of
the given population, adequate methods for collecting accurate information,
precise measurement of variables, statistical analysis and test of significance.

vi) Evaluation studies

It is a type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of

social or economic programmes implemented or for assessing the impact of
developmental projects on the development of the project area. It is thus
directed to assess or appraise the quality and quantity of an activity and its
performance, and to specify its attributes and conditions required for its

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success. It is concerned with causal relationships and is more actively
guided by hypothesis. It is concerned also with change over time.

vii) Action Research

It is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an

action programme launched for solving a problem for improving an exiting
situation. It includes six major steps: diagnosis, sharing of diagnostic
information, planning, developing change programme, initiation of
organizational change, implementation of participation and communication
process, and post experimental evaluation.

According to the methods of study, research may be classified as:

i) Experimental Research: It is designed to asses the effects of

particular variables on a phenomenon by keeping the other
variables constant or controlled. It aims at determining whether
and in what manner variables are related to each other.

ii) Analytical Study: It is a system of procedures and techniques of

analysis applied to quantitative data. It may consist of a system of
mathematical models or statistical techniques applicable to
numerical data. Hence it is also known as the Statistical Method.
It aims at testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting
relationships.

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 iii) Historical Research: It is a study of past records and other
information sources with a view to reconstructing the origin and
development of an institution or a movement or a system and
discovering the trends in the past. It is descriptive in nature. It is a
difficult task; it must often depend upon inference and logical
analysis or recorded data and indirect evidences rather than upon
direct observation.

iv) Survey: It is a fact-finding study. It is a method of research

involving collection of data directly from a population or a sample
thereof at particular time. Its purpose is to provide information,
explain phenomena, to make comparisons and concerned with
cause and effect relationships can be useful for making
predications.

2. Discuss the criteria of good research problem.

Horton and Hunt have given following characteristics of scientific research:

i) Verifiable evidence: That is factual observations which other

observers can see and check.
ii) Accuracy: That is describing what really exists. It means truth or
correctness of a statement or describing things exactly as the are
and avoiding jumping to unwarranted conclusions either by
exaggeration or fantasizing.

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iii) Precision: That is making it as exact as necessary, or giving exact
number or measurement. This avoids colourful literature and
vague meanings.
iv) Systematization: That is attempting to find all the relevant data, or
collecting data in a systematic and organized way so that the
conclusions drawn are reliable. Data based on casual recollections
are generally incomplete and give unreliable judgments and
conclusions.
v) Objectivity: That is free being from all biases and vested
interests. It means observation is unaffected by the observer’s
values , beliefs and preferences to the extent possible and he is able
to see and accept facts as they are, not as he might wish them to be.
vi) Recording: That is jotting down complete details as quickly as
possible. Since human memory is fallible, all data collected are
recorded.
vii) Controlling conditions: That is controlling all variables except
one and then attempting to examine what happens when that
variable is varied. This is the basic technique in all scientific
experimentation – allowing one variable to vary while holding all
other variables constant.
viii) Training investigators: That is imparting necessary knowledge to
investigators to make them understand what to look for, how to
interpret in and void inaccurate data collection.

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 3. Describe the procedure used to test the hypothesis

To test a hypothesis means to tell (on the basis of the data researcher has
collected) whether or not the hypothesis seems to be valid. In hypothesis
testing the main question is: whether the null hypothesis or not to accept the
null hypothesis? Procedure for hypothesis testing refers to all those steps
that we undertake for making a choice between the two actions i.e rejection
and acceptance of a null hypothesis. The various steps involved in
hypothesis testing are stated below:

Making a Formal Statement:

The step consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis (Ho)
and also of the alternative hypothesis (Ha). This means that hypothesis
should clearly state, considering the nature of the research problem. For
instance, Mr. Mohan of the Civil Engineering Department wants to test the
load bearing capacity of an old bridge which must be more than 10 tons, in
that case he can state his hypothesis as under:
Null hypothesis Ho: =10 tons
Alternative hypothesis Ha: > 10 tons

The formulation of hypothesis is an important step which must be

accomplished with due care in accordance with the object and nature of the
problem under consideration. It also indicates whether we should use a
tailed test or a two tailed test. If Ha is of the type greater than, we use alone
tailed test, but when Ha is of the type “whether greater or smaller” then we
use a two- tailed test.

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Selecting a Significant Level:

The hypothesis is tested on a pre-determined level of significance and such

the same should have specified. Generally, in practice, either 5% level or
the 1% level is adopted for the purpose. The factors that affect the level of
significance are:

• The magnitude of the difference between sample;

• The size of the sample;
• The variability of measurements within samples;
• Whether the hypothesis is directional or non-directional ( A
directional hypothesis is one which predicts the direction of the
difference between say, means). In brief, the level of significance
must be adequate in the context of the purpose and nature of enquiry.

Deciding the Distribution to use:

After deciding the level of significance, the next step in hypothesis testing is
to determine the appropriate sampling distribution. The choice generally
remains between distribution and the t distribution. The rules for selecting
the correct distribution are similar to those which we have stated earlier in
the context of estimation.

Selecting a Random sample & computing an appropriate Value:

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Another step is to select a random sample(s) and compute an appropriate
value from the sample data concerning the test statistic utilizing the relevant
distribution. In other words, draw a sample to furnish empirical data.

Calculation of the Probability:

One has then to calculate the probability that the sample result would
diverge as widely as it has from expectations, if the null hypothesis were in
fact true.

Comparing the probability:

Yet another step consists in comparing the probability thus calculated with
the specified value for a, the significant level. If the calculated probability is
equal to smaller than a value in case of one tailed test ( and a/2 in case of
two-tailed test), then reject the null hypothesis (i.e. accept the alternative
hypothesis), but if the probability is greater then accept the null hypothesis.
In case we reject Ho we run a risk of ( at most level of significance)
committing an error of type I, but if we accept Ho, then we run some risk of
committing error type II.

Flow Diagram for Testing Hypothesis

State Ho as well as Ha

Specify the level of significance

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 Decide the correct sampling distribution

Sample a random sample and workout an appropriate value

Calculate the probability that sample result would diverge as widely as it has
form expectations, if Ho were true

Is this probability equal to or smaller than a value in case of one-tailed test

and a/2 in case of two tailed test

Reject Ho Accept Ho

Run the risk of Run

Some risk of
Committing type II error

4. Write a note on experimental design

Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs:

The principle of replication:

The experiment should be reaped more than once . Thus , each treatment is
applied in may experimental units instead of one. By doing so, the statistical
accuracy of the experiments is increased. For example, suppose we are to
examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose we may divide
the field into two parts and grow one variety in one part and the other variety
in the other part. We can compare the yield of the two parts and draw
conclusion on that basis. But if we are to apply the principle of replication

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to this experiment, then we first divide the field into several parts, grow one
variety in half of these parts and the other variety in the remaining parts. We
can collect the data yield of the two varieties and draw conclusion by
comparing the same. The result so obtained will be more reliable in
comparison to the conclusion we draw without applying the principle of
replication. The entire experiment can even be repeated several times for
better results. Consequently replication does not present any difficulty, but
computationally it does. However, it should be remembered that replication
is introduced in order to increase the precision of a study that is to say, to
increase the accuracy with which the main effects and interactions can be
estimated.

The Principle of randomization:

It provides protection, when we conduct an experiment, against the effect of
extraneous factors by randomization. In other words, this principle indicates
that we should design or plan the ‘experiment in such a way that the
variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined under the
general heading of “chance”. For instance if we grow one variety of rice say
in the first half of the parts of a field and the other variety is grown in the
other half, then it is just possible that the soil fertility may be different in the
first half in comparison to the other half. If this is so, our results would not
be realistic. In such a situation, we may assign the variety of rice to be
grown in different parts of the field on the basis of some random sampling
technique i.e. we may apply randomization principle and protect ourselves
against the effects of extraneous factors. As such through the application of
the principle of randomization, we can have a better estimate of the
experimental error.

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Principle of local control:
It is another important principle of experimental designs. Under it the
extraneous factors, the known source of variability, is made to vary
deliberately over as wide a range as necessary and this needs to be done in
such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and hence
eliminated from the experimental error. This means that we should plan the
experiment in a manner that we can perform a two way analysis of variance,
in which the total variability of the data is divided into three components
attributed to treatments, the extraneous factor and experimental error. In
other words, according to the principle of local control, we first divide the
field into several homogeneous parts, known as blocks, and then each such
block is divided into parts equal to the number of treatments. Then the
treatments are randomly assigned to these parts of a block. In general,
blocks are the levels at which we hold and extraneous factors fixed, so that
we can measure its contribution to the variability of the data by means of a
two way analysis of variable. In brief, through the principle of local control
we can eliminate the variability due to extraneous factors from the
experimental error.

Important Experimental Designs:

Experimental design refers to the framework of structure of an experiment

and as such there are several experimental designs. We can classify
experimental designs into two broad categories. Informal experimental and
formal experimental designs. Informal experimental designs are those
designs that normally use a less sophisticated form of analysis based on

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differences in magnitudes, where as formal experimental designs offer
relatively more control and use precise statistical procedures for analysis.

Informal experimentsal designs:

• Before and after without control design
• After only with control design
• Before and after with control design

Formal experimental designs:

• Completely randomized design (CR design)
• Randomized block design (RB design)
• Latin square design (LS design)
• Factorial design

5. Elaborate the ways of making a case study effective.

John Dollard has proposed seven criteria for evaluating such adequacy as
follows:

i) The subject must be viewed as a specimen in a cultural series.

That is, the case drawn out from its total context for the purposes
of study must be considered a member of the particular cultural
group or community. The scrutiny of the life histories of persons
must be done with a view to identify thee community values,
standards and their shared way of life.
ii) The organic motto of action must be socially relevant. That is the
action of the individual cases must be viewed as a series of

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 reactions to social stimuli or situation. In other words the social
meaning of behavior must be taken into consideration.
iii) The strategic role of the family group in transmitting the culture
must be recognized. That is, in case of an individual being the
member of a family, the role of family in shaping his behavior
must never be overlooked.
iv) The specific method of elaboration of organic material onto social
behavior must be clearly shown. That is case histories that portray
in detail how basically a biological organism, the man, gradually
blossoms forth into a social persons are especially fruitful.
v) The continuous related character of experience for childhood
through adulthood must be stressed. In other words, the life
history must be a configuration depicting the inter-relationships
between thee person’s various experiences.
vi) Social situation must be carefully and continuously specified as a
factor. One of the important criteria for the life history is that a
persons life must be shown as unfolding itself in the context of and
partly owing to specific social situations.
vii) The life history material itself must be organized according to
some conceptual framework, this in turn would facilitate
generalizations at a higher level.

6. What is non probability sampling? Explain its types with examples.

Non probability sampling or non-random sampling is not based on the

theory of probability. This sampling does not provide a chance of selection
to each population element.

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Advantages: The only merits of this type of sampling are the simplicity,
convenience and low cost.

Disadvantages: The demerits are it does not ensure a selection chance to

each population unit. The selection probability sample may not be a
representative one. The selection probability is unknown. It suffers from
sampling bias which will distort results.

The reasons for usage of this sampling are when there is no other feasible
alternative due to non-availability of a list of population, when the study
does not aim at generalizing the findings to the population, when the costs
require for probability sampling may be too large, when probability
sampling required more time, but the time constraints and the time limit for
completing the study do not permit it. It may be classified into:

Convenience or Accidental Sampling:

It means selecting sample units in a just ‘hit and miss’ fashion E.g
interviewing people whom we happen to meet. This sampling also means
selecting whatever sampling units are conveniently available, e.g., a teacher
may select students in his class. This method is also known as accidental
sampling because the respondents whom the researcher meets accidentally
are included in the sample.

Suitability: Though this type of sampling has no status, it may be used for
simple purposes such as testing ideas or gaining ideas or rough impression
about a subject of interest.

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Advantage: It is the cheapest and simplest, it does not require a list of
population and it does not require any statistical expertise.

Disadvantage: The disadvantage is that it is highly biased because of

researchers subjectivity, it is the least reliable sampling method and the
findings cannot be generalized.

Purposive (or judgment) sampling:

This method means deliberate selection of sample units that conform to
some pre-determined criteria. This is also known as judgment sampling.
This involves selection of cases which we judge as the most appropriate
ones for the given study. It is based on the judgment of the researcher or
some expert. It does not aim at securing a cross section of a population.
The chance that a particular case be selected for the sample depends on the
subjective judgment of the researcher.

Suitability: This is used when what is important is the typicality and

specific relevance of the sampling units to the study and not their overall
representative ness to the population.

Advantage: It is less costly and more convenient and guarantees inclusion

of relevant elements in the sample.

Disadvantage: It is less efficient for generalizing, does not ensure the

representative ness, requires more prior extensive information and does not
lend itself for using inferential statistics.

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Quota sampling:
This is a form of convenient sampling involving selection of quota groups of
accessible sampling units by traits such as sex, age, social class, etc. it is a
method of stratified sampling in which the selection within strata is non
random. It is this Non-random element that constitutes its greatest
weakness.

Suitability: It is used in studies like marketing surveys, opinion polls, and

readership surveys which do not aim at precision, but to get quickly some
crude results.

Advantage: It is less costly, takes less time, non need for a list of
population, and field work can easily be organized.

Disadvantage: It is impossible to estimate sampling error, strict control if

field work is difficult, and subject to a higher degree of classification.

Snow-ball sampling:
This is the colorful name for a technique of Building up a list or a sample of
a special population by using an initial set of its members as informants.
This sampling technique may also be used in socio-metric studies.

Suitability: It is very useful in studying social groups, informal groups in a

formal organization, and diffusion of information among professional of
various kinds.

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Advantage: It is useful for smaller populations for which no frames are
readily available.

Disadvantage: The disadvantage is that it does not allow the use of

probability statistical methods. It is difficult to apply when the population is
large. It does not ensure the inclusion of all the elements in the list.

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 ASSIGNMENTS
MB 0034
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Set II

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of secondary data?

Advantages of Secondary Data:

1. Secondary data, if available can be secured quickly and

cheaply. Once their source of documents and reports are located,
collection of data is just matter of desk work. Even the tediousness
of copying the data from the source can now be avoided, thanks to
Xeroxing facilities.
2. Wider geographical area and longer reference period may be
covered without much cost. Thus, the use of secondary data
extends the researcher’s space and time reach.
3. The use of Secondary data broadens the data base from which
scientific generalizations can be made.
4. Environmental and cultural settings are required for the study.
5. The use of secondary data enables a researcher to verify the
findings bases on primary data. It readily meets the need for
additional empirical support. The researcher need not wait the
time when additional primary data can be collected.

Disadvantages of Secondary Data:

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The use of a secondary data has its own limitations
1. The most important limitation is the available data may not meet our
specific needs. The definitions adopted by those who collected those
data may be different; units of measure may not match; and time
periods may also be different.
2. The available data may not be as accurate as desired. To assess their
accuracy we need to know how the data were collected.
3. The secondary data are not up-to-date and become obsolete when they
appear in print, because of time lag in producing them. For example,
population census data are published tow or three years later after
compilation, and no new figures will be available for another ten
years.
4. Finally, information about the whereabouts of sources may not be
available to all social scientists. Even if the location of the source is
known, the accessibility depends primarily on proximity. For
example, most of the unpublished official records and compilations
are located in the capital city, and they are not within the easy reach of
researchers based in far off places.

2. Explain the prerequisites and advantages of observation.

Prerequisites of Effective Observation

The prerequisites of observation consist of:
• Observations must be done under conditions which will permit
accurate results. The observer must be in vantage point to see clearly
the objects to be observed. The distance and the light must be

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 satisfactory. The mechanical devices used must be in good working
conditions and operated by skilled persons.
• Observation must cover a sufficient number of representative samples
of the cases.
• Recording should be accurate and complete.
• The accuracy and completeness of recorded results must be checked.
A certain number of cases can be observed again by another
observer/another set of mechanical devices, as the case may be. If it
is feasible, two separate observers and sets of instruments may be
used in all or some of the original observations. The results could
then be compared to determine their accuracy and completeness.

Advantages of observation:

1. The main virtue of observation is its directness: it makes it possible to

study behavior as it occurs. The researcher need not ask people about
their behaviour and interactions; he can simple watch what they do
and say.
2. Data collected by observation may describe the observed phenomena
as they occur in their natural settings. Other methods introduce
elements or artificiality into the researched situation for instance, in
interview; the respondent may not behave in a natural way. There is
no such artificiality in observational studies, especially when the
observed persons are not aware of their being observed.

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 3. Observations is more suitable for studying subjects who are unable to
articulate meaningfully, e.g. studies of children, tribal, animals, birds
etc.
4. Observations improve the opportunities for analyzing the contextual
back ground of behaviour. Further more verbal resorts can be
validated and compared with behaviour through observation. The
validity of what men of position and authority say can be verified by
observing what they actually do.
5. Observations make it possible to capture the whole event as it occurs.
For example only observation can provide an insight into all the
aspects of the process of negotiation between union and management
representatives.
6. Observation is less demanding of the subjects and has less biasing
effect on their conduct than questioning.
7. It is easier to conduct disguised observation studies than disguised
questioning.
8. Mechanical devices may be used for recording data in order to secure
more accurate data and also of making continuous observations over
longer periods.

3. Discuss the stages involved in data collection.

The researcher should prepare a mailing list of the selected respondents by

collecting the addresses from the telephone directory of the association or
organization to which they belong. A covering letter should accompany a
copy of the questionnaire. It must explain to the respondent the purpose of

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the study and the importance of his cooperation to the success of the project.
Anonymity may be assured.

There are some alternative methods of distributing questionnaires to the

respondents. They are:
Personal Delivery: The researcher or his assistant may deliver the
questionnaires to the potential respondents with a request to complete them
at their convenience. After a day or two he can collect the completed
questionnaires from them. Often referred to as the self administered
questionnaire method, it combines the advantages of the personal interview
and the mail survey. Alternatively, the questionnaires may be delivered in
person and the completed questionnaires may be returned by mail by the
respondents.

Attaching questionnaire to a product: A firm test marketing a product

may attach a questionnaire to a product and request the buyer to complete it
and mail it back to the firm. The respondent is usually rewarded by a gift or
a discount coupon.

Advertising the Questionnaires: The questionnaire with the instructions

for completion may be advertised on a page of magazine or in section of
newspapers. The potential respondent completes it tears it out and mails it
to the advertiser. For example, the committee of Banks customer services
used this method. Management studies for collecting information from the
customers of commercial banks in India. This method may be useful for
large-scale on topics of common interest.

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News-Stand Inserts: This method involves inserting the covering letter,
questionnaire and self addressed reply paid envelope into a random sample
of news stand copies of a newspaper or magazine.

Improving the Response Rate in a Mail survey: The response rate in mail
surveys is generally very low more so in developing countries like India.
Certain techniques have to be adopted to increase the response rate. They
are:

Quality printing: The questionnaire may be neatly printed in quality light

coloured paper, so as to attract the attention of the respondent.
Covering letter: The covering letter should be couched in a pleasant style so
as to attract and hold the interest of the respondent. It must anticipate
objections and answer them briefly. It is a desirable to address the
respondent by name.
Advance Information: Advance information can be provided to potential
respondents by a telephone call or advance notice in the news letter of the
concerned organization or by a letter. Such preliminary contact with
potential respondents is more successful than follow up efforts.
Incentives: Money, stamps for collection and other incentives are also used
to induce respondents to complete and return mail questionnaire.
Follow-Up-Contacts: In the case of respondents belonging to an
organization, they may be approached through some one in that organization
known as the researcher.
Larger sample size: A large sample may be drawn than the estimated
sample size. For example, if the required sample size is 1000, a sample of

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1500 may be drawn. This may help the researcher to secure an effective
sample size closer to the required size.

4. Briefly explain the types of interviews.

The interview may be classified into:
Structured Directive Interview:
This is an interview made with a detailed standardized schedule. The same
questions are put to all the respondents and in the same order. Each question
is asked in the same way in each interview, promoting measurement
reliability. This type of interview is used for large-scale formalized surveys.

Advantages: This interview has certain advantages. First, data from one
interview to the next one are easily comparable. Second, recording and
coding data do not pose any problem, and greater precision is achieved.
Lastly, attention is not diverted to extraneous, irrelevant and time consuming
conversation.

Limitation: However, this type of interview suffers from some limitations.

First, it tends to lose the spontaneity of natural conversation. Second, the
way in which the interview is structured may be such that the respondent’s
views are minimized and the investigator’s own biases regarding the
problem under study are inadvertent introduced. Lastly, the scope for
exploration is limited.

Unstructured or Non-Directive Interview:

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This is the least structured one. The interviewer encourages the respondent
to talk freely about a give topic with a minimum of prompting or guidance.
In this type of interview, a detailed pre-planned schedule is not used. Only a
broad interview guide is used. The interviewer avoids channeling the
interview directions. Instead he develops a very permissive atmosphere.
Questions are not standardized and ordered in a particular way.

This interviewing is more useful in case studies rather than in surveys. It is

particularly useful in exploratory research where the lines of investigations
are not clearly defined. It is also useful for gathering information on
sensitive topics such as divorce, social discrimination, class conflict,
generation gap, drug-addiction etc. It provides opportunity to explore the
various aspects of the problem in an unrestricted manner.

Advantages: This type of interview has certain special advantages. It can

closely approximate the spontaneity of a natural conversation. It is less
prone to interviewer’s bias. It provides greater opportunity to explore the
problem in an unrestricted manner.

Limitations: Though the unstructured interview is a potent research

instrument, it is not free from limitations. One of its major limitations is that
the data obtained from one interview is not comparable to the data from the
next. Hence, it is not suitable for surveys. Time may be wasted in
unproductive conversations. By not focusing on one or another facet of a
problem, the investigator may run the risk of being led up blind ally. As
there is no particular order or sequence in this interview, the classification of

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responses and coding may required more time. This type of informal
interviewing calls for greater skill than the formal survey interview.

Focused Interview:
This is a semi-structured interview where the investigator attempts to focus
the discussion on the actual effects of a given experience to which the
respondents have been exposed. It takes place with the respondents known
to have involved in a particular experience, e.g. seeing a particular film,
viewing a particular program on TV., involved in a train/bus accident, etc.

The situation is analyzed prior to the interview. An interview guide

specifying topics relating to the research hypothesis used. The interview is
focused on the subjective experiences of the respondent, ie., his attitudes and
emotional responses regarding the situation under study. The focused
interview permits the interviewer to obtain details of personal reactions,
specific emotions and the like.

Merits: This type of interview is free from the inflexibility of formal

methods, yet gives the interview a set form and insured adequate coverage of
all the relevant topics. The respondent is asked for certain information, yet
he has plenty of opportunity to present his views. The interviewer is also
free to choose the sequence of questions and determine the extent of
probing.

Clinical Interview:

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This is similar to the focused interview but with a subtle difference. While
the focused interview is concerned with the effects of specific experience,
clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations
or with the course of the individual’s life experiences.

The ‘personal history’ interview used in social case work, prison,

administration, psychiatric clinics and in individual life history research is
the most common type of clinical interview. The specific aspects of the
individual’s life history to be covered by the interview are determined with
reference to the purpose of the study and the respondent is encouraged to
talk freely about them.

Depth Interview:
This is an intensive and searching interview aiming at studying the
respondent’s opinion, emotions or convictions on the basis of an interview
guide. This requires much more training on inter-personal skills than
structured interview. This deliberately aims to elicit unconscious as well as
extremely personal feelings and emotions.

This is generally a lengthy procedure designed to encourage free expression

of affectively charged information. It requires probing. The interviewer
should totally avoid advising or showing disagreement. Of course, he
should use encouraging expressions like “uh-huh” or “I see” to motivate the
respondent to continue narration. Some times the interviewer has to face the
problem of affections, ie. The respondent may hide expressing affective
feelings. The interviewer should handle such situation with great care.

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 5. Describe the principles involved in the table construction.

There are certain generally accepted principles of rules relating to

construction of tables. They are:
1. Every table should have a title. The tile should represent a succinct
description of the contents of the table. It should be clear and concise.
It should be placed above the body of the table.
2. A number facilitating easy reference should identify every table. The

number can be centered above the title. The table numbers should run
in consecutive serial order. Alternatively tables in chapter 1 be
numbered as 1.1, 1.2,1….., in chapter 2 as 2.1,2.2,2.3…… and so on.
3. The captions (or column headings) should be clear and brief.
4. The units of measurement under each heading must always be
indicated.
5. Any explanatory footnotes concerning the table itself are placed
directly beneath the table and in order to obviate any possible
confusion with the textual footnotes such reference symbols as the
asterisk (*) DAGGER (+) and the like may be used.
6. If the data in a series of tables have been obtained from different
sources, it is ordinarily advisable to indicate the specific sources in a
place just below the table.
7. Usually lines separate columns from one another. Lines are always
drawn at the top and bottom of the table and below the captions.
8. The columns may be numbered to facilitate reference.
9. All column figures should be properly aligned. Decimal points and
“plus” or “minus” signs should be in perfect alignment.

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 10.Columns and rows that are to be compared with one another should be
brought closed together.
11.Totals of rows should be placed at the extreme right column and totals
of columns at the bottom.
12.In order to emphasize the relative significance of certain categories,
different kinds of type, spacing and identifications can be used.
13.The arrangement of the categories in a table may be chronological,
geographical, alphabetical or according to magnitude. Numerical
categories are usually arranged in descending order of magnitude.
14.Miscellaneous and exceptions items are generally placed in the last
row of the table.
15.Usually the larger number of items is listed vertically. This means
that a table’s length is more than its width.
16.Abbreviations should be avoided whenever possible and ditto marks
should not be used in a table.
17.The table should be made as logical, clear, accurate and simple as
possible.

Text references should identify tables by number, rather than by such

expressions as “the table above” or “the following table”. Tables should not
exceed the page size by photo stating. Tables those are too wide for the
page may be turned sidewise, with the top facing the left margin or binding
of the script. Where tables should be placed in research report or thesis?
Some writers place both special purpose and general purpose tables in an
appendix and refer to them in the text by numbers. This practice has the
disadvantages of inconveniencing the reader who wants to study the
tabulated data as the text is read. A more appropriate procedure is to place

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special purpose tables in the text and primary tables, if needed at all, in an
appendix.

6. Write a note on contents of research report.

The outline of a research report is given below.

I. Prefatory Items
• Title page
• Declaration
• Certificates
• Preface/acknowledgements
• Table of contents
• List of tables
• List of graphs/figures/charts
• Abstract or synopsis

II. Body of the Report

• Introduction
• Theoretical background of the topic
• Statement of the problem
• Review of literature
• The scope of the study
• The objectives of the study

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• Hypothesis to be tested
• Definition of the concepts
• Models if any
• Design of the study
• Methodology
• Method of data collection
• Sources of data
• Sampling plan
• Data collection instruments
• Field work
• Data processing and analysis plan
• Overview of the report
• Limitation of the study
• Results: findings and discussions
• Summary, conclusions and recommendations

III. Reference Material

• Bibliography
• Appendix
• Copies of data collection instruments
• Technical details on sampling plan
• Complex tables
• Glossary of new terms used.

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