Chapter 1

Poppelreiter, M., C. Garca-Carballido, and

M. Kraaijveld, 2010, Borehole image log
technology: Application across the exploration and production life cycle, in M.
Poppelreiter, C. Garca-Carballido, and M.
Kraaijveld, eds., Dipmeter and borehole
image log technology: AAPG Memoir 92,
p. 1 13.

Borehole Image Log Technology:

Application Across the Exploration
and Production Life Cycle
Michael Poppelreiter

Qatar Shell Research and Technology Centre,

Doha, Qatar
Carmen Garca-Carballido

Maersk Oil North Sea, UK Ltd., Altens,

Aberdeen, United Kingdom
Martin Kraaijveld

Petroleum Development Oman,

Muscat, Sultanate of Oman
^

INTRODUCTION

ity of recent images in oil-base mud systems comes

close to wireline image resolution. Even more significant is the development of high-resolution loggingwhile-drilling (LWD) tools (Ritter et al., 2004) that now
rival traditional wireline images. The latest generation
of LWD imaging tools can detect high-permeability
streaks only a few decimeters thick and can track them
for long distances using advanced, image-based geosteering technology (Prosser et al., 2006).
Borehole imaging is now on its way to becoming
a mature technology, and it is used in increasingly
advanced applications (Prensky, 1999; Inaba et al.,
2003). Good examples of this include the integration
of dipmeter and borehole image data with nuclear
magnetic resonance logging (Mathis et al., 2004; Daoud
et al., 2006), and three-dimensional (3-D) resistivity
profiles derived from image data to improve the identification of high-permeability intervals that standard
wireline tools do not recognize (Aplin et al., 2003).
When image log data are coupled with sophisticated
interpretation techniques, complex reservoir connectivity problems can be solved (Bal et al., 2002).

The ever-increasing energy demand requires recovery from existing fields to be maximized, a process mostly dependent on accurate reservoir models.
Borehole imaging is one of the fastest and most precise methods for collecting subsurface data (Figure 1).
Borehole imaging can feed even millimeter-scale information into these models (Paillet et al., 1990). Increasingly, borehole images can be transmitted and
integrated into reservoir models while drilling, which
is an important step toward real-time field optimization (Sparkman, 2003). Recent advances in modeling
software allow the fully integrated use of image data
in reservoir models for the first time. As a result, the
status of borehole image technology is shifting from
being a niche application to being a key component of
both static and dynamic reservoir models. Technological advances in borehole imaging during the
past 5 yr have facilitated these developments. One
important area of progress is the introduction of highresolution oil-base imagers (Pavlovic, 2002). The qual-

Copyright n2010 by The American Association of Petroleum Geologists.

DOI:10.1306/13181274M923406

Poppelreiter et al.

Figure 1. Evolution of dipmeter technology from a simple three-arm dipmeter to a

high-resolution Fullbore Formation MicroImager (FMITM,
Schlumberger) over the last
40 yr (courtesy of Schlumberger). HDT = high resolution
dipmeter tool; SHDT = stratigraphic high resolution dipmeter tool; FMS = formation
microscanner. (FMS). Schlumberger manufactures these
tools.

Nowadays, crisp images are increasingly being generated in all borehole environments (Figure 2). This
is fostering rapid advances in geomechanical imaging
applications (Zoback, 2007). Geomechanical analyses
of image log data can greatly improve fluid-flow predictions in fractured reservoirs (Barton et al., 1997) and
can also help optimize wellbore trajectories (Finkbeiner
et al., 2000). Because they can delineate geobody orientation, image logs can also provide a critical wellbore calibration of 3-D seismic features (Hesthammer
and Fossen, 2003).
Although the value of widespread application of
imaging technology is widely acknowledged, still,
too few geoscientists are sufficiently familiar with
this type of data. This volume aims to provide some
guidance in borehole image principles and workflows
and to illustrate the value of image data for managing
and modeling the subsurface.

DIPMETER AND BOREHOLE IMAGE

LOGS IN THE EXPLORATION AND
PRODUCTION LIFE CYCLE
The organization of this volume reflects the stages
of field development in the exploration and production (EP) life cycle (Figure 3). Thus, dipmeter and
image log applications are discussed from job planning to complex field development projects.

Planning, Acquisition, Quality Control,

and Management of Dipmeter and Borehole
Image Data
Borehole image acquisition includes the planning
of logging jobs and the deployment of appropriate

data management systems and quality control guidelines (Serra, 1989). Such procedures help improve the
quality of both image acquisition and image interpretation throughout the exploration, appraisal, development, and production stages; this is important because
an interpretation can only be as good as image quality
and resolution permit. To acquire dipmeter and borehole image logs of optimum quality, it is essential to
have the operator work closely with the service company to select the appropriate imaging tool, considering the required geological resolution, mud type
and weight, and expected formation characteristics.
Lagraba, Hansen, Spalburg, and Helmy (Lagraba et al.,
2010) discuss these preparatory considerations in
Chapter 2, including the value of information analysis.
Management of dipmeter and borehole image data
is another significant challenge faced by operating and
service companies. All the major oil companies have
corporate databases that, together, contain thousands
of dipmeter and borehole image logs, with legacy
data commonly of unknown quality. The dipmeter
and image data sets are constantly being upgraded
as new tool types are introduced or existing data sets
are (re)processed and (re)interpreted (Aplin et al.,
2002). This places a permanent pressure on data management requirements. However, having a fit-forpurpose system to manage image data can add tremendous value to the logs that are acquired. The
accessibility of quality-controlled logs is fundamental for real-time operations as well as reservoir management. Optimized data flow and storage systems
are outlined by Garca-Carballido, Boon, and Tso, who
present a structured approach to the quality control of
image data in Chapter 3. Consistent quality control
checkpoints and templates as discussed in this chapter
is recommended for general use. They are prerequisites

Borehole Image Log Technology: Application Across the Exploration and Production Life Cycle

Figure 2. Although oil-base mud revolutionized drilling and borehole properties, it had detrimental effects on
dipmeter and image log quality for many years. Nowadays, tools such as the EARTH ImagerSM (Baker Hughes/Baker
Atlas) let geoscientists see through oil-base mud (courtesy of Maddock and Ravnas, 2010).

for assuring data integrity during subsequent reservoir modeling stages. A practical addition to this process is the use of a consistent but flexible corporate
naming convention. This convention supports data
transparency and assures that interpretations are easy
to share among the geoscience community.
Chapter 4 outlines data processing and interpretation principles for dipmeter and borehole image logs.

Hansen and Buczak provide a step-by-step guide

through this process, with numerous illustrations
(Figure 4). The expression one persons information is
the others noise has been coined to highlight the importance of having a genetic, rock-calibrated processing and interpretation workflow (Adams et al., 1990).
The oil industry can make use of neatly qualitycontrolled, processed, and interpreted dipmeter and

Figure 3. Examples
of geomechanical applications of dipmeter
and borehole image
technology in the field
cycle (courtesy of Barton
and Moos, 2010).

Poppelreiter et al.

Figure 4. Data processing converts raw dipmeter and borehole

image data into images
that show the borehole
wall similar to a photograph. The figure shows
raw microresistivity
data in wiggle form and
converted data to image
form using simple (middle two tracks) and
histogram-based color
mapping (right two tracks)
(courtesy of Hansen
and Buczak, 2010).

borehole image data in new ways for static reservoir

modeling applications. The ease of the seamless
integration of image data with any other data set, as
well as of data management, is shown in Chapter 5,
and it is a key driver for the current upsurge in image
log utilization. Poppelreiter, Crookbain, Sapru, and
Lawrence present an overview of current applications of dipmeter and borehole image interpretations in reservoir models (Figure 5).

Exploration
Borehole image logs now have an established place
in most exploration wells. For hazardous boreholes
that cannot be cored, they are considered a musthave. Arguably, one of the largest advances that
dipmeter and borehole image technology has experienced in the last 15 yr is its application to geomechanics (Figure 6). Barton and Moos provide a comprehensive summary of geomechanical applications
in Chapter 6. As shown in this chapter, the prediction of maximum hydrocarbon column height in fault
block structures is an important application of geomechanics during the exploration stage. Such analyses can potentially reduce the risk of encountering
breached fault seals with uneconomic hydrocarbon
volumes (Wiprut and Zoback, 2002). Additional confidence in such analysis is provided when imaging is
combined with hydrocarbon indicators from seismic
data. However, the full use of geomechanical principles in reservoir modeling is not yet a reality, partly

because a software package suitable for widespread

use is not available. Nevertheless, some promising
studies have looked at developing geomechanical algorithms within standard modeling packages (Wynn
et al., 2005; Poppelreiter et al., 2009).
The exploration portfolio of many oil companies
increasingly contains structures that are poorly imaged on seismic data. A significant contribution of dipmeter and borehole image logs when dealing with such
structurally risky trap configurations is in the delineation of the dip and azimuth of the top of the reservoir.
Chapter 7 presents a case study of a salt flank structure
by Garca-Carballido, Styles, and Poppelreiter, which is
a good example of this. The workflow proposed can
generally be applied to areas with poor seismic quality
to reduce top structure uncertainty. This workflow
also emphasizes the value of using dipmeter data that
were acquired during the exploration stage to help
well planning during the appraisal or development
stage. Moreover, dipmeter and borehole image data
are also used to determine paleocurrent direction and
fairway reservoir trends to reduce reservoir risk. This
technique of sand fairway mapping tends to increase
exploration success, particularly within mature hydrocarbon provinces where calibration points are at hand
(Heine, 1993).
Chapter 8 outlines reservoir characterization by
EARTH Imager (Baker Hughes/Baker Atlas) data from
a wildcat well. Maddock and Ravnas describe image
acquisition under high-temperature, high-pressure
conditions in a well that was drilled with oil-base mud.

Borehole Image Log Technology: Application Across the Exploration and Production Life Cycle

Figure 5. Integration of imaging interpretations with

open-hole logs, seismic data, and other
methods to establish
the critical orientation
and flow behavior
of fracture corridors
of a producer-injector
pair (courtesy of
Poppelreiter et al.,
2010). FMITM = Fullbore Formation
MicroImager (Schlumberger); Prod. = producer well; Inj. =
injector well; So = oil
saturation; Phi =
porosity.

The images acquired are superb examples not only of

the value of dipmeter and borehole images acquired
in exploration wells, but also of the limitations.
For such interpretations to work, however, rock
calibration is essential (Figure 7). The nonuniqueness
of dipmeter and borehole image data prevents a direct conversion of image patterns into reservoir models. Rock calibration based on cuttings, core, or outcrops is indispensable. Conceptual models, like the
ones by Donselaar and Schmidt that are shown in
Chapter 9, are a prerequisite for making meaningful use of image data for this kind of application.
Chapter 7 and Chapter 19 both show examples of the
limitations of using uncalibrated dipmeter and borehole image interpretations with fluvial deposits.

APPRAISAL
One of the prime objectives of acquiring dipmeter
and borehole image logs during the appraisal stage
is to estimate the structural and stratigraphic complexity of a field (Adams et al., 1990; Hurley, 1996; Bal
et al., 2002). An example of how outcrop-calibrated
borehole image data can be turned into a geological

model is shown by Slatt and Davis in Chapter 10. The

examination of calibrated images from behind
outcrop logging revealed groups of diagnostic features in deep-water depositional systems identifiable on image logs. Genetic elements interpreted from
borehole images have specific geometries, internal
architecture, and properties that can be used to constrain conceptual reservoir models. However, limitations in resolution are also highlighted by the authors.
This methodology can be applied to the substantial
core sections that are commonly acquired during the
appraisal stage. They provide critical calibration regarding depositional environment, diagenesis, and
reservoir architecture (Prosser et al., 1999).
However, structural features, like fractures, are
commonly less well calibrated at the appraisal stage.
Fractures tend to be undersampled in vertical wells.
Optimizing well design and placement, selection
of appropriate mud systems that reduce rig down
time, and improved well completion efforts depend
on image-based geomechanical models (Barton and
Zoback, 1998; Rahim et al., 2005). Geomechanical
models are particularly useful during the appraisal
stage when the drilling experience is still limited, and
these models can achieve substantial cost savings.

Poppelreiter et al.

these baffles, which are just a few centimeters thick, is

only possible with a combination of core, logs, and
dipmeter or borehole image logs. The chapter demonstrates the major impact of these volumetrically insignificant shales on fluid flow and on the development of a reservoir.
Vertical wells, which are commonly preferred
during appraisal, tend to undersample structural
features. Carbonate reservoirs are particularly sensitive to this, because it is commonly only after the
interpretation of image logs and dynamic data that
these reservoirs are identified as fracture plays (Bell
et al., 1992). Mattioni, Chauveau, Fonta, Ryabchenko,
Sokolov, Mukhametzyanov, Shlionkin, Zereninov, and
Bobb demonstrate the value of image logs for fracture
characterization in Chapter 12. The authors apply the
concept of mechanical stratigraphy to a single, slightly
deviated well in a dolomite reservoir. They translate
a careful investigation of lithology, bed architecture,
and stratigraphy into a conceptual fracture model and
quantitative fracture relationships. Their systematic,
iterative workflow is complemented by the construction of a discrete fracture network model (Trice, 1999).

PRODUCTION

Figure 6. Drilling-induced tension fractures (blue bar)

showing the orientation of the maximum horizontal
stress direction (courtesy of Barton and Moos, 2010).

DEVELOPMENT
At the development stage, image log interpretations are applied to determine the net-to-gross ratio
in sand-shale intercalations (Hackbarth and Tepper,
1988), analyze reservoir connectivity, and characterize faults, and for a large variety of other applications
besides those mentioned here. Reservoir architecture
and connectivity are of particular interest because
they can impact the number and type of wells in a
development (see Figure 8). Barton, OByrne, Pirmez,
Prather, van der Vlugt, Alpak and Sylvester (Barton
et al., 2010) present an integrated workflow for heterogeneous deep-water depositional systems in Chapter 11. This workflow covers all aspects from outcrop
analysis of key flow barriers, i.e., channel-base drapes
in a deep-water depositional system, to flow barrier
reservoir modeling and simulation. Identification of

Field and well optimization, and reservoir management, are key processes for maximizing production while limiting expenditure. A robust surveillance
plan for the production stage commonly includes dipmeter and borehole image logs. The number of these
data sets depends on the actual reservoir complexity
(Figure 9). In matrix-dominated reservoirs, it may
only be necessary to acquire image logs in key wells.
Also, conversely, fractured reservoirs can only be
described adequately after horizontal development
wells have been drilled and a representative number
of borehole image logs have been acquired (Adams
et al., 1999).
An intelligent well design that connects additional
permeable reservoir facies can enhance production
in some reservoirs. In Chapter 13, Lofts and Morris
describe a sophisticated geosteering method to maximize the penetration length of a reservoir using the
latest LWD imaging tools. Modern LWD tools provide an operating company with real-time information of a quality that rivals wireline tools. Lofts and
Morris discuss how to plan and implement advanced
geosteering, combined with real-time reservoir model
updates, in detail in this chapter. The image quality they

Borehole Image Log Technology: Application Across the Exploration and Production Life Cycle

Figure 7. Calibration of image logs with rock (e.g., cuttings, core, and outcrop) is
essential to convert images
into meaningful geological
interpretations (courtesy of
Xu et al., 2009).

Figure 8. Application of dipmeter

and image log data
interpretation results
for facies identification and well correlation (courtesy of
Barton et al., 2005,
permission to reprint from Shell EP).

Poppelreiter et al.

Figure 9. Fracture characterization using Schlumbergers Fullbore Formation MicroImager (FMI) data in conjunction
with open-hole logs to establish an e-facies scheme tuned to detect at least some structural features. APLC = log
measure porosity; SGR = standard gamma ray; THOR = thorium; MDT_F = modular formation dynamics tester.

present suggests that imaging in LWD mode is set to

change the way complex reservoirs are developed.
At the production stage, powerful visualization
technology can be used to delineate structural trends
in fractured reservoirs. In Chapter 14, Richard and
de Pieri demonstrate the power of visualization and
data integration as a platform for discrete fracture
models.
Davatzes and Hickman outline fracture distribution in a geothermal field in fractured basement,
using detailed observations and data integration, in
Chapter 15. Such models are used as inputs to simulations that allow a better understanding of fluid flow;
i.e., they clarify the extent of high-permeability layers,
thief zones, baffles, and barriers (Moeck et al., 2007).

Borehole image data sets can be combined with data

from a variety of other sources to model and manage
the reservoir and, possibly, influence the field development strategy.
Image logs are also indispensable in reservoirs
with complex pore structure, such as carbonate reservoirs. The characteristic (very) high resistivity that
these reservoirs commonly display has a detrimental
effect on image quality (see Figure 10). In Chapter 16,
Chitale, Johnson, Entzminger, and Canter describe a
recently introduced tool that can image the diagenetically altered zones in carbonates that can act as flow
barriers or high-permeability zones, where subtle resistivity contrasts have commonly made imaging difficult in the past. Moreover, the improved interpretation

Borehole Image Log Technology: Application Across the Exploration and Production Life Cycle

Figure 10. Integration of image log data with petrophysical data to characterize permeability streaks (courtesy of
Chitale et al., 2010). GR = gamma ray; CAL1 = caliper1; PE = photoelectric factor; SPI = percent fraction of the
total (crossplot) porosity, which is secondary vugular; SPHI = secondary porosity; XPHI = crossplot porosity;
AMPEQ = static enhanced vector of the XRMI electrodes total signal (amplitude of the conductivity); VSND_AMP =
sand fraction computed from the XRMI AMPEQ; FRAC_IMG = fractures from image log; PAY_IMAG = net reservoir
flag from image log; PAY_LOG = net reservoir flag from open-hole log; RES = resistivity; XRMI = X-tended Range
Micro Imager (XRMITM, manufactured by Halliburton).

software that is also described in this chapter shows

how to convert images into Lucia-type permeability
classes.
Another aspect of image-based carbonate reservoir characterization is pore-type partitioning (Akbar
et al., 1995). The separation of touching and nontouching vug systems with their very different permeabilities (Newberry et al., 1996), which is particularly important in this regard, is described by Xu in
Chapter 17 (Xu, 2010). The methodology can lead to a
much improved permeability prediction with very
high resolution, so it can enhance the predictability
of reservoir models (Lovell et al., 1997).

The complexity of fractured reservoirs and the importance of dynamic calibration of features interpreted
from image logs are presented in Chapter 18 by Follows, Beck, Farmer, Al Salmi, de Bruijn, De Pieri, and
Welling. The authors highlight the importance and
power of having an integrated reservoir surveillance
strategy. This chapter also emphasizes the complex
flow behavior of fracture systems and demonstrates
that the dynamic properties of fractures cannot always be derived from image logs alone (Nicholls et al.,
1999). This chapter also shows that the overall dynamic behavior of a fracture class can be estimated by
its static properties. The flow in individual fractures,

10

Poppelreiter et al.

Figure 11. Visualization of borehole images with seismic and other data as a powerful way to establish structural
trends, geometries, and flow properties. Such relationships can be used to build fracture realizations as part of static or
dynamic reservoir models (courtesy of Richard and de Pieri, 2010).

however, can vary widely. Integration of image logs

(see Figure 11) and production logs leads to an appropriate dynamic characterization of the reservoir.
Samantray, Kraaijveld, Bulushi, and Spring present the fully integrated use of dipmeter or borehole
image data for field development planning in a cluster of fluvial reservoirs in Chapter 19. They describe a
methodology that can be applied generally to brown
field developments and mature assets. Their study
is also an important example of how the value of
legacy data sets, accumulated in their thousands by
national and international oil companies, can be realized using them as inputs for reservoir models.

PERSPECTIVES
This volume combines a presentation of the fundamentals of dipmeter and borehole image technology with descriptions of state-of-the-art applications.

The need to (iteratively) integrate image data with

other data sources is a recurring theme. Integration
requires better software, and several tools are nearly
ready to be put on the market. The next generation of
modeling software is expected to bridge the gap between stand-alone specialist borehole image processing and interpretation tools and plug-ins for mainstream subsurface interpretation software. This may
put borehole imaging on the desktop of large numbers
of geoscience and petroleum engineering professionals, including seismologists, geologists, petrophysicists, reservoir engineers, production technologists,
and well engineers.
The next generation of image interpretation software is also expected to provide standard geomechanical modules that again will be a significant factor in future generations of reservoir models. Tool
development is likely to move toward improved vertical resolution, larger borehole coverage, and imaging

Borehole Image Log Technology: Application Across the Exploration and Production Life Cycle

in all possible mud systems. Soon multisensor and

multiarray imaging tools will facilitate data integration during data acquisition in the subsurface, using
different data acquisition methods (Badir, 2007). This
will break the present dominance of resistivity and
acoustic devices. New technology, such as the recently introduced intelligent drill pipe (Reeves et al.,
2005), is likely to further enhance data transmission
to the surface.
All of these developments will pave the way for
imaging to shift from qualitative to quantitative petrophysical interpretations (Kraaijveld and Epping, 2001),
opening up a completely new range of petrophysical
interpretation methodologies.
We hope that this volume sparks enthusiasm for
dipmeter and image log technology and provides a
useful reference both for the novice and for the experienced subsurface professional.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The compilation of this volume was not possible without the contributions from many borehole image specialists across the industry and academia. The editors are most
grateful for the time and effort of the numerous reviewers:
Graham Aplin, Mike Ashton, Goos Bakker, Homero
Castillio, Andrew Cook, Freddy Curby, Quintin Davies,
Andy Duncan, Paul Elliot, Willem Epping, Roddy McGarva,
Caroline Clark, Kelly Hazlip, Vincent Hilton, Jean-Bernard
Joubert, Christophe Mercadier, Alison Mabillard, John
Marshall, Ron Nelson, Gerard Niks, Christian Ottesen,
Jeremy Prosser, Fritz Rambow, Malcolm Rider, Steve
Rogers, Shaun Sadler, Lena Thrane, Gerhard Templeton,
Robert Trice, Manoj Vallikkat, and Deborah Walker. This
volume was compiled thanks to these specialists and Shells
Borehole Imaging Team. The authors are also grateful for
editorial comments by Peter Scott-Wilson and Suzanna
Atkinson on the introduction.

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