1 d

dT
rk
g 0
r dr
dr
2-25 For a medium in which the heat conduction equation is given in its simplest by
:
(a) Heat transfer is steady, (b) it is one-dimensional, (c) there is heat generation, and (d) the thermal conductivity is
variable.
2-55C Yes, this claim is reasonable since no heat is entering the cylinder and thus there can be no heat transfer from
the cylinder in steady operation. This condition will be satisfied only when there are no temperature differences
within the cylinder and the outer surface temperature of the cylinder is the equal to the temperature of the
surrounding medium.
2-105C A variable is a quantity which may assume various values during a study. A variable whose value can be
changed arbitrarily is called an independent variable (or argument). A variable whose value depends on the value
of other variables and thus cannot be varied independently is called a dependent variable (or a function).
3-5C The combined heat transfer coefficient represents the combined effects of radiation and convection heat
transfers on a surface, and is defined as hcombined = hconvection + hradiation. It offers the convenience of incorporating the
effects of radiation in the convection heat transfer coefficient, and to ignore radiation in heat transfer calculations.

3-65C Heat transfer in this short cylinder is one-dimensional since there will be no heat transfer
in the axial and tangential directions.
3-125
"!PROBLEM 3-125"
"GIVEN"
L=8 "[m]"
D_1=0.05 "[m]"
D_2=D_1
"z=0.40 [m], parameter to be varied"
T_1=60 "[C]"
T_2=15 "[C]"
k=0.75 "[W/m-C]"
"ANALYSIS"
S=(2*pi*L)/(arccosh((4*z^2-D_1^2-D_2^2)/(2*D_1*D_2)))
Q_dot=S*k*(T_1-T_2)

z [m]
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1

Q [W]
644.1
411.1
342.3
306.4
283.4
267
254.7
244.8
236.8
230

650
600
550

Q [W]

500
450
400
350
300
250
200
0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

z [m]
C
4-5C The temperature rise of the potato during the second minute will be less than 5
since the temperature of a
body approaches the temperature of the surrounding medium asymptotically, and thus it changes rapidly at the
beginning, but slowly later on.

4-65
"!PROBLEM 4-65"
"GIVEN"
T_i=10 "[C]"
T_infinity=-10 "[C]"
h=40 "[W/m^2-C]"
time=10*3600 "[s]"
"x=0.1 [m], parameter to be varied"
"PROPERTIES"
k=0.9 "[W/m-C]"
alpha=1.6E-5 "[m^2/s]"
"ANALYSIS"
(T_x-T_i)/(T_infinity-T_i)=erfc(x/(2*sqrt(alpha*time)))-exp((h*x)/k+
(h^2*alpha*time)/k^2)*erfc(x/(2*sqrt(alpha*time))+(h*sqrt(alpha*time)/k))

x [m]
0

Tx [C]
-9.666

0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.55
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1

-8.923
-8.183
-7.447
-6.716
-5.993
-5.277
-4.572
-3.878
-3.197
-2.529
-1.877
-1.24
-0.6207
-0.01894
0.5643
1.128
1.672
2.196
2.7
3.183

4
2

Tx [C]

0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

x [m]

0.8

4-105 Two large steel plates are stuck together because of the freezing of the water between the two plates. Hot air is
blown over the exposed surface of the plate on the top to melt the ice. The length of time the hot air should be blown
is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Heat conduction in the plates is one-dimensional since the plate is large relative to its thickness and
there is thermal symmetry about the center plane. 3 The thermal properties of the steel plates are constant. 4 The
heat transfer coefficient is constant and uniform over the entire surface. 5 The Fourier number is > 0.2 so that the
one-term approximate solutions (or the transient temperature charts) are applicable (this assumption will be
verified).
Properties The thermal properties of steel plates are given to be k = 43 W/m.C and = 1.1710-5 m2/s
Analysis The characteristic length of the plates and the Biot number are
V
Lc
L 0.02 m
As
Bi

hLc (40 W/m 2 .C)( 0.02 m )

0.019 0.1
k
(43 W/m. C)

Steel plates
Ti = -15C
Hot gases
T = 50C

Bi < 0.1
Since
b

, the lumped system analysis is applicable. Therefore,

hAs
h
40 W/m 2 .C

0.000544 s -1
C pV C p Lc (3.675 10 6 J/m 3 .C)(0.02 m)

-1
T (t ) T
0 50
e bt
e (0.000544s )t t 482 s 8.0 min
Ti T
15 50

C p

k
43 W/m. C

3.675 10 6 J/m 3 .C
1.17 10 5 m 2 /s

where
Alternative solution: This problem can also be solved using the transient chart Fig. 4-13a,
1
1

52 .6

Bi 0.019
t

2 15 0.2
To T
0 50
ro

0.769

Ti T
15 50

Then,
t

ro 2
(15)( 0.02 m) 2

513 s

(1.17 10 5 m 2 /s)

The difference is due to the reading error of the chart.

5-25 A long triangular fin attached to a surface is considered. The nodal temperatures, the rate of heat transfer, and
the fin efficiency are to be determined numerically using 6 equally spaced nodes.
Assumptions 1 Heat transfer along the fin is given to be steady, and the temperature along the fin to vary in the x
direction only so that T = T(x). 2 Thermal conductivity is constant.
Properties The thermal conductivity is given to be k = 180 W/mC. The emissivity of the fin surface is 0.9.
Analysis The fin length is given to be L = 5 cm, and the number of nodes is specified to be M = 6. Therefore, the
nodal spacing x is

L
0.05 m

0.01 m
M 1
6 -1

The temperature at node 0 is given to be T0 = 200C, and the temperatures at the remaining 5 nodes are to be
determined. Therefore, we need to have 5 equations to determine them uniquely. Nodes 1, 2, 3, and 4 are interior
nodes, and the finite difference formulation for a general interior node m is obtained by applying an energy balance
on the volume element of this node. Noting that heat transfer is steady and there is no heat generation in the fin and
assuming heat transfer to be into the medium from all sides, the energy balance can be expressed as

Q 0

kAleft

all sides

Tm 1 Tm
T
Tm
4
kAright m 1
hAconv (T Tm ) Asurface [Tsurr
(Tm 273 ) 4 } 0
x
x

Note that heat transfer areas are different for each node in this case, and
using geometrical relations, they can be expressed as

x
0

A (Height width) @ m 1 / 2 2w L m 1 / 2 x tan

1 left 2
3
4
5
Aright (Height width) @ m 1 / 2 2w L m 1 / 2 x tan

T0

h, T

Asurface 2 Length width 2 w(x / cos )

Tsurr
Substituting,
2kw[ L (m 0.5)x] tan

Tm 1 Tm
T T
2kw[ L (m 0.5)x] tan m 1 m
x
x
4
2w(x / cos ){h(T Tm ) [Tsurr (Tm 273 )4 ]} 0

2kwL tan
Dividing each term by

/x gives

x
x
h( x ) 2
(x) 2 4

4
1 m 1 / 2 L (Tm 1 Tm ) 1 m 1 / 2 L (Tm 1 Tm ) kLsin (T Tm ) kLsin [Tsurr (Tm 273 ) ] 0

Substituting,

1 0.5

x
x
h( x ) 2
(x) 2 4

(
T

T
)

1
.
5
(
T

T
)

(
T

T
)

[Tsurr (T1 273 ) 4 ] 0

0
1
2
1

L
L
kLsin
kLsin

m = 1:
x
x
h ( x ) 2
(x ) 2 4

4
1 1.5 L (T1 T2 ) 1 2.5 L (T3 T2 ) kLsin (T T2 ) kLsin [Tsurr (T2 273 ) ] 0

m = 2:
x
x
h ( x ) 2
(x ) 2 4

4
1 2.5 L (T2 T3 ) 1 3.5 L (T4 T3 ) kLsin (T T3 ) kLsin [Tsurr (T3 273 ) ] 0

m = 3:
x
x
h ( x ) 2
( x) 2 4

4
1 3.5 L (T3 T4 ) 1 4.5 L (T5 T4 ) kLsin (T T4 ) kL sin [Tsurr (T4 273 ) ] 0

m = 4:
An energy balance on the 5th node gives the 5th equation,
2k

x
T T5
x / 2
x / 2 4
tan 4
2h
(T T5 ) 2
[Tsurr (T5 273 ) 4 ] 0
2
x
cos
cos

m = 5:
Solving the 5 equations above simultaneously for the 5 unknown nodal temperatures gives

T1 =177.0C,

T2 =174.1C,

T3 =171.2C,

T4 =168.4C,

and

T5 =165.5C

(b) The total rate of heat transfer from the fin is simply the sum of the heat transfer from each volume element to the
ambient, and for w = 1 m it is determined from
Q fin

Q element, m

m 0

hAsurface, m (Tm T )

m0

surface, m [(Tm

4
273 ) 4 Tsurr
]

m 0

wx / cos
Noting that the heat transfer surface area is
interior nodes 1, 2, 3, and 4, we have

for the boundary nodes 0 and 5, and twice as large for the

wx
(T0 T ) 2(T1 T ) 2(T2 T ) 2(T3 T ) 2(T4 T ) (T5 T )
Q fin h
cos
wx
4
4
4
4

{[(T0 273 ) 4 Tsurr
] 2[(T1 273 ) 4 Tsurr
] 2[(T2 273 ) 4 Tsurr
] 2[(T3 273 ) 4 Tsurr
]
cos
4
4
2[(T4 273 ) 4 Tsurr
] [(T5 273 ) 4 Tsurr
]}
= 533 W

5-75 A plane wall with variable heat generation and constant thermal conductivity is subjected to uniform heat flux
q 0
at the left (node 0) and convection at the right boundary (node 4). The explicit transient finite difference
g(x, t)
formulation of the boundary nodes is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Heat transfer through the wall is given to be transient, and the thermal conductivity to be constant. 2
Heat transfer is one-dimensional since the plate is large relative to its thickness. 3 Radiation heat transfer is
q0 negligible.
1
2
3
4 Using the energy balance approach and taking the direction of all heat
Analysis
transfers to be towards the node under consideration, the implicit finite
difference formulations become
Left boundary node:
h, T
x
i 1
i
T1i 1 T0i 1
T

x
0
kA
q 0 A g 0i 1 ( Ax / 2) A
C 0
x
2
t
Right boundary node:
kA

T3i 1 T4i 1
x T4i 1 T4i
hA(Ti 1 T4i 1 ) g 4i 1 ( Ax / 2) A
C
x
2
t

5-105C A practical way of checking if the discretization error has been significant in calculations is to start the
calculations with a reasonable mesh size x (and time step size t for transient problems), based on experience, and
then to repeat the calculations using a mesh size of x/2. If the results obtained by halving the mesh size do not
differ significantly from the results obtained with the full mesh size, we conclude that the discretization error is at an
acceptable level.
11-5C Thermal radiation is the radiation emitted as a result of vibrational and rotational motions of molecules,
m
atoms and electrons of a substance, and it extends from about 0.1 to 100
in wavelength. Unlike the other forms
of electromagnetic radiation, thermal radiation is emitted by bodies because of their temperature.

11-35 A small surface is subjected to uniform incident radiation. The rates of radiation emission through two
specified bands are to be determined.
Assumptions The intensity of incident radiation is constant.
45
Analysis (a) The rate at which radiation is incident on a surface per unit
surface area in the direction (,) is given as
dQ i
dG
I i ( , ) cos sin dd
dA
The total rate of radiation emission through the band between
0 and 45 can be expressed as
G1

45

I i ( , ) cos sin d d I i

45
since the incident radiation is constant (Ii = constant), and
2

45

cos sin d d 2

45

A = 1 cm2

cos sin d (sin 2 45 sin 2 0) / 2

Approximating a small area as a differential area, the rate of radiation energy emitted from an area of 1 cm 2 in the
specified band becomes
90
Q G dA 0.5I dA 0.5 (2.2 10 4 W/m 2 sr)(1 10 4 m 2 ) 3.46 W
i ,1

(b) Similarly, the total rate of radiation emission through the band
between 45 and 90 can be expressed as
G1

90

I i ( , ) cos sin d d I i

45

2
A = 1 cm2

since
2

90

45

cos sin d d 2

90

45

cos sin d (sin 2 90 sin 2 45 ) / 2

and
Q i ,2 G 2 dA 0.5I i dA 0.5 (2.2 10 4 W/m 2 sr)(1 10 4 m 2 ) 3.46 W

Discussion Note that the viewing area for the band 0 - 45 is much smaller, but the radiation energy incident
through it is equal to the energy streaming through the remaining area.
11-65C A window that transmits visible part of the spectrum while absorbing the infrared portion is ideally suited
for minimizing the air-conditioning load since such windows provide maximum daylighting and minimum solar heat
gain. The ordinary window glass approximates this behavior remarkably well.
12-5 An enclosure consisting of six surfaces is considered. The number of view
factors this geometry involves and the number of these view factors that can be

2
3

determined by the application of the reciprocity and summation rules are to be 1

determined.
N 2 6 2 36

Analysis A seven surface enclosure (N=6) involves

view factors
6
N ( N 1) 6(6 1)

15
2
2
and we need to determine
view factors directly. The
remaining 36-15 = 21 of the view factors can be determined by the application of
the reciprocity and summation rules.

12-45 A long semi-cylindrical duct with specified temperature on the side surface is considered. The temperature of
the base surface for a specified heat transfer rate is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist 2 The surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gray. 3 Convection heat
transfer is not considered.
Properties The emissivity of the side surface is = 0.4.
T2 = 650 K

Analysis
We consider the base surface to be surface 1, the side surface to be surface 2. This system is a two-surface
2 = 0.4
enclosure, and we consider a unit length of the duct. The surface areas and the view factor are determined as
A1 (1.0 m )(1.0 m ) 1.0 m 2
A2 DL / 2 (1.0 m )(1 m) / 2 1.571 m 2
D=1m

F11 F12 1 0 F12 1 F12 1

(summation rule)
The temperature of the base surface is determined from

T1 = ?
1=1

(T1 4 T2 4 )
Q 12
1 2
1

A1 F12 A2 2
1200 W

(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 K 4 )[T1 4 (650 K) 4 ]

T1 684.8 K
1
1 0 .4

(1.0 m 2 )(1) (1.571 m 2 )( 0.4)

12-85 The average mean radiation temperature during a cold day drops to 18C. The required rise in the indoor air
temperature to maintain the same level of comfort in the same clothing is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Air motion in the room is negligible. 2 The average clothing and exposed skin temperature remains
the same. 3 The latent heat loss from the body remains constant. 4 Heat transfer through the lungs remain constant.
Properties The emissivity of the person is 0.95 (from Appendix tables). The convection heat transfer coefficient
from the body in still air or air moving with a velocity under 0.2 m/s is hconv = 3.1 W/m2C (Table 12-3).
Analysis The total rate of heat transfer from the body is the sum of the rates of heat loss by convection, radiation,
and evaporation,

Q body, total Q sensible Q latent Q lungs (Q conv Qrad ) Q latent Q lungs

Noting that heat transfer from the skin by evaporation and from the lungs remains constant, the sum of the
convection and radiation heat transfer from the person must remain constant.
Q
hA (T T
) A (T 4 T 4
)
sensible,old

air, old

surr,old

hAs (Ts 22 ) 0.95 As [(T s 273 ) 4 (22 273 ) 4 ]

4
Q sensible,new hAs (Ts Tair, new ) As (Ts4 Tsurr,
new )

hAs (Ts Tair, new ) 0.95 As [(Ts 273 ) 4 (18 273 ) 4 ]

22C
22C

15 smokers

15 smokers

Setting the two

relations above equal to each other, canceling the surface area As,
and simplifying gives
22h 0.95 (22 273) 4 hTair, new 0.95 (18 273) 4
31
. (Tair, new 22) 0.95 5.67 10 8 (2914 2954 ) 0

Solving for the new air temperature gives

Tair, new = 29.0C
Therefore, the air temperature must be raised to 29C to
counteract the increase in heat transfer by radiation.