Communication System II By Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

6.0 Threshold in Frequency modulation

When the noise power at the demodulator input is comparable to the carrier
power, the threshold occurs.
However, in FM this effect is much more than in AM. As showed in fig 5.1
previously, the phasor En << A, the angle (t) is quite small, and because n(t)
is random with uniform, distribution in the range (0, 2), (t) assumes positive
as well as negative values as showed in (fig 6.1a), which are usually much
smaller than 2. When En is large, in this case, the resultant phasor is much more
likely to rotate around the origin, (t) is more likely to go through changes of 2
as in fig 6.1c in a relatively short time, due to the noise varies much faster than
the modulating signal. Thus, the noise at the FM demodulator output is given by
(t). For large noise, we observe the appearance of spikes (of area 2 ), which
give rise to a crackling sound. But, when the noise is small (E n << A), the PSD of
the output noise (t) is parabolic, and most of its power is in the frequencies
greater than B and is therefore filtered out by the baseband filter at the output,
while in the large noise case, we have the presence of spikes, which are like
impulses.

4
2

0
Fig. 6.1. Output Noise in FM Receiver for small and large Channel Noise.
Consequently, they have considerable power at lower frequencies. Hence, a
spike will contribute much more noise at the output. For this reason, when E n
approaches the order of A, the output noise starts increasing disproportionately
as shown in fig6.2.This is known as the phenomenon of threshold.
The noise power caused by the spikes Ns is
8 Fm
2 B

Y
Ns =

BFM

(6.1)

and the total noise power NT, is the sum of No in eq. (5.14 ) and Ns in eq (6.13)
(i.e. NT = No + Ns ). Then, the output SNR is

Communication System II By Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

3 2Y ( m 2 / m 2p )
S0

N 0 N s 1 (2 3BFM / B )Y [ ( 2 B / BFM )Y ]

3 2Y (m 2 / m 2p )
1 4 3 ( 1)Y

Y /( 1)

.......(6.2)

Thus, the onset of the threshold is when the carrier power is 10times the
channel noise power. So, the carrier power is

A2
, and for white noise with a
2

PSD N./2, the noise power is NBFM

BFM = 2(F + B ) = 2B(+1)
Where,
BFM = Bandwidth of an FM carrier
Therefore, the threshold occurs when
2NB(+1) =

1 A2
10 2

or
20(+1) =

A2
2 NB

Thus, the value of Y at the onset of threshold is Ythresh and is given as

Ythresh = 20(+1)

(6.3)
S0 24
N0, dB
20

=6

16

=2

12

Baseband

8
4
0

12

16

20

24

28

Y,dB

Fig. 6.2. Threshold Phenomenon in FM

It is important to note that this threshold situation occurs when driving in a large
city. The flittering noise often heard is caused when the FM signal is reflecting
off various structures. The signal strength fluctuates widely due to the additive or
subtractive effects on the total received signal. The effect can cause the output
to totally blank out and resume at a rapid rate.

Communication System II By Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

Example 1. A gaussian m(t) with 4 loading (i.e. mp = 4m) frequency-modulates

a carrier using = 4. The output SNR is found to be 20.5dB. Determine whether
the system is in threshold?
Solution
For = 4,
YThresh = 20 (+1)
= 20(4+1) = 20(5)
= 100
For this value of Y, since,
m2
S0
3 2Y 2
mp
N0

Then, we have,
S0
1
3(16) (100)
300
No
16
Because 20.5 dB is a ratio of 160, It implies that the SNR is below 300.
Therefore, the system is in threshold.

Communication System II By Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

7.0 Noise in Digital Modulated Systems

In this case, we will consider Noise in digital communication systems.
7.1
Optimum Threshold Detection
As a result of channel noise, the received pulse is sampled value at its peak
amplitude (Ap) is Ap + n. So, the decision is made from the value A p + n. The error
probability Pe for the Polar binary case is given as
Pe
Where,

n2
Ap
n

Q()

Ap
..
n
Variance of the received noise
Signal Amplitude
rms noise
Signal Amplitude to rms noise ratio

=
=
=
=

(7.1)
(7.2a)

To minimize Pe, we need to maximize because Q() decreases monotonically

with . As shown in fig. 7.1, let the received pulse p(t) be time limited to T 0. Here
we use a general symbol T0 rather than Tb because the pulse may not be a
binary. can be increase by passing the received pulse through a filter that
enhances the pulse amplitude at some instant t m and simultaneously reduces the
noise power n2, and a filter with a transfer function H() that maximizes .
Hence,
2

P02(tm)
n2

..

(7.2b)

But,
P0 (t) F

1
2

P H

P e jwt d

So,
P0 (t m )

and

1
2

P H e jwtm

d (7.3)

Communication System II By Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

2
n

1
2
= n (t )
S
(

)
\
H
(

/)
0
2 n d
2

..(7.4)

substituting equ. (7.3) and (7.4) into equation (7.2b) becomes,

H we jwtm d

S n w 1H w 12 dw

.(7.5)

Applying Schwartz inequality, if we identify

X( ) = H ( ) S n w and Y( ) = P( ) e jwtm/ S n w
Then, equ . (7.5) becomes,

1

2
2

/ P / 2
Sn w d (7.6a)

with equality only if

H( )

P w e jwtm
KP w e jwtm

S n w
S n w

S n ( w) K

Thus,
H( ) = K

P w e jwtm
(7.6b)
S n w

Where,
K = Arbitrary Constant.
For white Channel noise,
Sn ( ) =
2max =

1
N

, then equ, (7.6) becomes,

2

/ P ( ) / 2 d

2E p
N

..........................

(7.7 a )

Ep = Energy of P(t)
and

H( ) = KP(- ) e jwtm..(7.7b)
Where,
K=

2K
(is also arbitrary constant )

Thus, the unit impulse response h(t) of the optimum filter is given by
h(t) = F-1[K1P(- )ejwtm]
Since, P(-t), P(- ) and e-jwtm represents the time delays of tm seconds,
h(t) = K1 P (tm t ) (7.7c)

Communication System II By Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

P t n t

P0 t n0 t

H( )

h(t)

Decision

Thresold
device

(a)

P(t) + n(t)

P0(t) + n0(t)

P(t)

T0

tm
t
(b)
Fig 7.1 Scheme to minimize the error probability in threshold detection.
P(t)

P(-t)

To t

(a)

(b)

P(tm-t)
P(tm-t)

Tm <To

tm = To

tm

c(d)

tm

P(tm-t)
Tm >To
Tm

(e)
Fig 7.2. Optimum Choice for sampling instant
The signal p(tm t) is the signal p(-t) delayed by tm. Thus, from fig 7.2 above, it
implies that we have 3 cases, t m,< To, tm = To, and tm > To. The first case, tm< To,
yields a noncausal impulse response, which is unrealizable, while the other two
6

Communication System II By Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

cases yield physically realizable filters, but t m > To, delays the decision-making
instant tm an unnecessary length of time. The case t m = To gives the minimum
delay for decision-making using a realizable filter.
Notice that both P(t) and h(t) have a width of T o Seconds. Hence, po(t),
which is convolution of P(t) and h(t) has a width of 2T o Seconds, with its peak
occurring at t = To. Also, P0( ) = P( )H() = K1/P()/2 ejwTo, but Po(t) is
symmetrical about t = To.
Thus, K1 in eq. (7.7) multiplies both the signal and the noise by the same
factor and does not affect the ratio . The error probability, or the system
performance is independent of the value of K 1. For simplicity, K1 = 1. This
equation becomes,
h(t) = P(To t)
(7.8a)
-j T

and H( ) = P (-)e o
..
(7.8b)
The optimum filter is given in equ. (7.8) and is known as the match filter.
Hence, at the output of this filter, the signal to rms noise amplitude ratio is
maximum at the decisionmaking instant t = T o. The matched filter is optimum in
the sense that it maximizes the signal amplitude to rms noise ratio at the
decision-making instant. Although, it is reasonable to assume that maximization
of this particular signal to noise ratio will minimize the detection error probability.
Thus, the maximum value of this signal to rms noise ratio attained by the
matched filter is given in eg. (7.7a), and the peak amplitude P o(tm) = AP is found
by substituting eq.(7.8b) into eg. (7.3), we have,
AP

1
2

P w 2 dw EP (7.9a)

Then, the noise power 2n is obtained by substituting eq.(7.8b) into eq. (7.4);
2n =

P w 2 dw

EP
.(7.9b)
2

Hence,

2 max
and

Pe

AP
2 EP

..(7.9c)
2

n
Q(max)

2 EP

...(7.9d)

Equation 7.9 shows that at the decisionmaking instant, the signal amplitude,
and the rms noise amplitude depend on the waveform P(t) only through its
energy Ep, As far as the system performance is concerned, when the matched
filter receiver is used, all the waveforms used for P(t) are equivalent as long as
they have the same energy. The alternative arrangement of the matched filter is
shown in fig. 7.3, if the input to the matched filter is r(t), then the output y(t) is
given by

y (t ) r x h t x dx

where,
h(t) = P[(To t) and
h(t x) = P[(To (t x )] = P(x +To - t)
7

Communication System II By Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

Then,

y(t) = r x P x To t dx (7.10a)
But, at the decision making instant t = To, we have,
y(TO) = r x P x dx ...(7.10b)
Input r(x) is assumed to start at x = 0 and P(x) = 0 for x > To,

Y (To )

p(t)
r(t) =

To

r x P x dx (7.10c)

P t n t

t = T0
y(t)

y(T0)

Decision
Threshold
Device

Fig. 7.3. Correlation detector

This type of arrangement is known as the correlation receiver and is equivalent
to the matched filter receiver. The right hand side of eg. 7.10a is rp (To = t),
where rp( ) is the cross correlation of the received pulse with p(t). Thus, the
optimum detector measures the similarity of the received signal with the pulse
p(t). Based on this similarity measure, it decides whether p(t) was transmitted or
not.
7.2. Optimum Binary Receiver
In binary communication, we use two distinct pulses p(t) and q(t) to represent the
two symbols. In this scheme, symbols are transmitted every T b seconds. Let p(t)
and q(t) be the two pulses used to transmit 1 and 0. The optimum receiver
structure is shown in fig. 7.4.a. The incoming pulse is transmitted through a filter
H( ), and the output r(t) is sampled at Tb. The decision as to whether 1 or 0
was present at the input which depends on whether r(T b) < or > ao.
Where,
ao = Optimum threshold
Let po(t) and qo(t) be the response of H( ) to inputs p(t) and q(t) respectively.
Equation (7.3) becomes,
1
P w H w e jwTb dw ..(7.11a)
2
1
Q w H w e jeTb dw ..(7.11b)
q0(Tb) =
2
P0 Tb

Hence, 2n , the variance, or power, of the noise at the filter output is

2n

1
S w H w 2 dw (7.11c)
2

t = Tb
H( )
8

Communication System II By Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

r(t)

r(Tb)

There shold
Device

Decision:m=0 if r(Tb)<a0
m=0 if r(Tb)>a0

(a)
Pr/m

Pr r(r/0)

Pr(r/1)

A0
a0

q0(Tb)

P0(Tb)

(b)
Fig. 7.4 Optimum binary threshold detection
If n is the noise output at Tb, then the sampler output r(Tb) = qo(Tb) + n or
Po(Tb) +n which depends on whether m = 0 or 1 is received, r is a gaussian RV of
variance 6U2n and mean q0(Tb) or Po(Tb)depending on whether m = 0 or 1. Hence,
the conditional PDFs of the sampled output r(T b) are

Pr m r / 0

r PO Tb 2

2 n

U2

This too PDFs of the sampled output r(T b) are

Pr m r 1

e r Po Tb 2 U 2
2 n
2
This two PDFs are showed in fig 7.4b, if a o is the optimum threshold of detection,
then the decision is m = O if r < a0 and m = 1 if r > a0. The conditional error
probability p(E\m = O ) is the probability of making a wrong decision when m = O
This is simply the area AO under Pr\m(r\0) from aO to . Similarly, p(E\m =1) is
the area A1 under pr/m (r/1) from - to ao.
Pe =

P t / mi P mi 2 A

A1

Assuming Pm(0) = Pm(1) = 0.5

Notice that the sum Ao + A1 of the shaded areas is minimised by choosing a o at
the intersection of the two PDFs. So,

Communication System II By Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

Po Tb qo Tb
.(7.12a)
2
and the corresponding Pe is
Pe = P(E10) = P(E/1)
ao

e qo Tb / 2 n dr
U2

ao qo (Tb )

U
n

= Q

Po (Tb ) qo Tb
.(7.12b)
2
2

(7.12c)
2

=Q
Where,

Po Tb qo Tb
(7.13)
U
n

Substituting eqs. (7.11) in to eg . (7.13) , we have,

P w Q( w)e
2 S w H w

jwTb

dw

dw

This equation is similar with eg (7,5) with P(w) replaced by P(w) Q(w), Hence,
max

P w Q ( w)
S n w

dw ..(7.14a)

Thus, the optimum filter H(w) is given by

P w Q w e jwTb
H w K
..(7.14b)
S n w
For white Noise,
S n w

and the optimum filter H(w) is given by

2

H(w) = [P(-w) Q(-w)]e-jwTb..(7.15a)

and,
h(t) = P(Tb - t) q(Tb - ) (7.15b)
This is a filter matched to the pulse p(t) q(t) and the corresponding
in eg. 7.14a becomes,
1
P w Q w 2 dw .(7.16b)

EP Eq 2 E pq

max 2

/2

...(7.16c)

10

Communication System II By Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

where,
Ep and Eq are the energies of p(t) and q(t) respectively,
But,

Epq =

Tb

P t q t dt .(7.17)

In binary, the error probability is the bit error probability or bit error rate (BER),
and will be denoted by Pb (not Pe). Thus, from equs (7.12c) and (7.16c), we
have,
max
(7.18b)
2

Pb Q

E p Eq 2Epq

=Q

(7.18b)

Hence, the optimum threshold a o is obtained by Substituting equs. (7.11a, b) and

(7.15a) into equ. (7.12a),
1
2

P ( w)Q ( w)dw

a0 = ( Ep - Eq)

1
P wQ ( w)dw E pq
2

(7.19)

Equivalent Optimum Binary Receivers

From equ. (7.15a), as shown in fig 7.4, which indicate that the filter can be
achieved by parallel combination of two filters matched to p(t) and q(t)
respectively as shown in fig 7.5a. Its equivalent is shown in fig7.5b, since the
threshold is (Ep Eq)/2 respectively, which is from the two matched filter outputs,
which implies shifting the threshold to 0. When E p = Eq, the receiver is shown in
fig 7.5c.

11

Communication System II By Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

P(Tb-t)

r( Tb)

P(Tb-t)

Threshold
device
Decision : P(t) if r(Tb)<a0
q(t) if r(Tb)>a0

P(Tb-t)

Comparator

P(Tb-t)

Decision : select larger

( b)
t=Tb

P(Tb-t)
Comparator
P(Tb-t)
( C)

Decision : select larger

Fig. 7.5 Realization of the Optimum Binary Threshold Detector

Polar signaling: when q(t) = -p(t), and

Ep = Eq and Epq = - P 2 (t ) dt E p
Substituting into equ (7.18b), we have,

Pb = Q

2 EP
N

(7.20a)

and from equ. 7.15b,

h(t) = 2p(Tb - t)
Recall, that the multiplication of h(t) by any constants multiplies both the signal
and the noise by the same factor, and does not affect the system performance.
Then, if we multiply h(t) by 0.5; we obtain,
h(t) = p(Tb - t)
..
(7.20b)
Also , from equ (7.19), the threshold is
a0 = 0
.
(7 .20c)
In this case, the receiver in fig 7.5a reduces to that shown in fig 7.6 with
threshold 0. Then, the error probability can be expressed in terms of a more
basic parameter Eb, the energy per bit: Assuming 1 and 0 are equally likely. Then,
Eb =

E p Eq
2

E p ......(7.21a )

12

Communication System II By Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

and from equ (7.20a),

2 Eb
Pb = Q(
.....(7.21b)
N
This shows that for optimum threshold detection, the system performance
depends on pulse energy, and not on pulse shape.
Using an asymptotic approximation equ (7.21b) becomes ,
1

Pb 2 E / N e-Eb/N
b

Eb/N>> 1

(7.21c)

On off signaling: Also Fig 7.5a reduces to Fig 7.6a except that the threshold,
as shown in equ (7.19), is Ep. Hence,
q(t) = 0
From equs. (7.17) and (7.18)

Ep

Eq =0; Epq = 0, and Pb = Q

Eb =

E p Eq

Pb = Q

2 N

Ep
2

E p
N

1
e-Eb/2N
2Eb / N

Eb/N >>/

(7.22a)

...

(7.22b)

This shows that on off signaling requires twice as much energy per bit (3dB more
power) to achieve the same performance as polar signaling.
Orthogonal signaling: As shown in fig 7.7, p(t) and q(t) are selected to be
orthogonal over the interval (0, Tb).
Epq =

Tb

p (t ) q (t ) dt 0

from eq (7.18),

E p Eq

2N

Pb = Q

..

(7.23)

Assuming 1and 0 to be equiprobable, then,

Eb =

E p Eq
2

Hence, eq 7.23 becomes,

Pb =Q

Eb
N

1
e-Eb/2N
2 Eb / N

...

Eb/N >> 1

(7.24a)

(7.24b)

This implies that, it is the same with on-off signaling but inferior to that of polar
signaling by 3dB.

13

Communication System II By Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

P(t)

Sin n0t
Tb
t

Tb

(a)

q(t)
Tb

Sin m0t
q(t)

Tb
t

(b)

b= Tb/2
Fig. 7.7. Examples of orthogonal signals.
Bipolar signaling
Although, this is a binary Scheme, but it uses three symbols: p(t), -p(t) and 0,
Hence, the result needs some modifications. Using the receiver in fig 7.6a with
threshold a0 = Ep/2.
Thus,
If \r(Tb)\ < Ep/2, the decision is 0, and if \r(T b)\ > Ep/2 the decision is 1. When 0 is
transmitted by no pulse, the receiver output is just the noise n with variance.
2n = NEp/2. Hence,
P(E/0) = probability ( \n\ > Ep/2),
Ep

= 2Q
2 n

Ep

= 2Q

2 N

when 1 is transmitted, the filter output at Tb is Ap + n, where

Ap = Ep when p(t) is transmitted
Similarly,
Ap = - Ep when -p(t) is transmitted.
Thus,

14

Communication System II By Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

P(E\1) = probability (n < -

Ep
2

) when p(t) is used, or probability (n >

Ep
2

when P(t) is used

Ep

= Q
2 n

Ep

= Q

2 N

the average error probability is

Ep

Pb = [P(E/0) + P(E/1)] = 1.5 Q

2 N

This shows that Pb is 50% higher than for on-off signaling.

7.3

Carrier Systems

In all digital carrier systems, baseband pulses modulate a high-frequency

carrier. It involves amplitudeshift Keying (ASK), frequency - shift keying (FSK),
pulse shift keying (PSK) and DPSK.
The first three schemes are shown in fig 7.8, using a rectangular baseband pulse. The baseband pulse may be specifically shaped to eliminate intersymbol interference and to have a finite bandwidth.
Recall that, the error probability of the optimum detector depends only on
the pulse energy, not on the pulse shape. Hence, the performance of a
modulated scheme will be identical to that of the baseband scheme of the same
energy. So, the incoming modulated pulses can be demodulated either
coherently (synchronously) or non-coherently (by envelope detection). The
former method is the optimum and give a better performance than the later.

Baseband

(a)

15

Communication System II By Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

Fig. 7.8. Digital Modulated Waveforms

Coherent Detection

t=nTb
P(t)=2(t) cos ct

h(t)=p(Tb-t)

Threshold
devices

(a)
2(t) cos ct
P(t)=2(t) cos ct

Decision

t=nTb
1

h(t)=p (Tb-t)

Threshold
devices

(b)
Fig. 7.9. Coherent Detection of Digital Modulated Signals
The RF pulse can be detected by a filter matched to the RF pulse p(t) followed by
a sampler as shown in fig 7.9a.
Let the RF pulse p(t) = 2 p1(t) Cos ct ,
Applying equ 7.7a,
2 E
2
N

where,
p1(t) = Baseband pulse
Ep = Energy of P(t)
The RF pulse can also be detected by first demodulating it coherently by
multiplying it by 2 Cos ct. Hence, the product is the baseband pulse p(t) plus a
baseband noise with PSD N/2. Since P(t) = 2 p(t)Cos ct, Ep = Ep, also in this
case,
2 =

2E p
N

Therefore, the two schemes are equivalent. Now, let us consider the cases of
PSK , ASK and FSK.

16

Decision

Communication System II By Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

Phase shift keying: Like in the polar signaling, the optimum detector is shown in
fig 7.9 with threshold 0. Applying equ. 7.21b, we have,

2 Eb
N

Pb

......(7.25a)

1
e Eb / N Eb / N / ....(7.25b)
2 Eb / N

Amplitude - shift keying: This is case of on-off signaling. Thus, the optimum
detector for ASK is the same as that for PSK with threshold E p/2 as shown in fig
7.9.
Applying equ. (7.22); we have,

Eb
N

Pb

1
e Eb / N Eb / N 1
2Eb / N

........................

(7.25a)

....................

(7.25b)

This shows that for the same performance, the pulse energy in ASK must be
twice that in PSK. This implies that in coherent detection, PSK is always
preferable to ASK. ASK is useful in non-coherent.
Frequency- Shift Keying: In FSK, binary 0 and 1 are transmitted by RF pulses
2 p1(t) Cos [c-(/2)]t and 2p(t)Cos [c+(/2)]t respectively. The receiver in
fig 7.5c is the optimum receiver. The filter p(T b - t) and q(Tb - t) are matched to the
2 RF pulses and can be replaced by respective synchronous demodulators
followed by filters matched to the baseband pulse p 1(t).

Let q(t) = 2 A Cos (c )t

2

P(t) = 2 A Cos (c )t
2

From equ (7.18b),

E pq

Tb

p (t ) q (t )dt
Tb

2 A2 cos (c
0

)t cos(c
)t dt
2
2

Tb

Tb

A2 [ cos ( )t dt cos 2 ct dt
A2

Tb

cos ( )t dt cos 2 ct dt
Tb

sin( )Tb Sin 2CTb

2 C Tb
( )Tb

A2Tb

In practice CTb>> 1, and the second term on the right-hand side can be ignored.
Epq = A2 Tb Sinc()Tb
This implies that to minimize P b in equ. (7.18b), Epq must be minimized. If the
minimum value of Epq is -0.217A2 Tb and occurs at ()Tb = 1.43 or

17

Communication System II By Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

f =

0.715
0.715 Rb
Tb

Assuming 1 and 0 equiprobable, then, Eb = Ep = Eq = A2 Tb , and

Epq = - 0.217 A2 Tb. Hence,

1.217 A2Tb
N

Pb = Q

= Q

1.217 Eb
N

If Epq = 0, it is orthogonal signaling.

Larger f means wider separation between the signaling frequencies
which result
to larger transmission bandwidth. Hence, to minimize the
bandwidth, f should be as small as possible. The minimum value of f that can
be used for orthogonal signaling is T b. The FSK using this value of f is known
as minimum-shift keying (msk) or fast frequencyshift keying. FSK schemes
where phase continuity is maintained are known as continuousphase FSK
(CP-FSK) e.g. MSK. These schemes have rapid spectral roll-off and improved
efficiency.
MSK being an orthogonal scheme, its error probability is given by

Pb = Q

Eb
N

..

(7.27b)

Non-coherent Detection
This is used when the phase Q in the received RF pulse 2 p1(t) cos (ct + ) is
un known. When the phase of the received pulse is random and uniformly
distributed over (0,2), then, the optimum detector is a filter matched to the RF
pulse2 p1(t) cos ct followed by an envelope detector, a sampler and a
comparator to make the decision as shown in fig. 7.10.

p(t)

H()

P0 (t)

Envelope
Detector

r
t=nTb

Threshold
device

Decision

Fig.7.10. Noncoherent detection of digital modulated signals.

Amplitude shift keying: As shown in fig 7.10, the filter H() is a filter matched to
the RP Pulse ignoring the phase. This implies that the filter output amplitude A p
will not necessarily be maximum at the sampling instant, but the envelope will be
close to maximum at the sampling instant. Thus, the matched filter output is now

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Communication System II By Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

detected by an envelope detector and the envelope is sampled at t = T b for

making the decision.
Since the matched filter is used, Ap = Ep and 2n = NEp/2 as in equs.
(7.9b). For ASK there are on the average, only R b/2 pulses per second. Thus,
Eb = Ep/2.
AP

U
6n

2 EP
E
4 b

ao Eb 1

2
Eb / N

.(7.28a)

The optimum threshold is not constant but depends on the value of E b/N, which is
a serious drawback in a fading channel. For a strong signal, E b/N >> 1.
ao Eb ...(7.

28b)
Using the approximation to find pb, we have,

Pb

1
1
1
2
2

E
b / N

e 1 / 2 E / N
b

1 1 / 2
e
Eo / N
2

Eb / N 1

...............................(7. 29 a )

............................................................(7. 29b)

For a coherent detector,

Pb

Eb

1
e 2 Eb / N
2 Eb / N

Eb / N 1....................................(7.90)

This is similar at to eg. (7.29b). Hence, for a large E b/N, the performance of the
coherent detector and the envelope detector are the some.
Also the error probability of FSK in non coherent detection is similar to that of
non coherent ASK. Again for E b/N >> 1, the performance of coherent and non
coherent are essentially similar:
Synchronization
In synchronous or coherent detection, we can achieve synchronization at three
different levels.

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Communication System II By Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

(a) carrier synchronization

(b) Bit synchronization
(c) Word synchronization
While for non coherent detection, we use only the bit synchronization and
word synchronization. Carrier synchronization is similar to bit synchronization
but more difficult. In bit synchronization, the problem is to achieve
synchronism from bit interval- which is of the order T b. while in carrier
synchronization, we must achieve synchronism within a fraction of a cycle,
and because the aeration of one carrier cycle is 1/f 0 <<Tb, but the problem is
severe carrier synchronization is achieved by three methods.
1. Using a primary or a secondary standard (i.e. Transmitter and receiver
slaved to a master timing source)
2. Transmitting a separate synchronization signal (a pilot)
3. Self-synchronization, when the thinning information is extracted from the
received signal itself.
The first method is expensive and good for large data systems, but not for point
to-point systems. The second method is commonly used for point to point
communication systems and uses part of the cannel capacity to transmit timing
information and values some degradation in performance A pilot may be
transmitted by frequency division multiplexing or by time division multiplexing.
The self synchronization method extracts the carrier by squaring the
incoming signal. These methods produces sign ambiguities, they cannot be used
for PSK unless differential coding is used.

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