The second soil had very heavy clay subsoil between 0.3
and 0.6 m in depth (Albaquic Hapludalf). The amount of
clay in this layer was greater than 60% (Figure 1B). Soil
water-holding capacity was 168 mm.
1
2
The third was a sandy soil with a sandy-clay texture below 1.0 m in depth (Sandy Typic Psammaquent) (Figure 1C).
The water table was close to the surface, varying from 0.6
m at the end of the winter to 1.6 m at the end of the summer.
Observations of a soil pit showed that rooting depth was
1.35 m. Thus, it can be considered that roots remained in
contact with the capillary zone above the water table
throughout the growing season. No water-holding capacity
was calculated for this soil because vine water uptake from
the water table was unlimited.
207
Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 55:3 (2004)
B Clayey
C Sandy
Figure 1 Percentage of clay, loam, sand, and gravel in the root zone of (A) gravelly soil, (B) clayey soil, and (C) sandy soil.
240
0.70
220
0.65
200
0.60
160
0.55
140
120
0.50
100
0.45
80
60
180
0.40
40
anthocyanin content
sugar content
9/13
9/20
9/20/1999
9/6
9/13/1999
8/30
8/30/1999
8/23
8/23/1999
8/16
8/16/1999
8/9
8/9/1999
8/2
8/2/1999
9/6/1999
20
0.35
acid by colorimetry after reaction with vanadic acid (expressed in g/L); and potassium by spectrophotometry (expressed in g/L).
Pulp ripening was calculated by assessing the sugar/acid
ratio as a function of a climatic index (Duteau 1990). According to this author, during the first four weeks after veraison,
S/TA ratio is a linear function of {((average temperature10) + (maximum temperature-10)) / 2}. The slope of the linear
regression represents the pulp ripening speed.
The skins of 200 berries were separated and mixed in a
250-mL solution containing 12% ethanol and 5 g/L tartaric
acid at pH 3.2. After six hours of agitation, the anthocyanin
concentration of the extract was determined by measuring
optical density at 520 nm before and after decoloration by
sodium bisulfite (Glories 1978). Berry anthocyanin concentration was expressed in mg/kg of grapes.
Vine mineral nutrition. Vine mineral nutrition was assessed by measuring petiole N, P, K, and Mg content at
veraison (expressed in % of dry matter). Petioles were
sampled on leaves opposite to clusters (Champagnol 1984).
The K/Mg ratio was also calculated.
Vine water status. Vine water status was assessed by
measuring predawn leaf water potential (d; Scholander et
al. 1965) once every two weeks from three weeks after flowering until harvest (each value given is the result of six replicates). According to Ojeda et al. (2002), water deficit
stress is considered null when 0 MPa > d > -0.2 MPa,
weak when -0.2 MPa > d > -0.4 MPa, medium when -0.4
MPa > d > -0.6 MPa, and strong when d < -0.6 MPa. We
considered the minimum predawn leaf water potential values
before veraison (that is, the most negative value, which is
itself the average of six replicates) as an indicator of early
season water stress and the minimum predawn leaf water
potential values between veraison and harvest as an indicator of the intensity of the stress. The lowest seasonal predawn leaf water potential values were always measured
postveraison. Pre- and postveraison water deficits are not
independent, as the occurrence of a preveraison water deficit increases the chance of attaining a great postveraison
water deficit. In some cases (1998) cumulative effect of preand postveraison water deficits may exist.
Statistical analysis. Data analysis was done by ANOVA
based on a split-plot design, with soils as main plots and
cultivars as subplots. Vintages were treated as blocks.
Means were separated by Newman-Keuls test (p < 0.05).
Percentages of variance attributable to soil, cultivar, vintage, and soil x cultivar interactions were calculated. Soil x
vintage and cultivar x vintage interaction effects were tested
with residual error. The software used was Grimmersoft
StatBox and Microsoft Excel (Redmond, WA).
Results
0.30
Climatic conditions. Mean maximum temperatures between budbreak and harvest were similar from 1996 to 2000,
except for 1998 when the mean maximum temperatures were
35
Temperature (C)
33
31
29
27
25
23
21
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
A - Mean high
19
17
15
20
18
16
Temperature (C)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
6
ETo (mm)
Figure 3 (continued)
450
E- Rainfall
400
Rainfall (mm)
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
F - Degree days
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
400
200
0
200
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
Budbreak flowering
Flowering veraison
Veraison harvest
Figure 3 (continued) Climatic parameters as a function of phenological stages: (E) rainfall (mm);
(F) degree day base 10 (C); and (G) water balance rainfall k*ET0 (mm).
Table 1 Effects of soil, cultivar, and vintage on the number of days separating phenological stages.
Soil
Stage
Gravel
Sand
Budbreak flowering
Flowering veraison
Veraison harvest
Flowering harvest
Budbreak harvest
61 ns
64 b
50 a
114 ns
175 ns
59 ns
65 a
49 b
114 ns
173 ns
a
b
Cultivar a
Clay
60 ns
64 b
51 a
115 ns
175 ns
M
63
64
46
110
173
CF
a
b
b
c
b
61
68
46
114
175
a
a
b
b
a
Vintage
CS
56
62
58
119
176
b
c
a
a
a
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
55 c
64 a
47 c
111 d
166 d
64
63
60
123
187
67
64
51
115
182
60
66
46
112
172
55
64
45
109
164
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
b
b
b
b
a
c
c
c
c
a
c
e
d
Rainfall (mm)
40
budbreak
veraison
flowering
harvest
30
A - 1996 (437 mm from April through September)
20
10
0
61
91
121
151
181
211
241
271
301
50
Rainfall (mm)
40
budbreak
flowering
veraison
harvest
30
B - 1997 (358 mm from April through September)
20
10
0
61
91
121
151
181
211
241
271
301
50
Rainfall (mm)
40
budbreak
30
flowering
veraison
harvest
20
10
0
61
91
121
151
181
211
241
271
301
50
Rainfall (mm)
40
budbreak
30
flowering
veraison
harvest
20
10
0
61
91
121
151
181
211
241
271
301
Rainfall (mm)
50
40
budbreak
30
flowering
veraison
harvest
20
10
0
61
91
121
151
181
Day of the Year
211
241
271
301
Figure 4 Daily rainfall from March through October in (A) 1996, (B) 1997, (C) 1998, (D) 1999,
and (E) 2000 in the Saint-Emilion region (Bordeaux, France). Total rainfall is given for the
period from April through September. Average dates are indicated for the main phenological
events.
Table 2 Percentage of variance attributable to soil, cultivar, vintage, and the interaction soil x cultivar.
Soil (%)
Cultivar (%)
Vintage (%)
(block)
Soil x cultivar
(%)
Residual
(%)
2
3
2
4
1
1
4
1
0
3
1
ns
**
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
*
ns
10
6
50
11
7
11
41
26
3
17
11
5 ns
12 *
11 ns
9*
3 ns
4 ns
3 ns
4 ns
13 **
9 **
2*
7 ***
24
30
27
22
34
15
36
36
29
14
7
22
Sugar (g/L)
32 *** a
Ripening speed
Tartrate (g/L)
Malate (g/L)
Total acidity (g/L)
pH
Potassium (g/L)
Anthocyanin (g/kg)
Veraison (day of year)
Total shoot length (cm)
Shoot growth cessation
(days from April 1)
Berry weight (g)
Yield (kg/vine)
Berries per vine (number)
Pruning weight (g/vine)
Yield/pruning weight ratio
Leaf area index (m 2/m 2)
Leaf area/fruit weight (m 2/kg)
Petiole N content (% dry matter)
Petiole P content (% dry matter)
Petiole K content (% dry matter)
Petiole Mg content (% dry matter)
Petiole K/Mg ratio
Minimum predawn leaf water
potential preveraison (MPa)
Minimum predawn leaf water potential
veraison to harvest (MPa)
7 **
2 ns
4*
3 **
6*
0 ns
30 **
1 **
40 **
13 *
41 ***
63 ***
5 ns
19 ***
18 ***
10 ***
33 ***
3 ns
12 ***
1 ns
2 **
15
22
41
62
70
73
23
41
83
39
73
31 **
32 *
15 *
28 **
15 ns
12 *
2 ns
24 *
24 ns
42 **
75 ***
70 ***
24 ***
1 ns
6 ns
21 ***
7 ns
19 ***
13 *
1 ns
2 ns
32 ***
0 ns
8 ***
16 ns
25 ns
41 *
20 *
40 *
50 ***
45 **
35 *
32 ns
4 ns
15 **
6 ns
*
***
*
***
***
***
*
**
***
**
***
30 *
3 ***
44 *
1 ns
22
40 **
2 ***
44 **
1 ns
13
*, **, ***, and ns indicate significance at p < 0.05, 0.01, 0.001, and 0.05, respectively.
Table 3 Effects of soil, cultivar, and vintage on berry composition at ripeness and vine vigor.
Soil
Cultivar a
Vintage
Gravel
Sand
Clay
CF
CS
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
200bb
1.04a
6.0ns
1.9ab
5.6b
3.51a
1.87ns
202b
0.94b
5.9ns
2.2a
5.9a
3.42b
1.83ns
222a
1.13a
5.8ns
1.7b
5.3b
3.45b
1.87ns
221a
1.24a
6.1ns
1.5b
5.1b
3.52a
1.95a
210b
1.18b
5.8ns
1.7b
5.3b
3.42b
1.72b
194c
0.70c
5.8ns
2.6a
6.4a
3.43b
1.87a
206b
0.92c
6.1ab
3.6a
7.7a
3.24c
1.99a
200b
0.85c
5.8bc
1.5c
5.0c
3.49b
1.87ab
209b
1.25a
5.0c
0.8d
4.5d
3.61a
1.79b
206b
1.05b
6.3a
1.9b
5.2c
3.46b
1.91ab
220a
1.10b
6.2ab
1.9bc
5.6b
3.50b
1.76b
0.92a
215b
0.73b
217a
0.97a
215b
0.86ns
214c
0.85ns
219a
0.92ns
215b
1.00a
221a
0.66b
204d
0.88a
220b
0.86a
217c
0.96a
217c
308bc
141b
Vine vigor
Total shoot length (cm)
Shoot growth cessation
(days from April 1)
Berry weight (g)
Yield (kg/vine)
330b
163b
467a
182a
281b
164b
376ns
165b
360ns
171a
343ns
172a
347bc
185a
409ab
179a
256c
150b
477a
193a
1.21b
0.91b
1.41a
1.47a
1.18b
1.11b
1.39a
1.12ns
1.23b
1.22ns
1.19b
1.14ns
1.23ns
-c
1.39ns
1.26ns
1.18ns
1.28ns
764b
340b
2.79ns
1.52b
3.00ns
1023a
405a
3.59ns
1.91a
2.63ns
941ab
303b
3.95ns
1.56b
2.49ns
815ns
339b
3.37ns
1.94a
3.45a
972ns
398a
3.09ns
1.64b
2.49b
942ns
311b
3.86ns
1.40c
2.17b
328b
-
1.02ns
723b
410a
2.53b
1.20d
2.13b
0.92ns
737b
350b
2.83b
2.16a
4.38a
1.29ns
1088a
304b
4.43a
1.81b
2.53b
1.42ns
1089a
354b
3.98a
1.48c
1.78b
-0.10a
-0.27b
-0.20b
-0.23c
-0.17a
-0.17b
-0.11b
-0.36a
-0.15b
-0.15a
-0.38b
-0.35b
-0.35b
-0.29a
-0.17c
-0.24bc -0.54a
-0.22ab
-0.27bc -0.43ab
N (% dry matter)
P (% dry matter)
K (% dry matter)
Mg (% dry matter)
K/Mg ratio
a
b
Cultivar a
Vintage
Gravel
Sand
Clay
CF
CS
1997
1998
1999
2000
0.62a
0.13ns
3.45a
0.49c
7.22a
0.52ab
0.16ns
3.16a
0.80b
4.10b
0.47b
0.18ns
2.50b
0.95a
2.68c
0.52ns
0.16ns
3.52a
0.74ns
5.59a
0.55ns
0.15ns
2.73b
0.77ns
4.16b
0.54ns
0.16ns
2.86b
0.73ns
4.26b
0.60ab
0.17ns
3.17ns
0.74a
5.02ns
0.48bc
0.14ns
2.87ns
0.83a
4.02ns
0.45c
0.18ns
3.01ns
0.61b
5.38ns
0.63a
0.12ns
3.09ns
0.81a
4.24ns
Discussion
This is the first study in which climate, soil, and cultivar,
the three main parameters of terroir, were studied simultaneously. Previous studies have only examined one or two of
those parameters at the same time, such as climate (Winkler
et al. 1974, Huglin 1978) or cultivar (Huglin and Schneider
1998). Little data have been published concerning the impact of different soil types. This study allowed us to determine which factors had the greatest effect on growth and
development of the vegetative and reproductive organs of
the vine and subsequent effects on the wine. Among the
variables measured in this research, berry weight, berry
sugar concentration, berry anthocyanin concentration, and
must total acidity have a direct influence on wine quality.
Berry weight is mainly influenced by the soil type, followed
by the cultivar. Berry sugar concentration depends mainly
on the cultivar and the soil type, but also on the vintage.
There is a significant effect of vintage and soil type on
berry anthocyanin concentration, but this variable is not
determined by the cultivar. Total acidity and pH of the grape
juice depend on the vintage and, to a lesser extent, on the
cultivar and the soil type. Total acidity is mainly determined
by malate, which is highly variable among vintages and cultivars, and less so by tartrate.
Yield did not affect the fruit-quality data, possibly because yield was low compared to other grape-producing areas of the world. Yield was not correlated with berry sugar
concentration (r = 0.06, n = 36, ns), with berry anthocyanin
Day Day
of ofthe
year
the year
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
0.0
Leaf Leaf
water
(MPa)
waterpotential
potential (MPa)
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6
-0.7
-0.8
1996
1997
1998
1999
-0.9
2000
-1.0
Minimum d
veraison to harvest
0.680 *** a
0.782 ***
0.658 ***
-0.322 *
-0.483 ***
-0.528 ***
0.387 **
0.339 *
-0.336 *
0.390 **
0.211 ns
-0.426 **
-0.312 *
0.638 ***
-0.272 ns
-0.402 **
-0.524 ***
0.351 *
0.515 ***
-0.613 ***
0.516 ***
0.102 ns
-0.527 ***
-0.088 ns
*, **, ***, and ns indicate significance at p < 0.05, 0.01, 0.001, and
0.05, respectively.
Conclusion
The three main parameters of terroirsoil, cultivar, and
climate (through the vintage effect)were studied simultaneously. The highly significant effects of these three parameters on vine development and berry constitution are
shown. The effect of climate was greatest on most parameters, followed by soil and cultivar. Vine mineral uptake did
not appear to have a critical effect on fruit quality. Sunshine hours and temperatures did not have a determining
impact on the quality of the vintage. The effects of climate
and soil on vine development and grape composition can
be explained in large part by their influence on vine water
status. Vintage influences vine water status through varying amounts of summer rain, while soil influences vine water status through its water-holding capacity and, possibly,
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