S
trical Fa
ault Anaalysis
Fault:
F
A fau
ult in a circuuit is any faiilure that intterferes with
h the normall flow of currrent to the load. In
most
m faults, a current paath forms beetween two oor more phasses, or betweeen one or more
m
phases and the
neutral
n
(grouund). Since the
t impedannce of a new path is usuaally low, an eexcessive cuurrent may flow.
Most
M of the fault on the power systeem leads to a short circuit condition.. When such
h a conditionn occurs,
a heavy cu
urrent (calledd short-circuuit current) flows throough the eqquipment, caausing consiiderable
damage
d
to th
he equipmennt and interruuption of serrvice to conssumers.
The
T choice of apparatuss and the design and arrrangement of
o practicallyy every equip
pment in thee power
hort-circuit current
c
consiiderations.
system depeends upon sh
Types of Faults
F
The
power
system
b
behaves
mally undeer conditioons of
abnorm
symmeetrical
short
circuit
(symm
metrical threee-phase faultt).
Symm
metrical fault may be a solid
three-pphase shorrt-circuit or
o may
involvve arc impedaance.
metrical fau
ult conditioons are
Symm
causedd in the system acccidently
througgh
insulattion
failure
of
equipm
ments or flashover
f
of lines
initiateed by a liightning strroke or
througgh accidental faulty operration.
The syystem must be
b protectedd against
flow oof heavy sh
hort-circuit currents
c
(whichh can cause permanent damage
to major equipmennt) by disconnnecting
the fauulty part of thhe system byy means
of
o circuit breeakers operaated by proteective relayinng.
For
F proper choice of ciircuit breakeers and prottective relayying, the maagnitude of currents
c
thaat would
flow under short-circuit
s
conditions must
m be estim
mated this is the scopee of fault anaalysis.
High-voltag
H
ve strings off insulators supporting
s
eeach phase. The
T insulatoors must
e transmissiion lines hav
be
b large enoough to prev
vent flashoveer a condiition when the
t voltage ddifference beetween the line
l
and
the
t ground is
i large enou
ugh to ionizee the air arouund insulatorrs and thus pprovide a currrent path beetween a
phase
p
and a tower.
If
I flashover occurs on a single phasse of the linee, an arc will be produceed. Such fauults are calledd single
line-to-grou
l
und faults. Since the short-circuit path has a low impeddance, very high currennts flow
through
t
the faulted linee into the ground
g
and bback into thhe power syystem. Faultss involving ionized
current
c
pathhs are also caalled transieent faults. Thhey usually clear if pow
wer is removed from the line for
a short time and then resstored.
o occur if onne phase of the
t line breaaks and com
mes into contaact with
Single line-tto-ground faaults can also
the
t ground or if insulattors break. This
T
fault iss called a peermanent faault since it will remainn after a
quick
q
powerr removing.
Approximat
A
tely 75% off all faults inn power sysstems are eiither transiennt or permaanent single line-toground
g
faultts.
Sometimes, all three ph
hases of a transmission
t
n line are shhorted togethher symm
metrical threee-phase
faults.
f
Two
T phases of a line maay touch, or flashover maay occur bettween two phhases a lin
ne-to-line fau
ult.
When
W
two liines touch eaach other annd also touchh the groundd, the fault is called a dou
uble line-to--ground
fault
f
Lighting
L
stro
okes cause most
m faults on
o high-volttage transmiission lines pproducing a very high transient
t
that
t
greatly exceeds thee rated voltaage of the line. This volltage usuallyy causes flashover betw
ween the
phase
p
and thhe ground of
o the line creating an arc.
a Once th
he current staarts flowingg through the arc, it
remains
r
even after the liighting disapppears.
High
H
curren
nts due to a fault must be
b detected by protectivve circuitry and the circcuit breakerss on the
affected
a
trannsmission lin
ne should au
utomaticallyy open for a brief periodd (about 1/33 second). T
This will
allow
a
ionizeed air to deeionize. If thhe fault wass transient, normal operration shoulld be restored after
reclosing
r
thee breaker. Thherefore, maany transientt faults are cleared
c
autom
matically. Otherwise, thee circuit
breaker
b
shouuld open agaain isolating the transmisssion line.
(A) Phase-to
o-earth fault
(C) Phase-too-phase-to-eaarth fault
(E) Three phhase-to-earthh fault
(G) Pilot-earrth fault *
*In undergrround mining
g applicationn only
Symmetrica
al Fault: Thhe fault on th
he power syystem which
h gives rise o symmetriccal fault currrent (i.e.
o
equal
e
fault current
c
in thee line with 120 displaceement) is called symmetrrical fault.
Protectio
P
on againsst fault
High
H
curren
nts due to a fault must be
b detected by protectivve circuitry and the circcuit breakerss on the
affected
a
trannsmission lin
ne should au
utomaticallyy open for a brief periodd (about 1/33 second). T
This will
allow
a
ionizeed air to deeionize. If thhe fault wass transient, normal operration shoulld be restored after
reclosing
r
thee breaker. Thherefore, maany transientt faults are cleared
c
autom
matically. Otherwise, thee circuit
breaker
b
shouuld open agaain isolating the transmisssion line.
Selecting an
n appropriatee circuit breaaker (type, siize, etc.) is im
mportant
Transien
nt on a Transmisssion Linee
Let
L us consiider the shorrt circuit traansient on a transmission
n line. Certaain simplifyiing assumptiions are
made
m
at this stage.
1. The line is fed frrom a constaant voltage soource.
2. Shorrt-circuit takees place wheen the line iff unloaded
3. Line capacitancee is negligiblle and the linne can be reppresented byy a lumped RL
R series circcuit.
It is known from circuit theory that the current after short-circuit is composed of two parts, i.e.
i (t ) = i (t ) + i (t ) = i (t ) + i (t )
s
t
ac
dc
2V
i (t ) = i (t ) =
sin(t + ) [Symmetrical short circuit current]
s
ac
Z
V
The rms value of symmetrical or steady-state fault current is: I =
ac
Z
i (t ) = i (t ) = 2 I sin(t + )
s
ac
ac
2V
i (t ) = i (t ) =
sin( )e t / L
t
dc
Z
current]
i (t ) = i (t ) = 2 I sin( )e t / L
t
dc
ac
is (or iac) is called steady state or ac current, it (or idc is called transient or dc current [it is such that i(0)
= is(0) + it(0) =0 being an inductive circuit, it decays corresponding to the time constant L/R.]
L
X
X
L
Z = R 2 + (L) 2 = R 2 + X 2 ; X = L ; = tan 1
=
s
; L = =
R R 2fR
R
The sinusoidal steady state current is called the symmetrical short-circuit (steady-state) fault current
and the unidirectional transient current is called the dc off-set current.
Since the maximum value of dc off-set current depends on , this current causes the total short-circuit
current to be unsymmetrical till the transient decays.
2V
2V
i(t ) = i (t ) + i (t ) = i (t ) + i (t ) =
sin(t + )
sin( )e t / L
s
t
ac
dc
Z
Z
At t = 0;
2V
i (t ) = i (t ) =
sin( ) = 2 I sin( )
t
dc
ac
Z
when - = 0 or - = , i (t = 0) = i (t = 0) = 0
t
dc
The dc term does not exist, if the circuit is closed at point on the voltage wave such that - = 0 or
- = .
2V
= m 2I
when - = /2, i (t = 0) = i (t = 0) = m
t
dc
ac
Z
The dc component has its maximum initial value, which is equal to maximum value of the
sinusoidal component, if the circuit is closed at point on the voltage wave such that - = /2.
DMAM (4/22)
Problem: The source voltage v = 151sin(377t+) V is applied in the following circuit where R = 0.125
, L = 10 mH. Find the current response after closing the switch S for the following cases: (i) no dcoffset, and (ii) maximum dc-offset. Sketch the current waveform up to 3 cycles corresponding to case
(i) and (ii).
Solution:
Here, = 377, XL = L = 3770.01 = 3.77
Z = 0.125 + j[377 0.01] = 0.125 + j 3.77 = 3.77288.1
V 151
1
40
151
I =
=
=
A
V =
Z
2 ; ac
2 3.772
2
L
0.01
=
= 0.08 s
R 0.125
The current response is then given by
i (t ) = 40 sin(377t + 88.1) sin( 88.1)e t / 0.08
(i)a No dc offset, if switch is closed when = = 88.1o.
L =
The first peak is called the maximum momentary short-circuit current, Imm.
2V
2V
I
=
sin( ) = 2 I [1 sin( )]
ac
mm
Z
Z
Since the transmission line resistance is small, 90o.
2V
2V
=
+
cos = 2 I [1 + cos ]
I
ac
mm
Z
Z
This is the maximum possible value for = 0, i.e. short-circuit occurring when the voltage wave is
going through zero. Thus
2V
I
=2
= 2 2 I = twice the maximum of symmetrical short-circuit current
mm(max possiibe)
ac
Z
(doubling effect).
For the selection of circuit breakers, momentary circuit is taken corresponding to its maximum
possible value (a safe choice).
when - =- /2,
t / 2
2t /
L] =I
L
= [ I ]2 + [ I (t )]2 = [ I ]2 + [ 2 I e
1 + 2e
I
rms
ac
dc
ac
ac
ac
is time in cycle
t = / f ;
DMAM (5/22)
2t
2
4
=
f ( X / 2fR) ( X / R)
rms
=I
ac
1 + 2e
4
( X / R)
4
( X / R)
;
K ( ) = 1 + 2e
K ( = 0) = 3
= K ( ) I
I
rms
ac
Irms decreases from 3Iac when =0 to Iac when is very large.
Example 7.1 [Ref. 3, p. 360] A bolted circuit occurs in the series RL circuit with V = 20 kV, X = 8 ,
R = 0.8 , and with maximum dc offset. The circuit breaker opens 3 cycles after fault inception.
Determine (i) the rms ac fault current, (ii) the rms momentary current at =0.5 cycle, which pass
through the breaker before it opens, and (iii) the rms asymmetrical fault current that the breaker
interrups.
Solution:
V
20
(i) I =
=
= 2.488 kA
2
ac
Z
8 + 0.8 2
( X / R)
10
K ( ) = 1 + 2e
= 1 + 2e
= 1.438
I
=I
= K ( ) I = 1.438 2.488 = 3.576
rms
momentary
ac
(iii) =0.5 cycle
4
4 3
( X / R)
10 = 1.023
K ( ) = 1 + 2e
= 1 + 2e
I
= K ( ) I = 1.023 2.488 = 2.544 A
rms
ac
direction to help the mail flux. The time constant of damper winding (which has low leakage
inductance) is much less than that of the field winding (which has high leakage inductance).
Thus the initial part of the short-circuit, the damper winding and field windings have transformer
currents induced in them so that in the circuit model their reactances Xf of field winding and Xdw of
damper winding appear in parallel with Xa as shown in Fig. 9.3(b).
As the damper winding currents are first to die out, Xdw effectively becomes open-circuited and at a
later stage Xf becomes open-circuited. The machine reactances thus changes from the parallel
combination of Xf, Xa, and Xdw during the initial period of the short-circuit to Xf, and Xa in parallel [Fig.
9.3(b)] in the middle period of the short-circuit, and finally to Xa in steady-state [Fig. 9.3(a)].
The reactance, which is called subtransient reactance, presented by the machine in the initial period
of the short-circuit, i.e.
1
X ' ' = X + X // X // X
=X +
d
l
a
f
dw
l [(1 / X ) + (1 / X ) + (1 / X )]
a
f
dw
The reactance, which is called transient reactance, after the damper winding currents have died out is:
1
X ' = X + X // X = X +
d
l
a
f
l [(1 / X ) + (1 / X )]
a
f
The reactance, which is called synchronous reactance, after the field winding currents have died out
is:
X =X +X
d
l
a
Obviously, X ' ' < X ' < X . The machine thus offers a time-varying reactance which changes from
d
d
d
Xd to Xd and finally to Xd.
If the short-circuit current of a synchronous machine is examined after the dc off-set current have been
removed from it, the current wave shape is found as shown in Fig. 9.4(a). The envelope of the current
wave shape is plotted in Fig. 9.4 (b).
The short-circuit current is divided into three periods: (i) initial subtransient period hen the current is
large as the machine offers subtransient reactance, Xd, (ii) The middle transient period hen the current
is large as the machine offers transient reactance, Xd, and (iii) finally the steady-state period when the
machine offers synchronous reactance, Xd.
IF the transient envelop is extrapolated backwards in time, the difference between the transient and
subtransient envelopes is the current i (corresponding to the damper winding current) which decays
fast according to the damper winding time constant. Similarly, the difference i between the steadystate and transient envelopes decays in accordance with the field time constant.
DMAM (7/22)
1
1
iac (t ) = 2 E
g ''
'
X d X d
DMAM (8/22)
(t / T ' ' )
'
1
1 (t / Td )
1
d
e
+
+
sin(t + )
e
X
X
2
X'
d
d
Since the three-phase no-load voltages are displaced 120o from each other, the three-phase ac fault
currents are displaced 120o fro each other. In addition to that ac fault current, each phase has a
different dc offset. The maximum dc offset in any oe phase, which occurs when =0 is
idc max (t ) =
2E
g (t / T A )
(t / T A )
e
= 2 I '' e
X ''
d
Where, TA is called the armature time constant.
Example 7.2 [Ref. 3, p. 363] A 500 MVA, 20 kV, 60 Hz synchronous generator with Xd=0.15,
Xd=0.24, Xd=1.1 pu and time constant Td=0.035, Td= 2.0, TA=0.2 s is connected to the circuit breaker.
The generator is operating at 5% above rated voltage and at no-load when a bolted three-phase shortcircuit occurs on the load side of the breaker. The breaker interrupts the fault 3 cycles after fault
inception. Determine (i) the subtransient fault current in pu and kA rms, (ii) the maximum dc-offset as
a function of time; and (iii) rms asymmetrical fault current, which the breaker interrupts, assuming
maximum dc-offset.
Solution:
(i) The generator is operating at 5% above rated voltage and at no-load when a bolted three-phase
short-circuit occurs, thus Eg = 1.05 pu.
The subtransient fault current that occurs in each of the three phases is
E
g 1.05
''
=
= 7.0 pu
I =
X ' ' 0.15
d
The generator base current is: Ibase= 500/(3)(20) = 14.43 kA
The rms subtransient fault current in kA is: I '' = 7.0 14.43 = 101.0 kA
(ii) The maximum dc offset that may occur in any phase is:
(t / T A )
(t / 0.2)
(t / 0.2)
idc max (t ) = 2 I '' e
= 2 101e
= 142.9e
kA
(iii) The rms ac fault current at t= 3 cycle =0.05 s is
1
1 (0.05 / 0.035) 1
1 (0.05 / 2.0) 1
I ac (0.05 s) = 1.05
+ = 4.920 pu
e
e
1.1
0.24 1.1
0.15 0.24
I ac (0.05 s) = 4.920 14.43 = 71.01 kA
I
I
rms
rms
(t ) = [ I
ac
]2 + [ I
dc
(t )]2 = [ I
ac
] 2 + [ 2 I '' e
(t / T A ) 2
]
(0.05 / 0.2) 2
] = 132 kA
Example 10.1 [Ref. 1, p. 253] Two generators are connected in parallel to the low-voltage side of
three-phase -Y transformer as shown in Fig. 10.5. Generator 1 is rated 50,000 kVA, 13.8 kV.
Generator 2 is rated 25,000 kVA, 13.8 kV. Each generator has a subtransient reactance of 25%. The
transformer is rated 75,000 kVA, 13.8/69Y kV, with a reactance of 10%. Before the fault occurs, the
voltage on the high-tension side of the transformer is 66 kV. The transformer is unloaded, and there is
no circulating current between generators. Find the subtransient current in each generator when the
three-phase short-circuit occurs on the high-tension side of the transformer.
DMAM (10/22)
If Vbase,old = Vbase,new
If S base,old = S base,new
base, old
= Z pu,old
then Z
pu, new
Vbase, new
S
base, new
= Z pu,old
then Z
pu, new
S base, old
Generator 1:
75
X ' ' = 0.25 = 0.375 pu
d1
50
66
E =
= 0.957 pu
g1 69
S
75000
base3
=
Base current, I base1 =
3V
3 13.8
baseLL
Generator 2:
75
X ' ' = 0.25 = 0.750 pu
d2
25
66
E
=
= 0.957 pu
g 2 69
S
75000
base3
I
=
=
base2
3V
3 13.8
baseLL
Transformer 1:
X = 0.10 pu
DMAM (11/22)
DMAM (12/22)
Fig. 9.6
Fig. 9.7
Example 9.2 [Ref. 5] A 25 MVA, 11 kV generator with Xd = 20% is connected through a transformer,
line and a transformer to a bus that supplies three identical motors as shown in Fig. 9.8. Each motor
has Xd =25% and Xd = 30% on a base of 5 MVA, 6.6 kV. The three-phase rating of the step-up
transformer is 25 MVA, 11/66 kV with a leakage reactance of 10% and that of the step-down
transformer is 25 MVA, 6/6. kV with a leakage reactance of 10%. The bus voltage at motors is 6. kV
when a three-phase fault occurs at the point F. For specified fault, calculate:
(i)
the subtransient current in the fault,
(ii)
the subtransient current in the breaker B,
(iii)
the momentary current in braker B, and
(iv)
the current to be interrupted by breaker B in five cycles.
Given, Reactance of the transmission line = 15% o a base of 25 MVA, 66 kV. Assume that the system
is operating on no load when the fault occurs.
Fig. 9.8
DMAM (13/22)
(a)
(b)
(d)
(c)
Fig. 9.9
= j 4.22 pu
SC
j1.25 j1.55
25 1000
= 2187 A
Base current in 6. kV circuit = =
3 6.6
DMAM (14/22)
= j3.42 pu
SC ( B)
j1.25 j1.55
I
= 3.42 2187 = 7479.5 A
SC( B)
(iii) For finding momentary current through the breaker, we must add the dc off-set current to the
symmetrical subtransient current obtained in part (i). Rather than calculating the dc off-set current,
allowance is made for it on an empirical basis.
Momentary current through breaker B = 1.67479.5 = 11967 A
(iv) To compute the current to interrupt by the breaker, motor subtransient reactance (Xd = j0.25) is
now replaced by transient reactance (Xd = j0.30).
25
X ' = j 0.3
= j1.5 pu
dm
5
The reactances of the circuit of Fig. 9.9(c) now modify to that of Fig. 9.9(d). Current (symmetrical) to
1
1
= j3.1515 pu
be interrupted by the breaker (as shown by arrow) = 2
j1.5 j1.55
Allowance made of the dc off-set value by multiplying with a factor of 1.1. Therefore, the current to be
interrupted is
I
= 1.1 3.1515 2187 = 7581 A
int(B)
I
[Internal
Voltages of Loaded Machines Under Transient Conditions (Ref. 1,
p. 254)]
Short Circuit of Loaded Synchronous Machine
(Ref. 5, p. 313)
Consider a generator that is loaded when the fault occurs. Fig. 10.7(a) shows the equivalent circuit of a
synchronous generator that has a balance three-phase load.
The equivalent circuit of the synchronous generator is its no-load voltage Eg in series with its
synchronous impedance Xs or Xd. If a three-phase fault occurs at point F or P in the system, a short
circuit from P to neutral in the equivalent circuit does not satisfy the conditions for calculating
subtransient current since the reactance of the generator must be Xd if subtransient current I is
calculated or Xd if transient current I is calculated.
As shown in Fig. 10.7 the current relation of voltage can be written as:
E = V + jI X
Here IL is called prefault current.
g
t
L d
E ' ' = V + jI X ' '
Here IL is called postfault subtransient current.
g
t
L d
E ' = V + jI X '
Here IL is called postfault transient current.
g
t
L d
Similarly, the subtarnsient internal voltage and transient internal voltage for a shynchronous motor are
given by:
E ' ' = V jI X ' '
m
t
L d
'
E = V jI X '
m
t
L d
Example 10.2 [Ref.1, p.256] A synchronous generator and motor are rated 30 MVA, 13.2 kV, and
both have subtransient reactances 20%. The line connecting them has a reactance of 10% on the basis
of the machine ratings. The motor is drawing 20 MW at 0.8 power factor leading and a terminal
voltage of 12.8 kV when a symmetrical three-phase fault occurs at the motor terminals. Find the
subtransient current in the generator, motor, and fault by using the internal voltage of the machine.
Neutral bus
Neutral bus
(a) Before the fault
(b) After the fault
Fig. 10.8 Equivalent circuit for Example 10.2.
Base current, I
DMAM (16/22)
base
30 106
3 13.2 103
= 1312 A
DMAM (17/22)
DMAM (18/22)
Example 10.3 [Ref.1, p.259] Solve Example 10.2 by the using of Thevenins theorem.
Solution:
j 0.3 j 0.2
Z = (Z
+ jX ' ' ) // Z =
= j 0.12
th
ext
d
L j 0.3 + j 0.2
12.8
Vf =
= 0.970 pu
13.2
V
0.970
f
I 'f' =
=
= j8.08 = 1312(-j8.08) A = -j10,600 A.
Z th
j 0.12
Example 10.3.1 [Ref.1, p.260] Apply the above principle in Example 10.3 by the using of
superposition theorem.
Solution:
Using the current division
Subtransient generator current neglecting prefault current:
0.2
0.2
I '' =
I '' =
j8.08 = j3.23 pu
g1 0.2 + 0.3 f 0.2 + 0.3
Subtransient motor current neglecting prefault current:
0.3
0.3
I '' =
I '' =
j8.08 = j 4.85 pu
m1 0.2 + 0.3 f 0.2 + 0.3
To these current must be added the prefault current IL to obtain the total subtransient currents in the
machines:
Subtransient generator current including prefault current:
I ' ' = I ' ' + I L = j3.23 + 0.69 + j 0.52 = 0.69 j 2.71 pu
g
g1
Subtransient motor current including prefault current:
I ' ' = I ' ' I L = j 4.85 0.69 j 0.52 = 0.69 j5.37 pu
m
m1
Example 7.3 [Ref.3, p.366] The synchronous generator in the following figure is operated at rated
MVA, 0.95 power factor lagging and at 5% above rated voltage when a bolted three-phase short circuit
occurs at bus 1. Calculate the per-unit values of (i) subtransient current; (ii) Subtransient generator and
motor current, neglecting prefault current, and (iii) subtransient generator and motor currents including
prefault current.
DMAM (20/22)
100
=
= 4.1837 kA
base, gen
3 13.8
And the prefault generator current is
100
I =
cos 1 0.95 = 3.9845 1819 kA
L
3 (13.8 1.05)
I
3.9845 1819
= 0.9524 1819 cos 1 0.95 = 0.9048 j 0.2974 pu
L
4.1837
The subtarnsient generator and motor currents, including prefault current and then,
I ' ' = I ' ' + I L = j 7.000 + 0.9048 j 0.2974 = 0.9048 j 7.297 = 7.353 82.9 pu
g
g1
I ' ' = I ' ' I L = j 7.000 0.9048 + j 0.2974 = 0.9048 j1.782 = 1.999243.1 pu
m
m1
I
V
10.83
2.5
5.0 V2
= j 0.0
= Ybus 2
0
4.0
V3
17.83 8.0 V3
2.5
''
18.0 V f
5.0
8.0
5.0
I f
V f
Where subscript indicates that the change in voltage due to the fault and the due only to Vf.
DMAM (21/22)
0
2.5
5.0 0
10.83
1
V2 = j 0.0
= Ybus
= Z bus
V3
0
0
4.0
2.5
17.83 8.0 0
''
''
5.0
8.0
18.0 I f
V f
5.0
I f
I f
V1
0 Z11 Z12 Z13 Z14 0
V2 = Z 0 = Z 21 Z 22 Z 23 Z 24 0
bus
V3
0 Z 31 Z 32 Z 33 Z 34 0
''
''
V f
I f Z 41 Z 42 Z 43 Z 44 I f
If total number of bus is N, and fault is occurred in bus k, then considering
Vk = V f ;
I k''= I f''= I f
Z 1( k +1)
Z 1( k + 2 )
.... Z 1k
.... Z1N 0
Z 12
V1 Z 11
Z 2 ( k +1)
Z 2 ( k + 2) .... Z 2 N 0
Z 22 .... Z 2 k
V2 Z 21
.... ....
....
....
....
....
....
....
.... ....
Z k ( k +1)
Z k ( k + 2) .... Z kN I fk''
Z k 2 .... Z kk
V fk = Z k1
V Z ( k +1)1 Z ( k +1) 2 .... Z ( k +1) k Z ( k +1)( k +1) Z ( k +1)( k + 2 ) .... Z ( k +1) N 0
k+1
Z N ( k +1)
Z N ( k + 2) Z N 1 Z NN 0
Z N 2 Z N 1 Z Nk
V N Z N 1
The diagonal elements of Zbus matrix are called self-impedance. And the off-diagonal impedances are
called mutual-impedance.
DMAM (22/22)
0.1488
0.0651
Z bus = j
0.0864
0.0978
And so
V f = Z 44 I 'f'
;
V
f
I 'f' =
Z 44
Z14 ''
If
Z 44 ;
Z
V2 = Z 24 I 'f' = 24 I 'f'
Z 44 ;
V1 = Z14 I 'f' =
Z 34 ''
If
Z 44
The faulted network is assumed to have been without loads before the fault. In such a case no current
is flowing before the fault, and all voltages throughout the network are the same and equal to Vf. This
assumption simplifies our work considerably , and applying the principle of superposition gives:
Z
Z
V1 = V f + V1 = V f I 'f' Z 14 = V f V f 14 = V f 1 14
Z 44
Z 44
V3 = Z 34 I 'f' =
V2 = V f + V2 = V f I 'f' Z 24 = V f V f
Z
Z 24
= V f 1 24
Z 44
Z 44
V3 = V f + V3 = V f I 'f' Z 34 = V f V f
Z
Z 34
= V f 1 34
Z 44
Z 44
V4 = V f V f = 0
These voltages exist when subtransient current flows and Zbus has been formed for a network having
subtransient values for generator reactances.
In general terms for a fault on bus k, and neglecting prefault currents,
Vf
(10.16)
If =
Z kk
And the postfault voltage at bus n is
Z
Z
Vn = V f + Vn = V f I f Z nk = V f V f nk = V f 1 nk
Z kk
Z kk
Usually, Vf is assumed to be 1.00o per-unit and with this assumption for our faulted network
1
I 'f' =
= j 6.386 pu
j 0.1566
j 0.0978
= 0.3755 pu
V1 = 11
j 0.1566
j 0.0967
= 0.3825 pu
V2 = 11
j 0.1566
j 0.1058
= 0.3244 pu
V3 = 11
j 0.1566
V1 V3
0.3755 0.3244
= y13 (V1 V3 ) =
= j 0.2044 pu
z13
j 0.25
Current flow from generator Ga to bus 1
E g'' V1
1 0.3755
''
I 13 =
= y11 ( E g'' V1 ) =
= j 2.0817 pu
z11
j 0.3
Other currents can be found in a similar manner, and voltages and currents with the fault on any other
bus are calculated just as easily from the impedance matrix.
I 13'' =
Example 10.3.2 A synchronous generator and motor are connected through a transmission line as
shown in the following figure. The motor is drawing 20 MW at 0.8 power factor leading and a terminal
voltage of 12.8 kV when a symmetrical three-phase fault occurs at the motor terminals. (i) Determine
the bus impedance matrix. (ii) For a bolted three-phase short-circuit at bus 2, use Zbus to calculate the
subtransient fault current and the contribution to the fault current from the transmission line. (iii) the
subtransient generator and motor current including prefault current.
Solution: Given, the voltage at the fault is 12.8 kV which we choose a reference.
12.8
Vf =
= 0.970 pu
13.2
30 106
I
=
= 1312 A
base
3
3 13.2 10
20 106
= 112836.9 A
I =
L
3 12.8 103 0.8
112836.9
I =
= 0.8636.9 = 0.69 + j 0.52 pu
L
1312
y11 = y22 =1/ j0.2 = - j5.0; y12 = y21 = 1/ j0.1= - j10.0
j15.0 j10.0
Ybus =
pu
j10.0 j15.0
j 0.12 j 0.08
Z bus =
pu
j 0.08 j 0.12
j 0.08
= 0.32330
V1 = V f 1 21 = 0.9701
j 0.12
Z 22
Z
V2 = V f 1 22 = 0
Z 22
V2 V1 0 0.3233
=
= j 4.041 pu
z 21
j 0.08
Subtransient generator current neglecting prefault current:
I 21 =
DMAM (24/22)
0.2
0.2
I '' =
I =
j8.08 = j3.23 pu
gf 0.2 + 0.3 f 0.2 + 0.3
Subtransient motor current neglecting prefault current:
0.3
0.3
I '' =
If =
j8.08 = j 4.85 pu
mf 0.2 + 0.3
0.2 + 0.3
To these current must be added the prefault current IL to obtain the total subtransient currents in the
machines:
Subtransient generator current including prefault current:
I ' ' = I ' ' + I L = j3.23 + 0.69 + j 0.52 = 0.69 j 2.71 pu
g
gf
Subtransient motor current including prefault current:
I ' ' = I ' ' I L = j 4.85 0.69 j 0.52 = 0.69 j5.37 pu
m
mf
Example 7.4 [Ref. 3, p. 369] Faults at bus 1 and 2 in Fig. 7.3 are of interest. The prefault voltage is
1.05 pu and prefault load current is neglected. (i) Determine the bus impedance matrix. (ii) For a
bolted three-phase short-circuit at bus 1, use Zbus to calculate the subtransient fault current and the
contribution to the fault current from the transmission line. (iii) Repeat part (b) for bolted three-phase
short-circuit at bus 2.
If =
Vf
Z kk
Vf
Z 11
1.050
= j 9.079 pu
j 0.11565
Z
V1 = V f 1 11 = 0
Z11
Z
j 0.04580
= 0.63420
V2 = V f 1 21 = 1.0501
j 0.11565
Z11
V2 V1 0.6343 0
=
= j 2.079 pu
z 21
j 0.3050
(iii) The subtransient fault current at bus 2 is
Vf
Vf
1.050
If =
=
=
= j 7.558 pu
Z kk Z 22
j 0.13893
I 21 =
j 0.04580
= 0.70390
V1 = V f 1 12 = 1.0501
j 0.13893
Z 22
Z
V2 = V f 1 22 = 0
Z 22
I 12 =
V1 V2 0.7.39 0
=
= j 2.308 pu
z12
j 0.3050
Example 10.3 [Ref. 2, p. 394] A three phase fault occurs at bus 2 of the network of Fig. 10.5.
Determine the initial symmetrical fault current (that is subtransient current) in the fault, the voltages at
buses 1, 3, 4 during fault, the current flow in the line from bus 3 to 1 and the current contribution to the
fault from lines 3 to 2 and 1 to 2, 4 to 2. Take the prefault voltage Vf at bus equal to 1.00o pu and
neglect all prefault currents.
Fig. 10.5
Solution:
[[[y11=0;
z12=0.125i;
DMAM (26/22)
z21=z12;
y12=1/z12;
y21=y12;
z13=0.25i;
z14=0.4i;
z31=z13;
z41=z14;
y13=1/z13;
y14=1/z14;
y31=y13;
y41=y14;
y22=0;
z23=0.25i;
z24=0.2i;
z32=z23;
z42=z24;
y23=1/z23;
y24=1/z24;
y32=y23;
y42=y24;
z33=0.3i;
y33=1/z33;
y34=0;
y43=0;
z44=0.3i;
y44=1/z44;
Y11=y11+y12+y13+y14;
Y33=y31+y32+y33+y34;
Y12=-y12;
Y13=-y13;
Y14=-y14;
Y21=Y12;
Y31=Y13;
Y41=Y14;
Y23=-y23;
Y24=-y24;
Y32=Y23;
Y42=Y24;
Y34=-y34;
Y43=Y34;
Ybus=[Y11
Y21
Y31
Y41
Y12
Y22
Y32
Y42
Y13
Y23
Y33
Y43
Y22=y21+y22+y23+y24;
Y44=y41+y42+y43+y44;
Y14
Y24
Y34
Y44];
Zbus=inv(Ybus);]]]
Ybus
j 4.0
j 2.5
j8.0
j14.5
j8.0 j17.0
j 4.0
j5.0
j 4.0
0
j 4.0 j11.33
j10.833
0
j5.0
j 2.5
j 0.2436
j 0.1938
Z bus =
j 0.1544
j 0.1456
Vf
Vf
If =
=
=
Z kk Z 22
j 0.1938
j 0.2295
j 0.1494
j 0.1506
j 0.1544
j 0.1494
j 0.2954
j 0.1046
j 0.1456
j 0.1506
j 0.1046
j 0.1954
1.0
= j 4.3573 pu
j 0.2295
Vn = V f + Vn = V f I f Z nk = V f V f
Z
Z nk
= V f 1 nk
Z kk
Z kk
j 0.1938
= 0.1556
V1 = V f 1 12 = 1.01
j 0.2295
Z 22
Z
V2 = V f 1 22 = 0
Z 22
Z
j 0.1494
= 0.3490
V3 = V f 1 32 = 1.01
j 0.2295
Z 22
DMAM (27/22)
j 0.1506
= 0.3438
V4 = V f 1 42 = 1.01
j 0.2295
Z 22
Z bus
j 0.2436
j 0.1938
=
j 0.1544
j 0.1456
j 0.1938
j 0.2295
j 0.1494
j 0.1506
j 0.1544
j 0.1494
j 0.2954
j 0.1046
j 0.1456
j 0.1506
j 0.1046
j 0.1954
DMAM (28/22)
Z 1( k +1)
Z 1( k + 2 )
Z 12
.... Z 1N I 1
.... Z 1k
V f V1 Z 11
V V
Z 2 ( k +1)
Z 2 ( k + 2) .... Z 2 N I 2
Z 22 .... Z 2 k
2
Z 21
f
....
....
....
....
.... ....
....
....
....
....
Z k ( k +1)
Z k ( k + 2 ) .... Z kN I k
Z k 2 .... Z kk
V f Vk = Z k 1
V f V( k +1) Z ( k +1)1 Z ( k +1) 2 .... Z ( k +1) k Z ( k +1)( k +1) Z ( k +1)( k + 2) .... Z ( k +1) N I ( k +1)
....
....
....
....
.... ....
....
....
....
Z N ( k +1)
Z N ( k + 2 ) Z N 1 Z NN I N
Z N 2 Z N 1 Z Nk
V f V N Z N 1
Where, I1, I2, . Are the branch currents and (Vf V1), (Vf V1), . Are the voltages across the
branches.
If switch S in Fig. 7.6 is open, all currents are zero and the voltage at each bus with respect to the
neutral equals Vf. This corresponds to prefault conditions, neglecting prefault load currents.
If switch S is closed, corresponding to a short-circuit at bus k, Vk = 0 and all currents except Ik remain
zero.
The fault current If= Ik= Vf/Zkk, which agree with the above driven equation. This fault current also
induces a voltage drop ZnkIk = (Znk/Zkk)Vf across each branch n. The voltage at bus n with respect to the
neutral then equals Vf minus this voltage drop, which agree with the derived equation.
As shown in Fig. 7.6, subtransient fault currents throughout an N-bus system can be determined from
the bus impedance matrix and the prefault voltage. Zbus can be computed by first constructing Ybus, via
nodal equations, and then inverting Ybus. Once Zbus has been obtained, these fault currents are easily
computed.
Fig. 7.7 [Ref. 3, p. 372] Parallel connecion of unloaded synchronous machine internal voltage sources.
Example 10.4 [Ref.1, p. 265] Determine the bus matrix for the following network. Generator at buses
1 and 3 are rated 270 and 225 MVA, respectively. The generator subtransient reactances plus the
reactances of the transformers conncting them to the buses are each 0.30 per-unit on the generator
rating as base. The turns ratios of transformers are such that the voltage base in each generator circuit
is equal to the voltage rating of the generator. Include the generator and transformer reactances in the
matrix. Find the subtransient current in a three-phase fault at bus 4 and the current coming to the
faulted bus over each line. Prefault current is to be neglected and all voltages are assumed to be 1.0
per-unit before the fault occurs. System base is 100 MVA. Neglect all resistances.
DMAM (29/22)
Ybus = j 0.0
7.937 23.175 2.976 4.762
DMAM (30/22)
Voltage Ratings
Rated Maxium Voltage: Designates the maximum rms line-to-line operating voltage. The breaker
should be used in system with an operating voltage less than or equal to this rating.
Rated Voltage Range Factor: The range of voltage for which the symmetrical interrupting capability
times the operating voltage is constant.
Rated Low Frequency Withstand Voltage: The maximum 60 Hz rms line-to-line voltage that the
circuit breaker can withstand insulation damage.
Rated Impluse Withstand Voltage: The maximum crest voltage of a voltage pulse with standard rise
and delay times that the breaker insulation can withstand.
Current Ratings
Rated Continuous Current: The maximum 60 Hz rms current that the breaker can carry continuously
while it is the closed position without overheating.
RatedShort-circuit Current: The maximum rms symmetrical current that the breaker can safely
interrupt at rated maximum voltage.
Rated momentary Current: The maximum rms asymmetrical current that the breaker can withstand
while in the closed position without damage. Rated momentary current for stabdard breaker is 1.6 time
the symmetrical interrupting capability.
Rated Interuupting Time: The time in cycles on a 60 Hz basis from the instant the trip coil is
energized to the instat the fault current is cleared.
DMAM (31/22)
Modern Circuit breakers standards are based on symmetrical interrupting current. It is usually,
necessary to calculate only symmetrical fault current at a system location, and then select a breaker
with a symmetrical interrupting capability equal to or above the calculated current. The CB has the
additional capability to interrupt the asymmetrical (or total) fault current if the dc off-set is not too
large.
The maximum asymmetrical factor K(=0) =3, which occurs at fault inception (=0). After fault
inception, the dc off-set current decays exponentially with time constant L= (L/R) = (X/R), and the
asymmetrical factor decreases. Power circuit breaker with a 2 cycle rated interruption time are
designed for an asymmetrical interruption capability up to 1.4 times their symmetrical interruption
capability, whereas slower CBs have a lower asymmetrical interrupting capability.
[[Inclusion of dc component results in a rms value of current immediately after the fault, which is
higher than the subtransient current.
For oil circuit breakers above 5 kV the subtransient current multiplied by 1.6 is considered to be the
rms value of the current whose disruptive forces the breaker must withstand during the first half-cycle
after the fault occurs. This current is called momentary current, and for many years circuit breakers
were rated in terms of their momentary current.
The interrupting rating of a circuit breaker was specified in kVAs or MVAs. The interrupting kVA
equal 3 times the kV of the bus to which circuit breaker is connected times the current which the
breaker must be capable of interrupting when its contact part. This current is lower than the
momentary current and depends on the speed of the breaker, such as 8, 5, 3, or 1.5 cycles, which is a
measure of the time from the occurrence of the fault to the extinction of the arc.
Interrupting kVA = 3 kV of the bus to which circuit breaker is connected current
Multiplying Factor
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.4
DMAM (32/22)
E/X method:
A simplified procedure for calculating the symmetrical short-circuit current, called the E/X method,
disregards all resistance, all static loads, and all prefault current. Subtransient reactance is used for
generators in the E/X method, and for synchronous motors the recommended reactance is the Xd of the
motor times 1.5, which is the approximate value of the transient reactance of the motor.
The impedance by which the voltage Vf at the fault is divided to find short-circuit current must
examined when E/X method is used. In specifying a breaker for bus k this impedance is Zkk of the bus
impedance matrix with the proper machine reactances since the short-circuit current is expressed by
Eq. (0.16).
If the ratio of X/R of this impedance is 15 or less, a breaker of the correct voltage and kVA may be
used if its interrupting current rating is equal to or exceeds the calculation current.
If X/R ratio is unkown, the calculated current should be no more than 80% of the allowed value for the
breaker at the existing bus voltage.
The ANSI (American National Standards Institute) application guide specifies a corrected method to
account for ac and dc times constants for the decay of the current amplitude if the X/R ratio exceeds
15. The corrected method also considers breaker speed.
DMAM (33/22)
[[Induction motor
m
less thhan 50 hp are neglectedd, and variou
us multiplyinng factors arre applied too the Xd
of
o lager indu
uction motorrs dependingg on their sizze. If no moors are preseented, symm
metrical shorrt-circuit
current
c
equaals subtransieent current.]]
Table 7.10
0 Preferred rating for outtdoor CBs (A
ANSI)
V
Voltage
C
Current
Ratedd short
Rated
Rated voltage
Rated Maxx
Nominal
circuit current
continuus
Voltage (kV
V,
rangee factor
Threee-Phase
(at rateed max
current at 600
MVA
A Class
rms)
(K
K)
Hz (a, rms))
kV) (kA
A, rms)
500
5
25.8
2.15
1200
11
1500
48.3
1.21
1200
17
2500
72.5
1.21
1200
19
Ideentification
Nominal
voltage claass
(kV, rms))
23
46
69
Example
E
7..7 [Ref.3, p.. 381] The calculated
c
syymmetrical fault currennt is 17 kA at a three-ppase bus
where
w
the opperating volltage is 64 kV.
k The X/R
R ratio is unkknown. Select a CB from
m Table 7.100 for tis
bus.
b
T
69 kV
V class brreaker has a symmeetrical interrrupting cappability IVmax/V=
Soluion: The
1972.5/64=
=21.5 kA at the operatinng voltage 644 kV.
The
T calculatted symmetrrical faul currrent, 17 kA,, is less than 80% of thiss capability, wich is requuirement
when
w
X/R is unknown. Therefore,
T
w select the 69 kV class breaker from
we
m Table 7.10
0.
Example
E
100.5 [Ref.1, p.
p 268] A 255 MVA 13.88 kV generaator with Xd =15% is connected
c
thhrough a
transformer
t
to a bus whhich suppliees four identtical motors, as shown in Fig. 10.15. The subttransient
reactance
r
Xd of each motor
m
is 20% on a basse of 5 MV
VA, 6.9 kV. The three-pphase ratingg of the
transformer
t
is 25 MVA
A, 13.8/6.9 kV
V with a leaakage reactaance 10%. T
The bus voltaage at the m
motors is
6.9 kV whenn a three-phaase fault occcurs at point P. For the faault specifiedd, determinee (i) the subttransient
current
c
in thhe fault, (ii)) the subtrannsient currennt in breaker A, and (iiii) the symm
metrical shorrt-circuit
interrupting
i
curent (as defined
d
for ciircuit breakeer applicationn) in the fauult and in breeaker A.
Z th = j 0.125 pu
1.0
I 'f' =
= j8.0 pu
j 0.125
The base current in the 6.9 kV circuit is
25 1000
I base =
= 2090 A
3 6.9
I 'f' = 8 2090 = 16720 A
(ii) The generator contributes a current of
j 0.25
I g = j8.0
= j 4.0 pu
j 0.50
The four motors contributes a current of = -j8.0 (-j4.0) = -j4.0 pu
Each motor contributes a current of = -j4.0/4 = -j1.0 pu
Through breaker A comes the contribution from the generator and three of the four motor.
The current which pass through the breaker A is
I '' = j 4.0 + 3( j1.0) = j 7.0 pu = 7.0 2090 = 14630 A
(iii) To compute the current through breaker A to be interrupted, replace the subtransient reactance of
j1.0 by the transient reactance of j1.5 in the motor circuits of Fig. 10.16. Then
(1.5 / 4) 0.25
= j 0.15 pu
(1.5 / 4) + 0.25
The total current is: (1/j0.15)
The generator contributes a current of: (1/j0.15)[0.375/(0.375+0.25)]= -j4.0 pu
Each motor contributes a current of: (1/4)(1/j0.15)[0.25/(0.375+0.25)]= -j0.67 pu
The symmetrical short-circuit current to be interrupted is: (4.0+30.67) 2090 = 12560 A
Z th = j
The usual procedure is to rate all the breakers connected to a bus on the basis of the current into a fault
on the bus. In that case the short-circuit current interrupting rating of the breakers connected to the 6.9
kV must be at least: 4+40.67=6.67 pu or 6.67 2090 = 13940 A.
A 14.4 kV circuit breaker has a rated maximum voltage 15.5 kV and a K of 2.67.
At 15.5 kV its rated short-circuit interrupting current is 8900 A.
The constant value of rated = 15.58900
This CB is rated for a symmetrical short-circuit interrupting current of: 2.678900 = 23760 A
(maximum voltage) at a voltage of 15.5/2.76 =5.8 kV (minimum voltage).
This current is the maximum current that can be interrupted even thoug the breaker may be in circuit of
lower voltage.
The short circuit interrupting current rating at 6.9 kV is: (15.58900)/6.9 = 20,000 A
The required capability of 13,940 A is well below 80% of 20,000 A, and the breaker is suitable with
respect to short-circuit current.
Calculation of Short-Circuit Current Using Bus Impedance Matrix Equivalent Network
DMAM (35/22)
Two nodes have been identified in Fig. 10.16. Node 1 is the bus on the low-tension side of the
transformer, and node 2 is on the high-tension side. For motor reactance of 1.5 per unit.
1
1
1
= j10
Y22 =
+
= j16.67
j 0.1
j 0.15 j 0.1
0.150 0.090
12.67 10.0
and its inverse is Z bus = j
The node admittance matrix is Ybus = j
0.090 0.114
10.0 16.67
Fig. 10.17 is the network corresponding to the bus impedance matrix closing S1 with S2 open
represents a fault on bus 1.
The symmetrical short-circuit interrupting current in a three-phase fault at node 1 is
1.0
I SC =
= j 6.67 pu
j 0.15
The bus impedance matrix also gives us the voltage at bus 2 with the fault on bus 1.
V2 = 1.0 I SC Z 21 = 1.0 ( j 6.67)( j 0.09) = 0.4 pu
And since the admittance between nodes 1 and 2 is -j10.0, the current into the fault from the
transformer is
(0.4-0.0)(-j10)= - j4.0 pu
Y11 =
1
1
+
= j12.67
j1.5 / 4 j 0.1
Y12 =
We also know immediately the short-circuit current in a three-phase fault at node 2 which, by referring
to Fig.10.17 with S1 open and S2 closed is
1.0
I SC =
= j8.77 pu
j 0.114
I SC
(nominal kV) 2
Strength of a Bus
A symmetrical fault occurs at
bus-3.
Say, the pre-fault voltage at
bus-3 is 1.0 p.u. and just after
the fault this voltage will be
reduced to almost zero. The
reduction in voltage of
various buses indicates the
strength of the network.
So, the strength of a bus is the ability of the bus to maintain its voltage when a fault takes place at
other bus:
Strength of a bus related to SCC.
The higher the SCC of the bus, the more it will be able to maintain its voltage in the case of
fault on any other bus
If XT =0 then SCC = . For this case the bus is known as Infinite Strong Bus
Example: A small generating station has a busbar divided into three sections. Each section is
through a reactor rated at 5MVA, 0.1 p.u. A
generator of 8MVA. 0.15p.u. is connected to
each section of the bas bar. Determine the SCC
of the bus if a three-phase fault takes place on
one of the section of the sections of bus-bar.
Solution: Let the base: 8MVA in the generator circuit. Xg = 0.15 pu
DMAM (37/22)
pu
pu
References
[1] Willaim D. Stevenson, Elements of Power System Analysis, Fouth Edition, McGraw-Hill
International Editions, Civil Engineering Series, McGraw-Hill Inc.
[2] John J. Grainger, William D. Steevnson, Jr., Power System Analysis, McGraw-Hill Series in
Electrical and Conputer Engineering, McGraw-Hill Inc.
[3] J. Duncan Glover, Mulukutla S. Sharma, Thomas J. Overbye, Power System Analysis and Design,
Fouth Edition (India Edition), Course Technology Cengage Learning
[4] Hadi Saadat, Power System Analysis, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited
[5] I J Nagrath, D P Lothari, Modern Power System Analysis, Second Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Liited
[6] V. K. Mehta, Rohit Mehta, Principles of Power System, Multicolor Illustrative Edition, S. Chand
and Company Limited
det[ A] c a ad bc c a
1 2
Example: A =
;
3 4
DMAM (39/22)
A1 =
1
1 4 2 2
=
2 3 1 3 / 2 1 / 2