Dirac Delta Function

6/4/2015
DiracdeltafunctionWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Diracdeltafunction
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Inmathematics,theDiracdeltafunction,or
function,isageneralizedfunction,ordistribution,on
therealnumberlinethatiszeroeverywhereexceptat
zero,withanintegralofoneovertheentirereal
line.[1][2][3]Thedeltafunctionissometimesthoughtof
asaninfinitelyhigh,infinitelythinspikeattheorigin,
withtotalareaoneunderthespike,andphysically
representsthedensityofanidealizedpointmassor
pointcharge.[4]Itwasintroducedbytheoretical
physicistPaulDirac.Inthecontextofsignalprocessing
itisoftenreferredtoastheunitimpulsesymbol(or
function).[5]ItsdiscreteanalogistheKroneckerdelta
function,whichisusuallydefinedonadiscretedomain
andtakesvalues0and1.
SchematicrepresentationoftheDiracdeltafunctionby
alinesurmountedbyanarrow.Theheightofthearrow
isusuallyusedtospecifythevalueofanymultiplicative
constant,whichwillgivetheareaunderthefunction.
Theotherconventionistowritetheareanexttothe
arrowhead.
Fromapurelymathematicalviewpoint,theDiracdelta
isnotstrictlyafunction,becauseanyextendedreal
functionthatisequaltozeroeverywherebutasingle
pointmusthavetotalintegralzero.[6]Thedelta
functiononlymakessenseasamathematicalobject
whenitappearsinsideanintegral.Whilefromthis
perspectivetheDiracdeltacanusuallybemanipulatedasthoughitwereafunction,formallyitmustbedefined
asadistributionthatisalsoameasure.Inmanyapplications,theDiracdeltaisregardedasakindoflimit(a
weaklimit)ofasequenceoffunctionshavingatallspikeattheorigin.Theapproximatingfunctionsofthe
sequencearethus"approximate"or"nascent"deltafunctions.
Contents
1Overview
2History
3Definitions
3.1Asameasure
3.2Asadistribution
3.3Generalizations
4Properties
4.1Scalingandsymmetry
4.2Algebraicproperties
4.3Translation
4.4Compositionwithafunction
4.5Propertiesinndimensions
5Fouriertransform
6Distributionalderivatives
6.1Higherdimensions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_delta_function
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7Representationsofthedeltafunction
7.1Approximationstotheidentity
7.2Probabilisticconsiderations
7.3Semigroups
7.4Oscillatoryintegrals
7.5Planewavedecomposition
7.6Fourierkernels
7.7Hilbertspacetheory
7.7.1Spacesofholomorphicfunctions
7.7.2Resolutionsoftheidentity
7.8Infinitesimaldeltafunctions
8Diraccomb
9SokhotskiPlemeljtheorem
10RelationshiptotheKroneckerdelta
11Applications
11.1Probabilitytheory
11.2Quantummechanics
11.3Structuralmechanics
12Seealso
13Notes
14References
15Externallinks
TheDiracdeltafunctionasthe
limit(inthesenseofdistributions)
ofthesequenceofzerocentered
normaldistributions
Overview
as
Thegraphofthedeltafunctionisusuallythoughtofasfollowingthe
wholexaxisandthepositiveyaxis.Despiteitsname,thedeltafunctionis
nottrulyafunction,atleastnotausualonewithrangeinrealnumbers.Forexample,theobjectsf(x)=(x)and
g(x)=0areequaleverywhereexceptatx=0yethaveintegralsthataredifferent.AccordingtoLebesgue
integrationtheory,iffandgarefunctionssuchthatf=galmosteverywhere,thenfisintegrableifandonlyifg
isintegrableandtheintegralsoffandgareidentical.RigoroustreatmentoftheDiracdeltarequiresmeasure
theoryorthetheoryofdistributions.
TheDiracdeltaisusedtomodelatallnarrowspikefunction(animpulse),andothersimilarabstractionssuch
asapointcharge,pointmassorelectronpoint.Forexample,tocalculatethedynamicsofabaseballbeinghit
byabat,onecanapproximatetheforceofthebathittingthebaseballbyadeltafunction.Indoingso,onenot
onlysimplifiestheequations,butonealsoisabletocalculatethemotionofthebaseballbyonlyconsidering
thetotalimpulseofthebatagainsttheballratherthanrequiringknowledgeofthedetailsofhowthebat
transferredenergytotheball.
Inappliedmathematics,thedeltafunctionisoftenmanipulatedasakindoflimit(aweaklimit)ofasequence
offunctions,eachmemberofwhichhasatallspikeattheorigin:forexample,asequenceofGaussian
distributionscenteredattheoriginwithvariancetendingtozero.
History
JosephFourierpresentedwhatisnowcalledtheFourierintegraltheoreminhistreatiseThorieanalytiquede
lachaleurintheform:[7]
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whichistantamounttotheintroductionofthefunctionintheform:[8]
Later,AugustinCauchyexpressedthetheoremusingexponentials:[9][10]
Cauchypointedoutthatinsomecircumstancestheorderofintegrationinthisresultwassignificant.[11][12]
Asjustifiedusingthetheoryofdistributions,theCauchyequationcanberearrangedtoresembleFourier's
originalformulationandexposethefunctionas:
wherethefunctionisexpressedas:
Arigorousinterpretationoftheexponentialformandthevariouslimitationsuponthefunctionfnecessaryfor
itsapplicationextendedoverseveralcenturies.Theproblemswithaclassicalinterpretationareexplainedas
follows:[13]
ThegreatestdrawbackoftheclassicalFouriertransformationisarathernarrowclassoffunctions
(originals)forwhichitcanbeeffectivelycomputed.Namely,itisnecessarythatthesefunctionsdecrease
sufficientlyrapidlytozero(intheneighborhoodofinfinity)inordertoinsuretheexistenceoftheFourier
integral.Forexample,theFouriertransformofsuchsimplefunctionsaspolynomialsdoesnotexistin
theclassicalsense.TheextensionoftheclassicalFouriertransformationtodistributionsconsiderably
enlargedtheclassoffunctionsthatcouldbetransformedandthisremovedmanyobstacles.
FurtherdevelopmentsincludedgeneralizationoftheFourierintegral,"beginningwithPlancherel's
pathbreakingL2theory(1910),continuingwithWiener'sandBochner'sworks(around1930)andculminating
withtheamalgamationintoL.Schwartz'stheoryofdistributions(1945)...",[14]andleadingtotheformal
developmentoftheDiracdeltafunction.
Aninfinitesimalformulaforaninfinitelytall,unitimpulsedeltafunction(infinitesimalversionofCauchy
distribution)explicitlyappearsinan1827textofAugustinLouisCauchy.[15]SimonDenisPoissonconsidered
theissueinconnectionwiththestudyofwavepropagationasdidGustavKirchhoffsomewhatlater.Kirchhoff
andHermannvonHelmholtzalsointroducedtheunitimpulseasalimitofGaussians,whichalsocorresponded
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toLordKelvin'snotionofapointheatsource.Attheendofthe19thcentury,OliverHeavisideusedformal
Fourierseriestomanipulatetheunitimpulse.[16]TheDiracdeltafunctionassuchwasintroducedasa
"convenientnotation"byPaulDiracinhisinfluential1930bookThePrinciplesofQuantumMechanics.[17]He
calleditthe"deltafunction"sinceheuseditasacontinuousanalogueofthediscreteKroneckerdelta.
Definitions
TheDiracdeltacanbelooselythoughtofasafunctiononthereallinewhichiszeroeverywhereexceptatthe
origin,whereitisinfinite,
andwhichisalsoconstrainedtosatisfytheidentity
[18]
Thisismerelyaheuristiccharacterization.TheDiracdeltaisnotafunctioninthetraditionalsenseasno
functiondefinedontherealnumbershastheseproperties.[17]TheDiracdeltafunctioncanberigorously
definedeitherasadistributionorasameasure.
Asameasure
Onewaytorigorouslydefinethedeltafunctionisasameasure,whichacceptsasanargumentasubsetAofthe
reallineR,andreturns(A)=1if0A,and(A)=0otherwise.[19]Ifthedeltafunctionisconceptualizedas
modelinganidealizedpointmassat0,then(A)representsthemasscontainedinthesetA.Onemaythen
definetheintegralagainstastheintegralofafunctionagainstthismassdistribution.Formally,theLebesgue
integralprovidesthenecessaryanalyticdevice.TheLebesgueintegralwithrespecttothemeasuresatisfies
forallcontinuouscompactlysupportedfunctionsf.Themeasureisnotabsolutelycontinuouswithrespectto
theLebesguemeasureinfact,itisasingularmeasure.Consequently,thedeltameasurehasnoRadon
Nikodymderivativenotruefunctionforwhichtheproperty
holds.[20]Asaresult,thelatternotationisaconvenientabuseofnotation,andnotastandard(Riemannor
Lebesgue)integral.
AsaprobabilitymeasureonR,thedeltameasureischaracterizedbyitscumulativedistributionfunction,
whichistheunitstepfunction[21]
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ThismeansthatH(x)istheintegralofthecumulativeindicatorfunction1(,x]withrespecttothemeasure
towit,
Thusinparticulartheintegralofthedeltafunctionagainstacontinuousfunctioncanbeproperlyunderstoodas
aStieltjesintegral:[22]
Allhighermomentsofarezero.Inparticular,characteristicfunctionandmomentgeneratingfunctionare
bothequaltoone.
Asadistribution
Inthetheoryofdistributionsageneralizedfunctionisthoughtofnotasafunctionitself,butonlyinrelationto
howitaffectsotherfunctionswhenitis"integrated"againstthem.Inkeepingwiththisphilosophy,todefine
thedeltafunctionproperly,itisenoughtosaywhatthe"integral"ofthedeltafunctionagainstasufficiently
"good"testfunctionis.Ifthedeltafunctionisalreadyunderstoodasameasure,thentheLebesgueintegralofa
testfunctionagainstthatmeasuresuppliesthenecessaryintegral.
AtypicalspaceoftestfunctionsconsistsofallsmoothfunctionsonRwithcompactsupport.Asadistribution,
theDiracdeltaisalinearfunctionalonthespaceoftestfunctionsandisdefinedby[23]
(1)
foreverytestfunction.
Fortobeproperlyadistribution,itmustbe"continuous"inasuitablesense.Ingeneral,foralinearfunctional
Sonthespaceoftestfunctionstodefineadistribution,itisnecessaryandsufficientthat,foreverypositive
integerNthereisanintegerMNandaconstantCNsuchthatforeverytestfunction,onehastheinequality[24]
Withthedistribution,onehassuchaninequality(withCN=1)withMN=0forallN.Thusisadistribution
oforderzero.Itis,furthermore,adistributionwithcompactsupport(thesupportbeing{0}).
Thedeltadistributioncanalsobedefinedinanumberofequivalentways.Forinstance,itisthedistributional
derivativeoftheHeavisidestepfunction.Thismeansthat,foreverytestfunction,onehas
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Intuitively,ifintegrationbypartswerepermitted,thenthelatterintegralshouldsimplifyto
andindeed,aformofintegrationbypartsispermittedfortheStieltjesintegral,andinthatcaseonedoeshave
Inthecontextofmeasuretheory,theDiracmeasuregivesrisetoadistributionbyintegration.Conversely,
equation(1)definesaDaniellintegralonthespaceofallcompactlysupportedcontinuousfunctionswhich,
bytheRieszrepresentationtheorem,canberepresentedastheLebesgueintegralofwithrespecttosome
Radonmeasure.
Generalizations
ThedeltafunctioncanbedefinedinndimensionalEuclideanspaceRnasthemeasuresuchthat
foreverycompactlysupportedcontinuousfunctionf.Asameasure,thendimensionaldeltafunctionisthe
productmeasureofthe1dimensionaldeltafunctionsineachvariableseparately.Thus,formally,with
x=(x1,x2,...,xn),onehas[5]
(2)
Thedeltafunctioncanalsobedefinedinthesenseofdistributionsexactlyasaboveintheonedimensional
case.[25]However,despitewidespreaduseinengineeringcontexts,(2)shouldbemanipulatedwithcare,since
theproductofdistributionscanonlybedefinedunderquitenarrowcircumstances.[26]
ThenotionofaDiracmeasuremakessenseonanyset.[19]ThusifXisaset,x0Xisamarkedpoint,andis
anysigmaalgebraofsubsetsofX,thenthemeasuredefinedonsetsAby
isthedeltameasureorunitmassconcentratedatx0.
Anothercommongeneralizationofthedeltafunctionistoadifferentiablemanifoldwheremostofits
propertiesasadistributioncanalsobeexploitedbecauseofthedifferentiablestructure.Thedeltafunctionona
manifoldMcenteredatthepointx0Misdefinedasthefollowingdistribution:
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(3)
forallcompactlysupportedsmoothrealvaluedfunctionsonM.[27]Acommonspecialcaseofthis
constructioniswhenMisanopensetintheEuclideanspaceRn.
OnalocallycompactHausdorffspaceX,theDiracdeltameasureconcentratedatapointxistheRadon
measureassociatedwiththeDaniellintegral(3)oncompactlysupportedcontinuousfunctions.Atthislevel
ofgenerality,calculusassuchisnolongerpossible,howeveravarietyoftechniquesfromabstractanalysisare
available.Forinstance,themapping
isacontinuousembeddingofXintothespaceoffiniteRadon
measuresonX,equippedwithitsvaguetopology.Moreover,theconvexhulloftheimageofXunderthis
embeddingisdenseinthespaceofprobabilitymeasuresonX.[28]
Properties
Scalingandsymmetry
Thedeltafunctionsatisfiesthefollowingscalingpropertyforanonzeroscalar:[29]
andso
(4)
Inparticular,thedeltafunctionisanevendistribution,inthesensethat
whichishomogeneousofdegree1.
Algebraicproperties
Thedistributionalproductofwithxisequaltozero:
Conversely,ifxf(x)=xg(x),wherefandgaredistributions,then
forsomeconstantc.[30]
Translation
TheintegralofthetimedelayedDiracdeltaisgivenby:
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Thisissometimesreferredtoasthesiftingproperty[31]orthesamplingproperty.Thedeltafunctionissaidto
"siftout"thevalueatt=T.
Itfollowsthattheeffectofconvolvingafunctionf(t)withthetimedelayedDiracdeltaistotimedelayf(t)by
thesameamount:
(using(4):
Thisholdsunderthepreciseconditionthatfbeatempereddistribution(seethediscussionoftheFourier
transformbelow).Asaspecialcase,forinstance,wehavetheidentity(understoodinthedistributionsense)
Compositionwithafunction
Moregenerally,thedeltadistributionmaybecomposedwithasmoothfunctiong(x)insuchawaythatthe
familiarchangeofvariablesformulaholds,that
providedthatgisacontinuouslydifferentiablefunctionwithgnowherezero.[32]Thatis,thereisauniqueway
toassignmeaningtothedistribution
sothatthisidentityholdsforallcompactlysupportedtestfunctions
f.Therefore,thedomainmustbebrokenuptoexcludetheg'=0point.Thisdistributionsatisfies(g(x))=0if
gisnowherezero,andotherwiseifghasarealrootatx0,then
Itisnaturalthereforetodefinethecomposition(g(x))forcontinuouslydifferentiablefunctionsgby
wherethesumextendsoverallrootsofg(x),whichareassumedtobesimple.[32]Thus,forexample
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Intheintegralformthegeneralizedscalingpropertymaybewrittenas
Propertiesinndimensions
Thedeltadistributioninanndimensionalspacesatisfiesthefollowingscalingpropertyinstead:
sothatisahomogeneousdistributionofdegreen.Underanyreflectionorrotation,thedeltafunctionis
invariant:
Asintheonevariablecase,itispossibletodefinethecompositionofwithabiLipschitzfunction[33]
g:RnRnuniquelysothattheidentity
forallcompactlysupportedfunctionsf.
Usingthecoareaformulafromgeometricmeasuretheory,onecanalsodefinethecompositionofthedelta
functionwithasubmersionfromoneEuclideanspacetoanotheroneofdifferentdimensiontheresultisatype
ofcurrent.Inthespecialcaseofacontinuouslydifferentiablefunctiong:RnRsuchthatthegradientofgis
nowherezero,thefollowingidentityholds[34]
wheretheintegralontherightisoverg1(0),the(n1)dimensionalsurfacedefinedbyg(x)=0withrespect
totheMinkowskicontentmeasure.Thisisknownasasimplelayerintegral.
Moregenerally,ifSisasmoothhypersurfaceofRn,thenwecanassociatedtoSthedistributionthatintegrates
anycompactlysupportedsmoothfunctiongoverS:
whereisthehypersurfacemeasureassociatedtoS.Thisgeneralizationisassociatedwiththepotentialtheory
ofsimplelayerpotentialsonS.IfDisadomaininRnwithsmoothboundaryS,thenSisequaltothenormal
derivativeoftheindicatorfunctionofDinthedistributionsense:
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wherenistheoutwardnormal.[35][36]Foraproof,seee.g.thearticleonthesurfacedeltafunction.
Fouriertransform
Thedeltafunctionisatempereddistribution,andthereforeithasawelldefinedFouriertransform.Formally,
onefinds[37]
Properlyspeaking,theFouriertransformofadistributionisdefinedbyimposingselfadjointnessoftheFourier
transformunderthedualitypairing
oftempereddistributionswithSchwartzfunctions.Thus isdefined
astheuniquetempereddistributionsatisfying
forallSchwartzfunctions.Andindeeditfollowsfromthisthat
Asaresultofthisidentity,theconvolutionofthedeltafunctionwithanyothertempereddistributionSis
simplyS:
Thatistosaythatisanidentityelementfortheconvolutionontempereddistributions,andinfactthespace
ofcompactlysupporteddistributionsunderconvolutionisanassociativealgebrawithidentitythedelta
function.Thispropertyisfundamentalinsignalprocessing,asconvolutionwithatempereddistributionisa
lineartimeinvariantsystem,andapplyingthelineartimeinvariantsystemmeasuresitsimpulseresponse.The
impulseresponsecanbecomputedtoanydesireddegreeofaccuracybychoosingasuitableapproximationfor
,andonceitisknown,itcharacterizesthesystemcompletely.SeeLTIsystemtheory:Impulseresponseand
convolution.
TheinverseFouriertransformofthetempereddistributionf()=1isthedeltafunction.Formally,thisis
expressed
andmorerigorously,itfollowssince
forallSchwartzfunctionsf.
Intheseterms,thedeltafunctionprovidesasuggestivestatementoftheorthogonalitypropertyoftheFourier
kernelonR.Formally,onehas
Thisis,ofcourse,shorthandfortheassertionthattheFouriertransformofthetempereddistribution
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is
whichagainfollowsbyimposingselfadjointnessoftheFouriertransform.
ByanalyticcontinuationoftheFouriertransform,theLaplacetransformofthedeltafunctionisfoundtobe[38]
Distributionalderivatives
ThedistributionalderivativeoftheDiracdeltadistributionisthedistributiondefinedoncompactly
supportedsmoothtestfunctionsby[39]
Thefirstequalityhereisakindofintegrationbyparts,forifwereatruefunctionthen
Thekthderivativeofisdefinedsimilarlyasthedistributiongivenontestfunctionsby
Inparticular,isaninfinitelydifferentiabledistribution.
Thefirstderivativeofthedeltafunctionisthedistributionallimitofthedifferencequotients:[40]
Moreproperly,onehas
wherehisthetranslationoperator,definedonfunctionsbyh(x)=(x+h),andonadistributionSby
Inthetheoryofelectromagnetism,thefirstderivativeofthedeltafunctionrepresentsapointmagneticdipole
situatedattheorigin.Accordingly,itisreferredtoasadipoleorthedoubletfunction.[41]
Thederivativeofthedeltafunctionsatisfiesanumberofbasicproperties,including:
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[42]
Furthermore,theconvolutionofwithacompactlysupportedsmoothfunctionfis
whichfollowsfromthepropertiesofthedistributionalderivativeofaconvolution.
Higherdimensions
Moregenerally,onanopensetUinthendimensionalEuclideanspaceRn,theDiracdeltadistribution
centeredatapointaUisdefinedby[43]
forallS(U),thespaceofallsmoothcompactlysupportedfunctionsonU.If=(1,...,n)isanymulti
indexanddenotestheassociatedmixedpartialderivativeoperator,thenthethderivativeaofais
givenby[43]
Thatis,thethderivativeofaisthedistributionwhosevalueonanytestfunctionisthethderivativeof
ata(withtheappropriatepositiveornegativesign).
Thefirstpartialderivativesofthedeltafunctionarethoughtofasdoublelayersalongthecoordinateplanes.
Moregenerally,thenormalderivativeofasimplelayersupportedonasurfaceisadoublelayersupportedon
thatsurface,andrepresentsalaminarmagneticmonopole.Higherderivativesofthedeltafunctionareknown
inphysicsasmultipoles.
Higherderivativesenterintomathematicsnaturallyasthebuildingblocksforthecompletestructureof
distributionswithpointsupport.IfSisanydistributiononUsupportedontheset{a}consistingofasingle
point,thenthereisanintegermandcoefficientscsuchthat[44]
Representationsofthedeltafunction
Thedeltafunctioncanbeviewedasthelimitofasequenceoffunctions
where(x)issometimescalledanascentdeltafunction.Thislimitismeantinaweaksense:eitherthat
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(5)
forallcontinuousfunctionsfhavingcompactsupport,orthatthislimitholdsforallsmoothfunctionsfwith
compactsupport.Thedifferencebetweenthesetwoslightlydifferentmodesofweakconvergenceisoften
subtle:theformerisconvergenceinthevaguetopologyofmeasures,andthelatterisconvergenceinthesense
ofdistributions.
Approximationstotheidentity
Typicallyanascentdeltafunctioncanbeconstructedinthefollowingmanner.Letbeanabsolutely
integrablefunctiononRoftotalintegral1,anddefine
Inndimensions,oneusesinsteadthescaling
Thenasimplechangeofvariablesshowsthatalsohasintegral1.[45]Oneshowseasilythat(5)holdsforall
continuouscompactlysupportedfunctionsf,andsoconvergesweaklytointhesenseofmeasures.
Theconstructedinthiswayareknownasanapproximationtotheidentity.[46]Thisterminologyisbecause
thespaceL1(R)ofabsolutelyintegrablefunctionsisclosedundertheoperationofconvolutionoffunctions:
fgL1(R)wheneverfandgareinL1(R).However,thereisnoidentityinL1(R)fortheconvolution
product:noelementhsuchthatfh=fforallf.Nevertheless,thesequencedoesapproximatesuchan
identityinthesensethat
Thislimitholdsinthesenseofmeanconvergence(convergenceinL1).Furtherconditionsonthe,for
instancethatitbeamollifierassociatedtoacompactlysupportedfunction,[47]areneededtoensurepointwise
convergencealmosteverywhere.
Iftheinitial=1isitselfsmoothandcompactlysupportedthenthesequenceiscalledamollifier.The
standardmollifierisobtainedbychoosingtobeasuitablynormalizedbumpfunction,forinstance
Insomesituationssuchasnumericalanalysis,apiecewiselinearapproximationtotheidentityisdesirable.
Thiscanbeobtainedbytaking1tobeahatfunction.Withthischoiceof1,onehas
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whichareallcontinuousandcompactlysupported,althoughnotsmoothandsonotamollifier.
Probabilisticconsiderations
Inthecontextofprobabilitytheory,itisnaturaltoimposetheadditionalconditionthattheinitial1inan
approximationtotheidentityshouldbepositive,assuchafunctionthenrepresentsaprobabilitydistribution.
Convolutionwithaprobabilitydistributionissometimesfavorablebecauseitdoesnotresultinovershootor
undershoot,astheoutputisaconvexcombinationoftheinputvalues,andthusfallsbetweenthemaximumand
minimumoftheinputfunction.Taking1tobeanyprobabilitydistributionatall,andletting(x)=1(x/)/
asabovewillgiverisetoanapproximationtotheidentity.Ingeneralthisconvergesmorerapidlytoadelta
functionif,inaddition,hasmean0andhassmallhighermoments.Forinstance,if1istheuniform
distributionon[1/2,1/2],alsoknownastherectangularfunction,then:[48]
AnotherexampleiswiththeWignersemicircledistribution
Thisiscontinuousandcompactlysupported,butnotamollifierbecauseitisnotsmooth.
Semigroups
Nascentdeltafunctionsoftenariseasconvolutionsemigroups.Thisamountstothefurtherconstraintthatthe
convolutionofwithmustsatisfy
forall,>0.ConvolutionsemigroupsinL1thatformanascentdeltafunctionarealwaysanapproximationto
theidentityintheabovesense,howeverthesemigroupconditionisquiteastrongrestriction.
Inpractice,semigroupsapproximatingthedeltafunctionariseasfundamentalsolutionsorGreen'sfunctionsto
physicallymotivatedellipticorparabolicpartialdifferentialequations.Inthecontextofappliedmathematics,
semigroupsariseastheoutputofalineartimeinvariantsystem.Abstractly,ifAisalinearoperatoractingon
functionsofx,thenaconvolutionsemigrouparisesbysolvingtheinitialvalueproblem
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inwhichthelimitisasusualunderstoodintheweaksense.Setting(x)=(,x)givestheassociatednascent
deltafunction.
Someexamplesofphysicallyimportantconvolutionsemigroupsarisingfromsuchafundamentalsolution
includethefollowing.
Theheatkernel
Theheatkernel,definedby
representsthetemperatureinaninfinitewireattimet>0,ifaunitofheatenergyisstoredattheoriginofthe
wireattimet=0.Thissemigroupevolvesaccordingtotheonedimensionalheatequation:
Inprobabilitytheory,(x)isanormaldistributionofvarianceandmean0.Itrepresentstheprobability
densityattimet=ofthepositionofaparticlestartingattheoriginfollowingastandardBrownianmotion.In
thiscontext,thesemigroupconditionisthenanexpressionoftheMarkovpropertyofBrownianmotion.
InhigherdimensionalEuclideanspaceRn,theheatkernelis
andhasthesamephysicalinterpretation,mutatismutandis.Italsorepresentsanascentdeltafunctioninthe
sensethatinthedistributionsenseas0.
ThePoissonkernel
ThePoissonkernel
isthefundamentalsolutionoftheLaplaceequationintheupperhalfplane.[49]Itrepresentstheelectrostatic
potentialinasemiinfiniteplatewhosepotentialalongtheedgeisheldatfixedatthedeltafunction.The
PoissonkernelisalsocloselyrelatedtotheCauchydistribution.Thissemigroupevolvesaccordingtothe
equation
wheretheoperatorisrigorouslydefinedastheFouriermultiplier
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Oscillatoryintegrals
Inareasofphysicssuchaswavepropagationandwavemechanics,theequationsinvolvedarehyperbolicand
somayhavemoresingularsolutions.Asaresult,thenascentdeltafunctionsthatariseasfundamentalsolutions
oftheassociatedCauchyproblemsaregenerallyoscillatoryintegrals.Anexample,whichcomesfroma
solutionoftheEulerTricomiequationoftransonicgasdynamics,[50]istherescaledAiryfunction
AlthoughusingtheFouriertransform,itiseasytoseethatthisgeneratesasemigroupinsomesense,itisnot
absolutelyintegrableandsocannotdefineasemigroupintheabovestrongsense.Manynascentdeltafunctions
constructedasoscillatoryintegralsonlyconvergeinthesenseofdistributions(anexampleistheDirichlet
kernelbelow),ratherthaninthesenseofmeasures.
AnotherexampleistheCauchyproblemforthewaveequationinR1+1:[51]
Thesolutionurepresentsthedisplacementfromequilibriumofaninfiniteelasticstring,withaninitial
disturbanceattheorigin.
Otherapproximationstotheidentityofthiskindincludethesincfunction(usedwidelyinelectronicsand
telecommunications)
andtheBesselfunction
Planewavedecomposition
Oneapproachtothestudyofalinearpartialdifferentialequation
whereLisadifferentialoperatoronRn,istoseekfirstafundamentalsolution,whichisasolutionofthe
equation
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WhenLisparticularlysimple,thisproblemcanoftenberesolvedusingtheFouriertransformdirectly(asinthe
caseofthePoissonkernelandheatkernelalreadymentioned).Formorecomplicatedoperators,itissometimes
easierfirsttoconsideranequationoftheform
wherehisaplanewavefunction,meaningthatithastheform
forsomevector.Suchanequationcanberesolved(ifthecoefficientsofLareanalyticfunctions)bythe
CauchyKovalevskayatheoremor(ifthecoefficientsofLareconstant)byquadrature.So,ifthedeltafunction
canbedecomposedintoplanewaves,thenonecaninprinciplesolvelinearpartialdifferentialequations.
Suchadecompositionofthedeltafunctionintoplanewaveswaspartofageneraltechniquefirstintroduced
essentiallybyJohannRadon,andthendevelopedinthisformbyFritzJohn(1955).[52]Chooseksothatn+kis
aneveninteger,andforarealnumbers,put
ThenisobtainedbyapplyingapoweroftheLaplaciantotheintegralwithrespecttotheunitspheremeasure
dofg(x)forintheunitsphereSn1:
TheLaplacianhereisinterpretedasaweakderivative,sothatthisequationistakentomeanthat,foranytest
function,
TheresultfollowsfromtheformulafortheNewtonianpotential(thefundamentalsolutionofPoisson's
equation).ThisisessentiallyaformoftheinversionformulafortheRadontransform,becauseitrecoversthe
valueof(x)fromitsintegralsoverhyperplanes.Forinstance,ifnisoddandk=1,thentheintegralonthe
righthandsideis
whereR(,p)istheRadontransformof:
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Analternativeequivalentexpressionoftheplanewavedecomposition,fromGel'fand&Shilov(19661968,I,
3.10),is
forneven,and
fornodd.
Fourierkernels
InthestudyofFourierseries,amajorquestionconsistsofdeterminingwhetherandinwhatsensetheFourier
seriesassociatedwithaperiodicfunctionconvergestothefunction.ThenthpartialsumoftheFourierseriesof
afunctionfofperiod2isdefinedbyconvolution(ontheinterval[,])withtheDirichletkernel:
Thus,
where
AfundamentalresultofelementaryFourierseriesstatesthattheDirichletkerneltendstotheamultipleofthe
deltafunctionasN.Thisisinterpretedinthedistributionsense,that
foreverycompactlysupportedsmoothfunctionf.Thus,formallyonehas
ontheinterval[,].
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Inspiteofthis,theresultdoesnotholdforallcompactlysupportedcontinuousfunctions:thatisDNdoesnot
convergeweaklyinthesenseofmeasures.ThelackofconvergenceoftheFourierserieshasledtothe
introductionofavarietyofsummabilitymethodsinordertoproduceconvergence.ThemethodofCesro
summationleadstotheFejrkernel[53]
TheFejrkernelstendtothedeltafunctioninastrongersensethat[54]
foreverycompactlysupportedcontinuousfunctionf.TheimplicationisthattheFourierseriesofany
continuousfunctionisCesrosummabletothevalueofthefunctionateverypoint.
Hilbertspacetheory
TheDiracdeltadistributionisadenselydefinedunboundedlinearfunctionalontheHilbertspaceL2ofsquare
integrablefunctions.Indeed,smoothcompactlysupportfunctionsaredenseinL2,andtheactionofthedelta
distributiononsuchfunctionsiswelldefined.Inmanyapplications,itispossibletoidentifysubspacesofL2
andtogiveastrongertopologyonwhichthedeltafunctiondefinesaboundedlinearfunctional.
Sobolevspaces
TheSobolevembeddingtheoremforSobolevspacesonthereallineRimpliesthatanysquareintegrable
functionfsuchthat
isautomaticallycontinuous,andsatisfiesinparticular
ThusisaboundedlinearfunctionalontheSobolevspaceH1.Equivalentlyisanelementofthecontinuous
dualspaceH1ofH1.Moregenerally,inndimensions,onehasHs(Rn)provideds>n/2.
Spacesofholomorphicfunctions
Incomplexanalysis,thedeltafunctionentersviaCauchy'sintegralformulawhichassertsthatifDisadomain
inthecomplexplanewithsmoothboundary,then
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forallholomorphicfunctionsfinDthatarecontinuousontheclosureofD.Asaresult,thedeltafunctionzis
representedonthisclassofholomorphicfunctionsbytheCauchyintegral:
Moregenerally,letH2(D)betheHardyspaceconsistingoftheclosureinL2(D)ofallholomorphicfunctions
inDcontinuousuptotheboundaryofD.ThenfunctionsinH2(D)uniquelyextendtoholomorphicfunctions
inD,andtheCauchyintegralformulacontinuestohold.InparticularforzD,thedeltafunctionzisa
continuouslinearfunctionalonH2(D).Thisisaspecialcaseofthesituationinseveralcomplexvariablesin
which,forsmoothdomainsD,theSzegkernelplaystheroleoftheCauchyintegral.
Resolutionsoftheidentity
Givenacompleteorthonormalbasissetoffunctions{n}inaseparableHilbertspace,forexample,the
normalizedeigenvectorsofacompactselfadjointoperator,anyvectorfcanbeexpressedas:
Thecoefficients{n}arefoundas:
whichmayberepresentedbythenotation:
aformofthebraketnotationofDirac.[55]Adoptingthisnotation,theexpansionofftakesthedyadicform:[56]
LettingIdenotetheidentityoperatorontheHilbertspace,theexpression
iscalledaresolutionoftheidentity.WhentheHilbertspaceisthespaceL2(D)ofsquareintegrablefunctions
onadomainD,thequantity:
isanintegraloperator,andtheexpressionforfcanberewrittenas:
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TherighthandsideconvergestofintheL2sense.Itneednotholdinapointwisesense,evenwhenfisa
continuousfunction.Nevertheless,itiscommontoabusenotationandwrite
resultingintherepresentationofthedeltafunction:[57]
WithasuitableriggedHilbertspace(,L2(D),*)whereL2(D)containsallcompactlysupportedsmooth
functions,thissummationmayconvergein*,dependingonthepropertiesofthebasisn.Inmostcasesof
practicalinterest,theorthonormalbasiscomesfromanintegralordifferentialoperator,inwhichcasetheseries
convergesinthedistributionsense.[58]
Infinitesimaldeltafunctions
Cauchyusedaninfinitesimaltowritedownaunitimpulse,infinitelytallandnarrowDiractypedelta
functionsatisfying
inanumberofarticlesin1827.[59]Cauchydefinedan
infinitesimalinCoursd'Analyse(1827)intermsofasequencetendingtozero.Namely,suchanullsequence
becomesaninfinitesimalinCauchy'sandLazareCarnot'sterminology.
Nonstandardanalysisallowsonetorigorouslytreatinfinitesimals.ThearticlebyYamashita(2007)containsa
bibliographyonmodernDiracdeltafunctionsinthecontextofaninfinitesimalenrichedcontinuumprovided
bythehyperreals.HeretheDiracdeltacanbegivenbyanactualfunction,havingthepropertythatforevery
realfunctionFonehas
asanticipatedbyFourierandCauchy.
Diraccomb
Asocalleduniform"pulsetrain"ofDiracdeltameasures,whichis
knownasaDiraccomb,orastheShahdistribution,createsasampling
function,oftenusedindigitalsignalprocessing(DSP)anddiscretetime
signalanalysis.TheDiraccombisgivenastheinfinitesum,whose
limitisunderstoodinthedistributionsense,
whichisasequenceofpointmassesateachoftheintegers.
ADiraccombisaninfiniteseriesof
Diracdeltafunctionsspacedat
intervalsofT
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Uptoanoverallnormalizingconstant,theDiraccombisequaltoitsownFouriertransform.Thisissignificant
becauseiffisanySchwartzfunction,thentheperiodizationoffisgivenbytheconvolution
Inparticular,
ispreciselythePoissonsummationformula.[60]
SokhotskiPlemeljtheorem
TheSokhotskiPlemeljtheorem,importantinquantummechanics,relatesthedeltafunctiontothedistribution
p.v.1/x,theCauchyprincipalvalueofthefunction1/x,definedby
Sokhotsky'sformulastatesthat[61]
Herethelimitisunderstoodinthedistributionsense,thatforallcompactlysupportedsmoothfunctionsf,
RelationshiptotheKroneckerdelta
TheKroneckerdeltaijisthequantitydefinedby
forallintegersi,j.Thisfunctionthensatisfiesthefollowinganalogofthesiftingproperty:if
doublyinfinitesequence,then
isany
Similarly,foranyrealorcomplexvaluedcontinuousfunctionfonR,theDiracdeltasatisfiesthesifting
property
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ThisexhibitstheKroneckerdeltafunctionasadiscreteanalogoftheDiracdeltafunction.[62]
Applications
Probabilitytheory
Inprobabilitytheoryandstatistics,theDiracdeltafunctionisoftenusedtorepresentadiscretedistribution,or
apartiallydiscrete,partiallycontinuousdistribution,usingaprobabilitydensityfunction(whichisnormally
usedtorepresentfullycontinuousdistributions).Forexample,theprobabilitydensityfunctionf(x)ofadiscrete
distributionconsistingofpointsx={x1,...,xn},withcorrespondingprobabilitiesp1,...,pn,canbewrittenas
Asanotherexample,consideradistributionwhich6/10ofthetimereturnsastandardnormaldistribution,and
4/10ofthetimereturnsexactlythevalue3.5(i.e.apartlycontinuous,partlydiscretemixturedistribution).The
densityfunctionofthisdistributioncanbewrittenas
Thedeltafunctionisalsousedinacompletelydifferentwaytorepresentthelocaltimeofadiffusionprocess
(likeBrownianmotion).ThelocaltimeofastochasticprocessB(t)isgivenby
andrepresentstheamountoftimethattheprocessspendsatthepointxintherangeoftheprocess.More
precisely,inonedimensionthisintegralcanbewritten
where1[x,x+]istheindicatorfunctionoftheinterval[x,x+].
Quantummechanics
Wegiveanexampleofhowthedeltafunctionisexpedientinquantummechanics.Thewavefunctionofa
particlegivestheprobabilityamplitudeoffindingaparticlewithinagivenregionofspace.Wavefunctionsare
assumedtobeelementsoftheHilbertspaceL2ofsquareintegrablefunctions,andthetotalprobabilityof
findingaparticlewithinagivenintervalistheintegralofthemagnitudeofthewavefunctionsquaredoverthe
interval.Aset{n}ofwavefunctionsisorthonormaliftheyarenormalizedby
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whereherereferstotheKroneckerdelta.Asetoforthonormalwavefunctionsiscompleteinthespaceof
squareintegrablefunctionsifanywavefunctioncanbeexpressedasacombinationofthen:
with
.Completeorthonormalsystemsofwavefunctionsappearnaturallyastheeigenfunctions
oftheHamiltonian(ofaboundsystem)inquantummechanicsthatmeasurestheenergylevels,whichare
calledtheeigenvalues.Thesetofeigenvalues,inthiscase,isknownasthespectrumoftheHamiltonian.In
braketnotation,asabove,thisequalityimpliestheresolutionoftheidentity:
Heretheeigenvaluesareassumedtobediscrete,butthesetofeigenvaluesofanobservablemaybecontinuous
ratherthandiscrete.Anexampleisthepositionobservable,Q(x)=x(x).Thespectrumoftheposition(in
onedimension)istheentirerealline,andiscalledacontinuousspectrum.However,unliketheHamiltonian,
thepositionoperatorlackspropereigenfunctions.Theconventionalwaytoovercomethisshortcomingisto
widentheclassofavailablefunctionsbyallowingdistributionsaswell:thatis,toreplacetheHilbertspaceof
quantummechanicsbyanappropriateriggedHilbertspace.[63]Inthiscontext,thepositionoperatorhasa
completesetofeigendistributions,labeledbythepointsyoftherealline,givenby
Theeigenfunctionsofpositionaredenotedby
eigenstates.
inDiracnotation,andareknownasposition
Similarconsiderationsapplytotheeigenstatesofthemomentumoperator,orindeedanyotherselfadjoint
unboundedoperatorPontheHilbertspace,providedthespectrumofPiscontinuousandthereareno
degenerateeigenvalues.Inthatcase,thereisasetofrealnumbers(thespectrum),andacollectionyof
distributionsindexedbytheelementsof,suchthat
Thatis,yaretheeigenvectorsofP.Iftheeigenvectorsarenormalizedsothat
inthedistributionsense,thenforanytestfunction,
where
Thatis,asinthediscretecase,thereisaresolutionoftheidentity
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wheretheoperatorvaluedintegralisagainunderstoodintheweaksense.IfthespectrumofPhasboth
continuousanddiscreteparts,thentheresolutionoftheidentityinvolvesasummationoverthediscrete
spectrumandanintegraloverthecontinuousspectrum.
Thedeltafunctionalsohasmanymorespecializedapplicationsinquantummechanics,suchasthedelta
potentialmodelsforasingleanddoublepotentialwell.
Structuralmechanics
Thedeltafunctioncanbeusedinstructuralmechanicstodescribetransientloadsorpointloadsactingon
structures.ThegoverningequationofasimplemassspringsystemexcitedbyasuddenforceimpulseIattime
t=0canbewritten
wheremisthemass,thedeflectionandkthespringconstant.
Asanotherexample,theequationgoverningthestaticdeflectionofaslenderbeamis,accordingtoEuler
Bernoullitheory,
whereEIisthebendingstiffnessofthebeam,wthedeflection,xthespatialcoordinateandq(x)theload
distribution.IfabeamisloadedbyapointforceFatx=x0,theloaddistributioniswritten
AsintegrationofthedeltafunctionresultsintheHeavisidestepfunction,itfollowsthatthestaticdeflectionof
aslenderbeamsubjecttomultiplepointloadsisdescribedbyasetofpiecewisepolynomials.
Alsoapointmomentactingonabeamcanbedescribedbydeltafunctions.Considertwoopposingpointforces
Fatadistancedapart.TheythenproduceamomentM=Fdactingonthebeam.Now,letthedistanced
approachthelimitzero,whileMiskeptconstant.Theloaddistribution,assumingaclockwisemomentacting
atx=0,iswritten
Pointmomentscanthusberepresentedbythederivativeofthedeltafunction.Integrationofthebeamequation
againresultsinpiecewisepolynomialdeflection.
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Seealso
Atom(measuretheory)
Deltapotential
Diracmeasure
Fundamentalsolution
Green'sfunction
Laplacianoftheindicator
Notes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Dirac1958,15Thefunction,p.58
Gel'fand&Shilov1968,VolumeI,1.1,1.3
Schwartz1950,p.3
Arfken&Weber2000,p.84
Bracewell1986,Chapter5
Vladimirov1971,5.1
JBFourier(1822).TheAnalyticalTheoryofHeat(http://books.google.com/books?id=
N8EAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA408&dq=%22when+the+integrals+are+taken+between+infinite+limits%22+%22that+is+to
+say,+that+we+have+the+equation%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=rFe
T96cEIzKiQKcyfDtDQ&ved=0CD4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22when%20the%20integrals%20are%20taken%20b
etween%20infinite%20limits%22%20%22that%20is%20to%20say%2C%20that%20we%20have%20the%20equation
%22&f=false)(EnglishtranslationbyAlexanderFreeman,1878ed.).TheUniversityPress.p.408.,cfp449andpp
546551.TheoriginalFrenchtextcanbefoundhere(http://books.google.com/books?
id=TDQJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA525&dq=%22c%27est%C3%A0
dire+qu%27on+a+l%27%C3%A9quation%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=SrC7T9yKBorYiALVnc2oDg&sqi=2&ved=0CEAQ
6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22c%27est%C3%A0dire%20qu%27on%20a%20l%27%C3%A9quation%22&f=false).
HikosaburoKomatsu(2002)."Fourier'shyperfunctionsandHeaviside'spseudodifferentialoperators".InTakahiro
Kawai,KeikoFujita,eds.MicrolocalAnalysisandComplexFourierAnalysis(http://books.google.com/books?
id=8GwKzEemrIcC&pg=PA200&dq=%22Fourier+introduced+the%22+%22+
function+much+earlier%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=oJa6T5L2O6SriQKGloCUBw&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q
=%22Fourier%20introduced%20the%22%20%22%20function%20much%20earlier%22&f=false).WorldScientific.
p.200.ISBN9812381619.
TynMyintU.,LokenathDebnath(2007).LinearPartialDifferentialEquationsforScientistsAndEngineers
(http://books.google.com/books?
id=Zbz5_UvERIIC&pg=PA4&dq=%22It+was+the+work+of+Augustin+Cauchy%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=RnW6T52L
NovYiQLa9
mABw&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22It%20was%20the%20work%20of%20Augustin%20Cauchy%22
&f=false)(4thed.).Springer.p.4.ISBN0817643931.
LokenathDebnath,DambaruBhatta(2007).IntegralTransformsAndTheirApplications
id=WbZcqdvCEfwC&pg=PA2&dq=%22It+was+the+work+of+Cauchy+that+contained%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Jym9
T8LNK6OigK
m_GYDg&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22It%20was%20the%20work%20of%20Cauchy%20that%20con
tained%22&f=false)(2nded.).CRCPress.p.2.ISBN1584885750.
IvorGrattanGuinness(2009).ConvolutionsinFrenchMathematics,18001840:FromtheCalculusandMechanics
toMathematicalAnalysisandMathematicalPhysics,Volume2(http://books.google.com/books?
id=_GgioErrbW8C&pg=PA653&dq=%22Further,+in+a+double+integral%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=4gC9T7KVDvDRiA
Lq
dTLDQ&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Further%2C%20in%20a%20double%20integral%22&f=false).
Birkhuser.p.653.ISBN3764322381.
See,forexample,Desintgralesdoublesquiseprsententsousuneformeindtermine
(http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k90181x/f387)
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13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
(http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k90181x/f387)
DragiaMitrovi,Darkoubrini(1998).FundamentalsofAppliedFunctionalAnalysis:Distributions,Sobolev
Spaces(http://books.google.com/books?
id=Od5BxTEN0VsC&pg=PA62&dq=%22greatest+drawback+of+the+classical+Fourier+transformation+is+a+rather+
narrow+class+of+functions%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=IKG6T_niFqWfiQLJoODdBg&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepag
e&q=%22greatest%20drawback%20of%20the%20classical%20Fourier%20transformation%20is%20a%20rather%20n
arrow%20class%20of%20functions%22&f=false).CRCPress.p.62.ISBN0582246946.
ManfredKracht,ErwinKreyszig(1989)."Onsingularintegraloperatorsandgeneralizations".InThemistoclesM.
Rassias,ed.TopicsinMathematicalAnalysis:AVolumeDedicatedtotheMemoryofA.L.Cauchy
id=xIsPrSiDlZIC&pg=PA553&dq=%22To+this+theory%22+%22and+even+more%22++%22that+one+was+able+to
+generalize%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=RJ66T
y7JOLjiAKuoeSUBw&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22To%20this%20theory%22%20%22and%20even%
20more%22%20%20%22that%20one%20was%20able%20to%20generalize%22&f=false).WorldScientific.p.553.
ISBN9971506661.
Laugwitz1989,p.230
AmorecompletehistoricalaccountcanbefoundinvanderPol&Bremmer1987,V.4.
Dirac1958,15
Gel'fand&Shilov1968,VolumeI,1.1,p.1
Rudin1966,1.20
Hewitt&Stromberg1963,19.61
Driggers2003,p.2321.SeealsoBracewell1986,Chapter5foradifferentinterpretation.Otherconventionsforthe
assigningthevalueoftheHeavisidefunctionatzeroexist,andsomeofthesearenotconsistentwithwhatfollows.
Hewitt&Stromberg1965,9.19
Strichartz1994,2.2
Hrmander1983,Theorem2.1.5
Hrmander1983,3.1
Strichartz1994,2.3Hrmander1983,8.2
Dieudonn1972,17.3.3
Federer1969,2.5.19
Strichartz1994,Problem2.6.2
Vladimirov1971,Chapter2,Example3(d)
Weisstein,EricW.,"SiftingProperty"(http://mathworld.wolfram.com/SiftingProperty.html),MathWorld.
Gel'fand&Shilov19661968,Vol.1,II.2.5
Furtherrefinementispossible,namelytosubmersions,althoughtheserequireamoreinvolvedchangeofvariables
formula.
Hrmander1983,6.1
Lange2012,pp.2930
GelfandShilov,p.212
InsomeconventionsfortheFouriertransform.
Bracewell1986
Gel'fand&Shilov1966,p.26
Gel'fand&Shilov1966,2.1
Weisstein,EricW.,"DoubletFunction"(http://mathworld.wolfram.com/DoubletFunction.html),MathWorld.
Thepropertyfollowsbyapplyingatestfunctionandintegrationbyparts.
Hrmander1983,p.56
Hrmander1983,p.56Rudin1991,Theorem6.25
SteinWeiss,Theorem1.18
Rudin1991,II.6.31
Moregenerally,oneonlyneeds=1tohaveanintegrableradiallysymmetricdecreasingrearrangement.
Saichev&Woyczyski1997,1.1The"deltafunction"asviewedbyaphysicistandanengineer,p.3
Stein&Weiss1971,I.1
Valle&Soares2004,7.2
Hrmander1983,7.8
SeealsoCourant&Hilbert1962,14.
Lang1997,p.312
IntheterminologyofLang(1997),theFejrkernelisaDiracsequence,whereastheDirichletkernelisnot.
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54. IntheterminologyofLang(1997),theFejrkernelisaDiracsequence,whereastheDirichletkernelisnot.
55. Thedevelopmentofthissectioninbraketnotationisfoundin(Levin2002,Coordinatespacewavefunctionsand
completeness,pp.=109ff)
56. Davis&Thomson2000,Perfectoperators,p.344
57. Davis&Thomson2000,Equation8.9.11,p.344
58. delaMadrid,Bohm&Gadella2002
59. SeeLaugwitz(1989).
60. Crdoba1988Hrmander1983,7.2
61. Vladimirov1971,5.7
62. Hartmann1997,pp.154155
63. Isham1995,6.2
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Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dirac_delta_function&oldid=663481859"
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