Literary Analysis: Terms

Many literature students are expected to be familiar with the basic terms listed below (and discussed in
more depth in your text). Keep this study guide with your text. At the beginning of each reading
assignment, write the elements of literature pertaining to the particular type of literature at the
beginning of the short story or poem. After reading, define them in your text for class discussion,
quizzes, and test preparation. To understand literature, it is necessary that you ask yourself certain
questions, such as "what is the theme of this story?" or "why does the author use this particular type of
imagery?" You are not necessarily reading for pleasure--although it is sincerely hoped you will derive
pleasure from your assignments--but for the development of critical analysis skills, so observe the
author's style and intent carefully.

Short Stories/Novel
Theme--The idea or point of a story formulated as a generalization. In American literature, several themes are
evident which reflect and define our society. The dominant ones might be innocence/experience, life/death,
appearance/reality, free will/fate, madness/sanity, love/hate, society/individual, known/unknown. Themes may
have a single, instead of a dual nature as well. The theme of a story may be a mid-life crisis, or imagination, or
the duality of humankind (contradictions).
Character--Imaginary people created by the writer. Perhaps the most important element of literature.

Protagonist--Major character at the center of the story.

Antagonist--A character or force that opposes the protagonist.
Minor character--0ften provides support and illuminates the protagonist.
Static character--A character who remains the same.
Dynamic character--A character who changes in some important way.
Characterization--The means by which writers reveal character.
Explicit Judgment--Narrator gives facts and interpretive comment.
Implied Judgment--Narrator gives description; reader make the judgment.

Look for: Connections, links, and clues between and about characters. Ask yourself what the function
and significance of each character is. Make this determination based upon the character's history, what
the reader is told (and not told), and what other characters say about themselves and others.
Plot--The arrangement of ideas and/or incidents that make up a story.

Causality--One event occurs because of another event.

Foreshadowing--A suggestion of what is going to happen.
Suspense--A sense of worry established by the author.
Conflict--Struggle between opposing forces.
Exposition--Background information regarding the setting, characters, plot.
Complication or Rising Action--Intensification of conflict.
Crisis--Turning point; moment of great tension that fixes the action.
Resolution/Denouement--The way the story turns out.

Structure--The design or form of the completed action. Often provides clues to character and action. Can
even philosophically mirror the author's intentions, especially if it is unusual.
Look for: Repeated elements in action, gesture, dialogue, description, as well as shifts in direction, focus,
time, place, etc.

Setting--The place or location of the action, the setting provides the historical and cultural context for
characters. It often can symbolize the emotional state of characters.
Point of View--Again, the point of view can sometimes indirectly establish the author's intentions. Point of
view pertains to who tells the story and how it is told.

Narrator--The person telling the story.

First-person--Narrator participates in action but sometimes has limited knowledge/vision.
Objective--Narrator is unnamed/unidentified (a detached observer). Does not assume character's
perspective and is not a character in the story. The narrator reports on events and lets the reader supply
the meaning.
Omniscient--All-knowing narrator (multiple perspectives). The narrator takes us into the character and
can evaluate a character for the reader (editorial omniscience). When a narrator allows the reader to
make his or her own judgments from the action of the characters themselves, it is called neutral
omniscience.
Limited omniscient--All-knowing narrator about one or two characters, but not all.

Language and Style--Style is the verbal identity of a writer, oftentimes based on the author's use of diction
(word choice) and syntax (the order of words in a sentence). A writer's use of language reveals his or her tone,
or the attitude toward the subject matter.
Irony--A contrast or discrepancy between one thing and another.

Verbal irony--We understand the opposite of what the speaker says.

Irony of Circumstance or Situational Irony--When one event is expected to occur but the opposite
happens. A discrepancy between what seems to be and what is.
Dramatic Irony--Discrepancy between what characters know and what readers know.
Ironic Vision--An overall tone of irony that pervades a work, suggesting how the writer views the
characters.

Poetry
Allegory--A form of narrative in which people, places, and events seem to have hidden meanings. Often a
retelling of an older story.
Connotation--The implied meaning of a word.
Denotation--The dictionary definition of a word.
Diction--Word choice and usage (for example, formal vs. informal), as determined by considerations of
audience and purpose.
Figurative Language--The use of words to suggest meanings beyond the literal. There are a number of
figures of speech. Some of the more common ones are:

Metaphor--Making a comparison between unlike things without the use of a verbal clue (such as
"like" or "as").
Simile--Making a comparison between unlike things, using "like" or "as".
Hyperbole--Exaggeration
Personification--Endowing inanimate objects with human characteristics

Imagery--A concrete representation of a sense impression, a feeling, or an idea which appeals to one or more
of our senses. Look for a pattern of imagery.

Tactile imagery--sense of touch.

Aural imagery--sense of hearing.
Olfactory imagery--sense of smell.
Visual imagery--sense of sight.
Gustatory imagery--sense of taste.

Rhythm and Meter--Rhythm is the pulse or beat in a line of poetry, the regular recurrence of an accent or
stress. Meter is the measure or patterned count of a poetry line (a count of the stresses we feel in a poem's
rhythm). The unit of poetic meter in English is called a "foot," a unit of measure consisting of stressed and
unstressed syllables. Ask yourself how the rhythm and meter affects the tone and meaning.
Sound--Do the words rhyme? Is there alliteration (repetition of consonants) or assonance (repetition of
vowels)? How does this affect the tone?
Structure--The pattern of organization of a poem. For example, a sonnet is a 14-line poem usually written in
iambic pentameter. Because the sonnet is strictly constrained, it is considered a closed or fixed form. An open
or free form is a poem in which the author uses a looser form, or perhaps one of his or her own invention. It is
not necessarily formless.
Symbolism--When objects or actions mean more than themselves.
Syntax--Sentence structure and word order.
Voice: Speaker and Tone--The voice that conveys the poem's tone; its implied attitude toward its subject.
Copyright 1988 Jennifer Jordan-Henley
Revised: October 2004

Types of Plots in Modern Literature

These plots are often found in modern literature. Sometimes they are also found in traditional stories.

Episodic:

Structure of plot:
o Book is made up of a series of chapters or stories, each of which has its own plot, builds to an
end, and has its own climax.
o The episodes are usually linked because they are all about the same character, but there is no
overall plot or climax to the book.
o Episodes could be put in a different order or left out without changing the story substantially.
Example--George and Martha, by James Marshall.

Gradual development:

Plot has incidents and conflict, but tension and suspense are minimal, and plot does not rise to a
definite climax.

Example--Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible No Good Very Bad Day, by Judith Viorst.

Rising action:

Plot has definite conflict, tension, and suspense which rises to a climax; plot ends at that point without
fully resolving the outcome.
Example--The Borrowers, by Mary Norton; Mrs. Frisby and the Rats of NIMH, by Robert O'Brien.

Rising and falling action:

Plot has definite conflict, tension, and suspense which rises to a climax; climax is followed by the
denouement in which the outcome is resolved.
Example--Where the Wild Things Are, by Maurice Sendak.

Parallel plot:

Two plots which have similar incidents are described simultaneously or one after the other; plots may
(usually do) intersect at some point
Examples--Blueberries for Sal, by Robert McCloskey; Slake's Limbo, by Felice Holman.

Directions for Critical Analysis Paper

Objectives for this paper

Students will:
1. Learn about the literary elements found in fiction--character, plot, setting, theme, style, point of view,
tone.
2. Apply what they have learned by writing a paper in which they critically analyze another fiction book
for children.
3. Demonstrate their understanding of literary elements and knowledge of literary terms through writing
the Critical Analysis paper.

Directions
1. Read about the literary elements in chapter 2 of your text and in Outline on Literary Elements. If you
need more help, read the appropriate chapters in Lukens's A Critical Handbook of Children's
Literature, the recommended (but not required) text for the course. You may be able to find a copy of
Lukens's book in a library without having to buy it. For these chapters, any edition will do. The chapter
to read can be found in the outline of literary elements on the Web.
2. For this paper, you will use the book you chose in class. I chose the books because I have them readily
available so that if I need to look up something while grading the papers, they will be available. All
should be available in libraries, and also are usually available in paperback at bookstores. Most are
books for grades 3-5. I have tried to choose easy, short, but well-written books.
3. You will be asked to discuss how the literary elements are handled in the book.
4. You may discuss your book with other people, but when you write the paper, you are to do it entirely
alone, without help from anyone.
5. The first sentence of your paper should give the title and author of the book, and the first paragraph
should give a very brief summary of the plot. Do not tell everything that happens. Tell just enough so
that a reader can know what you are talking about. You can give details later if necessary.

6. Discuss the following literary elements (in this order): character, plot, setting, theme, style, point of
view, tone. Whenever you begin to discuss a new element, make it clear which one you are discussing.
(Use a heading or mention the element in the first sentence of that section.) You do not need to describe
the literary elements; you can assume I know that. Just tell how the elements are shown in your book.
(See "Required Information about Literary Elements" below for specific instructions.)
7. Some elements are more important than others, and the importance of each may vary from book to
book. Discuss in greater detail the elements which are most important in your book. Character, plot,
and theme are very important in most of the books which will be read for this paper; style and setting
are often but not always very important. Point of view and tone may be important, but they usually
require less discussion.
8. End your paper with a paragraph giving your final summation. How good is the book? Give your
conclusion about the quality of the book. You may give personal comments also.
9. When you quote from the Critical Analysis book, give the page number of the quote in parentheses.
Give bibliographic information about the book under the heading "Reference" at the end. If you
mention or quote other books, such as your text or Lukens, include them and head the list
"References." (When you put the heading on your paper, do not put quotation marks around it. Such
titles have quotation marks around them in sentences such as the one above, but not when used as a
title at the head of a page. The same is true of the title for your paper.) If you quote from any book
except your Critical Analysis book, give the author's name and the page number (for instance: Lukens,
p. 21).
10. Your grade will be lowered if you do not follow the instructions for papers which were given in your
course syllabus, or if the paper is late without permission.
11. You will be shown a paper from a previous class as a "Good Example."
12. There is no set length, but usually such papers are about eight to twelve typed pages in length.
13. Keep a copy of your paper in case it is lost or destroyed.

Required Information about Literary Elements

In the Critical Analysis Paper, discuss at least the following things about each literary element. (You may also
discuss anything else you wish.)
Character
o Describe the protagonist(s), other main characters, and antagonist(s), if any. You can also
discuss minor characters if you wish.
o Tell whether these characters are round or flat; and whether they are static or dynamic.
o Mention foils or stereotypes, if present.
Plot
o Type of plot (as described in Types of Plots in Modern Literature)
o Types of conflict present
o Types of narrative order (chronological, flashback, time lapse)
o Type of ending (open or closed)
o Any other information on elements of the plot which you wish to include.
Setting
o Type of setting (backdrop or integral)
Theme
o The primary theme; secondary themes if present
o Whether the themes are explicit or implicit (if explicit, you must quote them from the book)
Style
o Describe the style. Is it very conversational, standard written style, or ornate and unusual
language?
o Give examples of any devices of style which are noticable in the work.
o You must give direct quotations from the book to prove your points about style.
Point of View

Tell what the point of view is; give an example from text (and a description, if necessary) to
prove it is what you say it is.

Tone
o

Tell what the tone is and explain why you think so

Outline on Literary Elements

The literary quality of a fictional book is based not upon its popularity or the ease with which it can be read,
but upon the quality of the literary elements found in the book. Students who are unfamiliar with the literary
elements or who need a greater understanding of literary quality than is presented here and in the text should
read A Critical Handbook of Children's Literature, by Rebecca J. Lukens. Any edition will do, since
basically she changes the books used as examples and adds a new chapter. In editions 1-5, use chapters 3-9. In
edition 6, use chapters 4-10.
The following bold-faced terms are ones which should be understood and used in discussing the literary
elements. They should be used in the Critical Analysis Paper.
Please note that these elements apply only to fiction books.

Character
Character can be revealed through the character's actions, speech, and appearance. It also can be revealed by
the comments of other characters and of the author.
Certain types of characters appear in many stories. Describe the following types if they appear in your book:

The protagonist is the central character (person, animal, or personified object) in the plot's conflict.
The antagonist is the force in conflict with the protagonist. It may be society, nature, or fate, as well as
another person. It can also be the protagonist's own self, if he or she has an internal conflict.
A character foil is a character whose traits are in direct contrast to those of the principal character. The
foil therefore highlights the traits of the protagonist. The foil is usually a minor character, although if
there are two protagonists, they may be foils of each other.
A stereotype is a character who possesses expected traits of a group rather than being an individual.
Using stereotypes is usually considered an indication of poor quality, especially in cases such as
members of minority groups, people with disabilities, or women. However, stereotypes can be useful in
furthering the story quickly and are acceptable in minor roles if they do not provide hurtful portraits of
the groups in question.

Character development is showing the multitude of traits and behaviors that give the literary character the
complexity of a human being. The amount of character development affects the quality of the story:

A flat character is not fully developed; we know only one side of the character.
A round character is fully-developed, with many traits--bad and good--shown in the story. We feel
that we know the character so well that he or she has become a real person.
Character development is a continuum with perfectly flat characters at one end and very round ones at
the other. Every character lies somewhere on this continuum. Round characters are usually considered
an indication of literary quality. However, characters in folktales are almost always flat, and flatness is
appropriate for minor characters in modern literature for children. A character foil is often flat, even if
the protagonist is round.

The amount of change in a character over the course of the story also affects its quality:

A static character is one who does not experience a basic character change during the course of the
story.
A dynamic character is one who experiences a basic change in character through the events of the
story. This change is internal and may be sudden, but the events of the plot should make it seem
inevitable.
There is also a continuum of character change in a story, with very static characters at one end, and
very dynamic ones at the other. Every character lies somewhere on this continuum. Dynamism in the
protagonist is usually considered an indication of quality, but many characters, especially in stories for
younger children, have only the mild amount of change which can be expected from growing and
maturing from day to day.
A character may thus be round and dynamic, round and static, or flat and static. A flat character cannot
usually be dynamic, because you do not know enough about the flat character to notice a change. If a
character seems flat and yet seems to change, it is usually because the characterization is not well
written.

The following table summarizes how the development and change in characters interact:
Character

Dynamic

Static

Round

Considered the best type of character development.

Usually the protagonist.

Development is considered well-done.

Often found in protagonists in books
for younger children.

Flat

Characters cannot be dynamic and flat, because in a In very simple books, or in fairy tales,
flat character we do not know enough about them for the protagonist may be flat and static.
them to recognize a change. If a flat character seems Also appropriate for minor characters
to change, it is usually due to poor writing.
in other books.

Plot
Plot is the sequence of events which involves the characters in conflict.
See the outline about Types of Plots in Modern Literature on the Web to learn about types of plot.
The sequence of events is called the narrative order:

The most common type of narrative order in children's books is chronological. In this case, the events
are told in the order they happen.
A flashback occurs when the author narrates an event that took place before the current time of the
story. Flashbacks are uncommon in children's literature because the passage of time is difficult for
children to understand. The opposite effect, a flash forward, is even rarer.
A time lapse occurs when the story skips a period of time that seems unusual compared to the rest of
the plot. There is no standard amount of time that might constitute a time lapse; it depends upon the
reader's sense that a longer than usual period of time has passed since the previous episode.

Conflict is the struggle between the protagonist and an opposing force. There are several types of conflict:

Internal conflict, or person-against-self, occurs when the protagonist struggles within himself or
herself. The protagonist is pulled by two courses of action or by differing emotions. This is often
considered a characteristic of fine literature because it frequently leads to a dynamic change in the
protagonist.
Interpersonal conflict, or person-against-person, pits the protagonist against someone else.
Conflict of person-against-society happens when the protagonist is in conflict with the values of his or
her society. This is a difficult concept for small children to grasp.

Conflict of person-against-nature takes place when the protagonists is threatened by an element of

nature.
Conflict of person-against-fate occurs when the protagonist must contend against a fact or life or
death over which people have little control, such as death or disability. Some literary critics, however,
see this conflict as a type of person-against-nature.
Several types of conflict may be present in any one story.
Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between two types of conflict. If a teenager is arrested by a
policeman for breaking a law, the conflict is probably person-against-society. If, however, a personal
animosity develops between the two, so that the boy taunts the policeman and the policeman harasses
the boy because they dislike each other, the conflict becomes person-against-person. Likewise, if a
character is attacked by a strange dog, the conflict is person-against-nature. But if the dog knows and
dislikes the character, it could be considered person-against-person. If the protagonist is diagnosed
with a fatal disease, he or she has a conflict with fate or nature, but also probably has an internal
conflict in learning to accept his or her fate.

Most plots have certain common elements:

A story commonly begins with exposition, an explanation of the situation and the condition of the
characters. In children's books, the exposition is usually woven into the action.
A plot usually begins with a problem which the protagonist must meet or solve. During the story,
tension is built through a series of complications, incidents which either help or hinder the protagonist
in finding a solution. This is the rising action.
The climax is the peak or turning point of the action; at this point we know the outcome.
The denouement or falling action is the part after the climax. It gives any necessary explanation and
ends with resolution, the sense of at the end of the story that it is complete.
The ending of the story may be either open or closed:
o In a closed ending, the most usual one in children's books, readers feel that they know what
will happen. The various parts of the plot are tied together satisfactorily, and the reader feels a
sense of completion.
o In an open ending, readers must draw their own conclusions; they do not know what will
happen.
o A cliffhanger is an abrupt ending at an exciting and often dangerous time in the plot. Its
purpose is to keep the reader reading. It is usually found at the end of a chapter, but
occasionally a book will end this way. (Not all open endings are suspenseful enough to be
called cliffhangers.) Recently, books in some science fiction and fantasy series have ended in
cliffhangers, which encourages the reading of the other books in the series.

Other elements which may be found in plots include:

Suspense is a state of tension, a sense of uncertainty, an emotional pull which keeps the reader reading.
All plots need some suspense to sustain interest.
Foreshadowing is the planting of hints about what will happen later in the story. It prepares children
for the outcome and reassures them when the suspense is very high. Good foreshadowing is subtle and
often contributes to high quality in a story.
Coincidence, the concurrence of events which happen by chance, is a fact in real life. However, real
life is not a plot that moves from problem to climax to resolution. In fiction, coincidence seems
contrived; it weakens the plot. Coincidence in a plot is acceptable if it is carefully but subtly
foreshadowed.
Inevitability is the sense that the outcome is necessary and inescapable. It had to happen, given these
characters and this situation; it is not contrived. It is a sign of high quality in writing.
Sensationalism is unrelieved suspense; it often includes violence and may produce fear in the reader.
Readers often like it, as the popularity of horror books and films attest, but it is usually considered a
sign of poor quality. Even the Disney Studio, known for wholesome entertainment, is guilty of
sensationalism. Sixty years ago, many children were frightened by the witch in Snow White. More

recently The Lion King was criticized for excessive violence. In films, suspense is often heightened by
cutting quickly between scenes and by the adroit use of background music to create a mood.
Sentimentality is the opposite of sensationalism; it is the overuse of sentiment (a natural concern for
another person) that produces a tear-jerker. It is dwelling too much on the "cute" and the "precious."
Like sensationalism, it is a sign of poor quality but is often popular. Movies such as Love Story and
Terms of Endearment are examples of sentimentality. Many popular children's books are overly
sentimental. Black Beauty, The Velveteen Rabbit, The Giving Tree, I'll Love You Forever, and the
works of Joan Walsh Anglund have all been criticized for this.

Setting
Setting includes the place and the time period in which the story takes place.
Setting may or may not have an important influence on the story:

An integral setting is essential to the plot; it influences action, character or theme.

A backdrop setting is relatively unimportant to the plot; it is like the featureless curtain or flat painted
scenery of a theater.
Readers may interpret the importance of the setting differently; one may say that the setting is integral
because the story must happen in a big city; another may say the same thing is backdrop because it
may happen in any big city. (The former statement is probably more accurate, but either is acceptable if
the meaning is clear.)

Setting can clarify conflict, illuminate character, affect the mood, and act as a symbol. The setting itself can be
an antagonist in a person-against-nature conflict.

Theme
Theme is the underlying meaning of the story, a universal truth, a significant statement the story is making
about society, human nature, or the human condition.
A book's theme must be described in universal terms, not in terms of the plot. The plot is the way the universal
theme is carried out in that particular book. Themes can be applied to the reader's own life or to other
literature.
Although themes can convey important messages, they should never be overtly didactic. Didacticism is
preaching and teaching so explicitly that children lose pleasure in the story and reject its message.
The primary theme is most important theme in the story; children's books usually have one primary theme.
There may be other secondary themes as well.
Types of themes:

An explicit theme is one that is stated openly in the book. It is stated in universal terms in the book
itself.
An implicit theme is one which is not directly stated, but which the reader can infer. Many times,
readers will not notice that an explicit theme is directly stated, but they can often infer the theme
anyway.

Themes must be clearly stated; one word is not usually enough. To say that a book's theme is "friendship" is
not clear. It may mean, "Friends are a person's most valuable possession." It may also mean, "Friends can
never be trusted if their own interests are opposed to yours."

An understanding of theme is dependent upon one's previous experience of life and literature. At the same
time, theme in literature can enlarge one's understanding of life.
Not every good book has a significant theme; some books' value lies in the pleasure they give, rather than the
message they bring. Books of humor, for instance, may or may not have a significant theme.

Style
Style is the language used in a book, the way the words are put together to create the story.

Most children's books use standard written style. This style sounds natural, but when carefully
analyzed, it is clear that it is more formal than most speech. Sentences are complete; expressions like
"um," "you know," and "like--," are avoided; contractions are used less often than in ordinary speech.
Lots of conversation may included, but the style as a whole does not sound like speech.
In conversational style, the language is more informal, it sounds more like the way people really talk.
The narration as well as the character's speeches sounds conversational.
Dialect is easiest for children to read if word order or a few unusual words and expressions are used to
suggest a difference from normal speech. Other languages may be suggested in the same way through
speech patterns and foreign words. Foreign and unusual words should be explained naturally in
context. An eye dialect, in which words are spelled the way they sound, is sometimes very hard to
read.
An ornate or unusual style is sometimes used, especially in some high fantasy and historical fiction.
Older editions of traditional literature and older poetry may also have such styles.

Writers use many devices of style to make stories interesting.

Imagery is the most frequently used device. It is an appeal to any of the senses--taste, touch, sight,
sound, and smell. It paints pictures in our mind.
Figurative language uses words in a nonliteral way, giving them a meaning beyond their ordinary one.
o Personification gives human traits to animals, nonhuman beings, or inanimate objects: "The
trees bowed before the wind."
o A simile compares two different things, using the words "as," "like," or "than": "The snowbank
looked like a huge pile of marshmallow syrup."
o A metaphor is an implied comparison stating the resemblance between two things: "Her
presence was a ray of light in a dark world."
Devices of sound can increase pleasure and clarity. Books which use many such devices should be
read aloud. Poetry is particularly rich in such devices.
o Onomatopoeia is the use of words that sound like their meaning: a skirt "swishes," a bat
"cracks," a hasty eater "gulps" his food.
o Alliteration is repetition of initial consonants: "the soft surge of the sea."
o Consonance is repetition of consonants sounds anywhere in the words: "The sight of the apple
and maple trees pleased the people."
o Rhyme is the repetition of a stressed sound, usually the final syllable: "His aim was to blame
the dame."
o Assonance is repetition of vowel sounds in a phrase: The owl swept out of the woods and
circled the house."
o Rhythm is the recurring flow of strong and weak beats in a phrase: "Chicka, chicka, boom,
boom! Will there be enough room?" Meter is the regular rhythmic pattern of stressed and
unstressed syllables found in a line of poetry. The less regular rhythm sometimes found in prose
is often called cadence.
Puns and other plays on words add interest and humor: "By the time the milking was finished, the
new farmhand was thoroughly cowed." Puns are said to be "the lowest form of wit," but people usually
enjoy them even as they groan.

Hyperbole is exaggeration: "He was frightened out of his wits." Understatement is the opposite: "He
was upset when he learned he had AIDS."
Allusion is an indirect reference to something outside the current literary work: "He was a veritable
Hercules." The reference may be to something in literature, history, modern culture, or another area.
Allusion is often difficult for children to recognize because they lack the necessary background
knowledge. The proponents of "cultural literacy" believe that all children should acquire a common
fund of knowledge in order to understand allusions.
A symbol is something--a person, object, situation, or action--which operates on two levels, the literal
and the symbolic. For instance, an engagement ring is a real object, but it is also stands for the abiding
love of the engaged couple. Symbols add depth and meaning to a story. Symbols may be universal (as
the engagement ring) or specific to a particular story.

Qualities which should be avoided in style include triteness (dull, stale, overused expressions),
condescension (talking down to children, making them feel unintelligent or immature), didacticism,
sensationalism, and sentimentality. In poetry, avoid a too regular meter which can become a sing-song rhythm.

Point of View
Point of view depends upon who the narrator is and how much he or she knows.
Point of view may be:

First person - uses "I" - A character is telling the story.

Second person - uses "you" - The author speaks directly to the reader. Second person is seldom used;
it is found most often in nonfiction today.
Third person - uses "he," "she," or "it" - The author is telling about the characters. There are three
third person points of view:
o Limited omniscient - We are told the thoughts and feelings of only one character (sometimes,
but very seldom, of two or three characters).
o Omniscient - We are told everything about the story, including the thoughts and feelings of all
the characters, and even information in the author's mind which no character knows.
o Dramatic or objective - We are told only what happens and what is said; we do not know any
thoughts or feelings of the characters. It is called "dramatic" because it includes the words and
actions, just what you would see and hear if it were in a play or film.

Tone
Tone is the author's attitude toward what he or she writes, but it may be easier to understand if you think of it
as the attitude that you (the reader) get from the author's words. It is the hardest literary element to discuss;
often we can recognize it but not put it into words. The easiest tone to recognize is humor. In describing tone,
use adjectives: humorous, mysterious, creepy, straight-forward, matter-of-fact, exciting, boring, etc.

A quick guide to some elements of writing style for senior students

acronym

An abbreviation in the form of a set of

initials which can be pronounced as a
word.

Acronym: UNESCO = United Nations Educational

Scientific and Cultural Organisation. ANZAC =
Australia and New Zealand Army Corps.

If it cannot be pronounced as a word, it

is called an initialism

Laser and radar are also acronyms.

adjective

A word which helps to describe a noun.

The adjectives are underlined: A black dog followed us

down the long road.

adverb

A word which helps to describe a verb.

The adverbs are underlined: We ran quickly when we

heard the dog barking furiously.

alliteration

Using the same initial letter for several

words in one phrase.

Poetic examples: wild west wind, lake water lapping,

darker days.

See also onomatopoeia.

You can also repeat sounds within words, e.g., a noise

annoys an oyster.

Initialism: DVD = digital video disk. EEC = European

Economic Community.

Beware of accidental alliteration which might sound

rather odd or clumsy when it is read aloud.
allusion

An indirect reference to something.

Alluding to something is not as clear as referring to it.

You might, for example, allude to a passage from
literature without saying where it comes from, in a
statement such as: Ive been ill but I managed to do a
lot of work; sweet are the uses of adversity. The
second part is a quotation from Shakespeare, but in
this allusion, no direct reference to the source is given.

apostrophe

The punctuation mark

The dogs lead (for one dog).

Used in contracted words and also to

show possessives, i.e., ownership.

The dogs leads (for more than one dog.)

capital letters

The dog likes its lead (possessive)

It is not used in plurals such as tomatoes

and potatoes.

Its the dogs lead = It is the dogs lead.

It can be used in initialised plurals such

as PCs (personal computers) and
DVDs.

NOTE: YOUR IS NOT SHORT FOR YOU ARE.

The correct term is upper case letters but

most people call them capitals.
Small letters are called lower case
letters.

Youre coming with us = You are coming with us.

Ill feel ill = I will feel ill.
Always use one at the beginning of a sentence and for
a name. Do not use them for words you want to
emphasise unless you are writing in a whimsical
personal style

clichs

Words and phrases which are over-used

and consequently have become
meaningless and annoying

Examples: you guys, hopefully, a roller-coaster ride, a

steep learning curve, amazing, incredible.

colloquialisms

Words and phrases used when people

See Figures of Speech here

are speaking informally or using slang.

colon

The punctuation mark :

This is not half way between a semicolon and a full

stop. It is used when the first part of the sentence is a
direct introduction to the second part, e.g.,
I received three gifts: a computer, a football, a bunch
of flowers.
There was only one thing we could do: run away.
Check a reliable grammar book or style manual for
other examples.

comma

The punctuation mark ,

Used to make sentences clearer, sometimes where you

might pause if saying the sentence aloud. In a long
sentence, too few commas might make it ambiguous
but too many might make it confusing. Be careful.
Examples:
Sharon who turned eighteen last month has started a
university. Sharon, who turned eighteen last month,
has started at university. Put a comma before and after
the middle part.
While we were swimming in the river shouting
children warned us of the crocodile. Who was
shouting? Try While we were swimming in the river,
shouting children warned us of the crocodile.

conjunction

A class of word which joins phrases

Examples: and, but, if, or, as. Words like either and
neither are also used as conjunctions

contraction

A shortened form of a pair of words.

Examples: Im, cant, theyre. Do not use them if you a

writing in a formal style. Some contractions, like ain't,
are slang. See slang, below.

dash

Short dash and long dash. The correct

names of these two punctuations marks
are

These are not hyphens. The have different uses. The

short dash is used in dates and numbers, e.g., March
26April 10, pages 114119. A long dash is used to
separate parts of a sentence. A pair can be used in the
place of parentheses (brackets). A single 1 em rule can
be used to clarify the second half of a long or complex
sentence.

1 en rule
1 em rule
On a PC, you can find them by pressing
these keys, using the Numeric Keypad
on your keyboard:
ALT 0150

Your school textbooks might not give you more

examples. Check a style manual.
See also hyphen, below.

ALT 0151
euphemism

A word or phrase used as a substitute for

another which might be difficult,
embarrassing or offensive.

See Figures of Speech here

exclamation
mark

The punctuation mark !

Used at the end of a sentence or speech to express

surprise or excitement. Important: (a) Never use more
than one at the end of a sentence. (b) Use as few as
possible in your story. Too many will make your

writing look like a Christmas tree.

full stop

The punctuation mark .

Also called a full point and a period.

genre

The style or type of writing you choose

for a piece.

A full stop is used at the end of a sentence, or in

abbreviations such as a.m. (morning). Check your
local rules about using it in abbreviations such as P.C.
(personal computer). It is sometimes acceptable to type
PC. DVD, VCR, ID, EEC, etc., and even am and pm.
Examples:
Expository: detailed explanation and presentation of a
case.
Instruction: telling how to do something.
Narrative: fiction.
Personal: about yourself and your experiences.
Persuasion: argument in favour of one side of several
in an issue.
Recount: writing about actual experiences.
Report: writing about actual events.
Review: of a film, book, play, theatre show, etc.

homophone

A word which sound the same but have

different meanings.

Examples: for, fore, four; to, too, two; their, there;

witch, which; rain, rein, reign.

homonym

Words with identical spellings and

sounds but different meanings.

Examples:
bear (noun) = an animal; bear (verb) = carry.
palm (noun) = part of your hand or a type of tree.

hyperbole

Exaggeration or over-emphasis, using

too many words.

Examples: Incredibly amazing. A huge gigantic tower.

hyphen

The punctuation mark -

It is used for joining parts of a word and for dividing a

word between lines. Examples: habit-forming drugs,
on-the-spot investigation, middle-aged woman,
twenty-sixth. A hyphen is not used between numbers
or to separate parts of a sentence. See dash above.

idiom

Common phrases or words used in a

particular region or area.

Idiom overlaps with colloquialism.

irony

Humorous use of language in which the

words meaning the opposite of what
they usually mean.

Examples: Thats a lovely mess you got me into. How

nice of you not to invite me!

jargon

Words and phrase used by a specialist

group of people, or used by others to
pad out and impress.

See Figures of Speech here

malapropism

A word which sounds a bit like the word

the speaker intended to use, but creates

Examples: I have a runny nose because Im suffering

from an allegory. That picture is an optical allusion.

See Figures of Speech here

a humorous result.

The speaker was heckled by a noisome crowd.

Check your dictionary to find where malapropism
came from.

metaphor

noun

Using a phrase as a word picture to

describe something else, without
making a direct comparison.

Examples: A storm in a tea-cup. Raining cats and dogs.

A naming word.

Concrete nouns refer to people, places and tangible

objects.

See also simile below.

See also Figures of Speech here

Proper nouns are names with capital initials.

Abstract nouns are used for qualities or states.
onomatopoeia

Words which are coined to imitate the

sounds they represent. Also called
imitative words or echo words.

Examples: bang, buzz, cuckoo, fizz.

oxymoron

A phrase which uses contradictory

words for effect or exaggeration.

Examples: A deafening silence. Terribly kind. Awfully

good. Seriously funny.

parody

Copying a piece of writing in a similar

style and structure but with different
words, to make fun of it.

This also applies to stories and plays. There isnt room

for examples here. Do a careful search in your
reference books or on the Net.

preposition

A word which denotes place or position.

Examples: at, behind, like, off, on. Check your

grammar book or style manual for a more detailed
explanation

pronoun

A personal word used in place of a

noun.

Examples: I, me, you, them, you, your.

A humorous statement or joke based on

words that are in some way similar.
They usually work better in speech than
in writing.

Someone said that punning is the lowest form of wit.

The worst puns are sometimes the best because they
are so bad.

pun

NOTE: 'YOUR' IS NOT SHORT OF 'YOU ARE'.

Examples:
My sister has gone to the Caribbean. Jamaica? No,
she went because she wanted to go. (Jamaica sounds
like did you make her spoken quickly.)
Why is a thought like a sea? Because its a notion.
(A notion sounds like an ocean.)

question mark

The punctuation mark ?

Also called a query.

quotation
marks

The punctuation marks and " "

also called inverted commas or speech
marks.

Use it at the end of a question. Do not use more than

one at a time.
These are used to enclose direct speech, i.e., what a
person actually says. They can also be used around the
titles of books, films, etc. Publishers or books,
magazines and newspapers in different countries have
different rules about the use of single and double " "

quotation marks.
satire

Using mocking language to make fun of

someone or something or to express
scorn.

You can write satire by using irony and parody. The

aim is to express ridicule. It is difficult to write and it
can be offensive. Be careful. Many people do not
understand satire. Look for more information in your
library or on the Internet.

semicolon

The punctuation mark ;

This is something like halfway between a comma and

a full stop. It is used to break up long and complicated
sentences.

simile

A figure of speech which expresses

similarities between two different
things.

Examples: As good as gold. Like a bat out of hell. As

pleased as Punch. Like water off a ducks back.
See metaphor above.
See also Figures of Speech here

slang

Very informal and sometimes vulgar

language used in conversation.

Slang includes idioms, colloquialisms, lazy speech,

and sometimes swear-words. If it fits a particular
character in your story, you might write their direct
speech using slang, but be careful about using swearwords.

solecisms

Examples of the incorrect or

ungrammatical use of language.

Examples: I don't know nothing. We's not comin' 'ere

no more. You's looking awful. That one is more better
than the other one. She is the most tallest girl.

tautology

Repetition. The use of a series of words

with the same meaning.

Examples: 7 a.m. in the morning. (If its in the

morning, you know its a.m.) 10.15 p.m. in the
evening. Continue on. Early beginnings. A young boy
who was still a lad.

verb

An action word or doing word.

Examples: have, had, has, sing, talk, write. Some

words can be used as nouns as well as verbs, e.g.,
drink, fight, shout.

FIGURES OF SPEECH
Figures of speech are ways of using words and phrases to add interest and 'colour' to what you are saying or
writing. They vary in different countries and regions. Here are some of the main types. Some of the examples
can be included in more than one category, e.g., colloquialisms overlap with idiomatic terms. This page also
explains some items which are not usually called figures of speech but which also colour your writing.
Colloquialism
Colloquial means relating to the sort of language used in everyday informal conversation. Colloquialisms can
be used in direct speech, i.e, what people say, in your a story. They should not be used in the text itself unless
you are writing from a particular character's point of view and using that character's style of speech. Colloquial
speech also includes swear-words and rude words.
Here are a few examples:

gimme = give me
outta or outa = out of
G'day = Good day (a greeting in Australia)
ratbag = rascal, rogue, unpleasant person
yeah = yes
kid = child or teenager (it means 'young deer', so it's a compliment)
seconds = the second helping of something at a meal
Euphemism
A euphemism is a polite, childish or picturesque word or phrase, used when the real word or phrase might be
embarrassing or offensive to some people. Euphemisms often relate to items or actions which are considered
taboo, i.e., we don't mention them in polite speech. Some are used by people who wish to sound 'politically
correct'.
Here are a few examples:
casket = coffin
pass away, pass on, pass over = die
beverage = drink (noun)
bathroom, dunny, loo, toilet, and many others = lavatory, though lavatory literally means the same thing
as bathroom
elderly citizen = old person
hearing handicapped = deaf
sit-upon = buttocks
Jargon
Jargon includes two types of words and phrases: (a) The specialised language or vocabulary of a particular
group of people, members of a trade of profession. (b) Fairly meaningless talk used by anybody at all.
In the first category, doctors, footballers, microbiologists, carpenters all kinds of specialists have their
own words and phrases which are sometimes not understood by outsiders. In the second category, we find
people using language to impress, or padding out their statements with long words or phrases. They might also
be using jargon to cover up the fact that they don't really understand what they are talking about!
Here are some examples:
decimate is used to mean 'destroy' or, in effect, to destroy or kill 90%. Its real meaning, however, dates back
to ancient Roman times. It means to kill or destroy 10%.
good track record is a term used for race-horses and greyhounds, but business-people use it as a metaphor
when they talk about someone's ability and employment history.
ongoing meaningful dialogue or dialog is simply a long-winded way of saying 'useful discussion'
parameter is often used where people mean 'perimeter', because they don't know what parameter actually
means. You don't? Look it up!
myocardial infarction is a medical term used by doctors for a type of heart attack. It is correct for the medical
profession to use accurate terms such as this. This is an example of jargon being the technical language of a
particular group of people.
collateral damage is military jargon meaning killing of the enemy by 'our side'. If it is caused by the other
side and our people are killed, then it becomes civilian casualties. Our side launches a pre-emptive strike
but the other side attacks without provocation. In the same way, journalists report our brave soldiers as being
dare-devils but those of the enemy are cannon-fodder. This use of jargon is called propaganda.
Tautology

Strictly speaking, tautology is not a figure of speech. I have included it here because it does not make your
writing more interesting to read. It is simply a common form of error. Tautology is unnecessary repetition. It is
very common. Here are some examples:
Me myself personally (you can write that if you are being funny, but not if you are writing seriously)
Puzzling problem (a problem is always puzzling, so you don't need to say that it is)
Sad misfortune (a misfortune is sad, anyway)
Seafaring mariner (where else does a mariner travel?)
Free gift (if it is a gift, we know it is free)
3 a.m. in the morning (if it is a.m., we already know it is in the morning)
9 p.m. in the evening (if it is p.m., we know it is in the afternoon or evening)
Metaphor
Using one phrase to describe another. A figure of speech in which one thing is identified with the other,
without using words such as like... or as...as.... This is not the same as a simile. In common speech,
metaphors are sometimes also called colloquialisms. Etymology: 16th century. From Greek metaphora,
metapherein, to transfer. Examples:
beyond the Black Stump (Australian metaphor meaning a long way from here.)
can of worms
a kangaroo loose in the top paddock (Another Australian metaphor. Look it up!)
let the cat out of the bag
look a gift horse in the mouth
raining cats and dogs
storm in a tea cup
under a cloud
Simile
A direct comparison. A figure of speech in which two things are compared using like or as...as....
Etymology: 14th century. Latin simile, something similar. Examples:
as black as night
as cool as a cucumber
as good as gold
as smooth as silk
like a bat out of hell
like a cat on a hot tin roof
like a house on fire
like water off a ducks back
Allegory
An allegory is like an extended metaphor. It is a story which has an apparent meaning on the surface, but
another meaning underneath, behind its symbols.
The Greek philosopher Platos story of a cave is an allegory of the way peoples experience and understanding
develop.
Some people are prisoners in a deep cave. They have never seen the world outside the cave. They are tied
up and cannot move. There are several objects in the cave, and a fire. The fire is throwing shadows of the
objects onto the wall of the cave. The people can see the shadows but they cannot see the objects. They are
then untied, and can move around. Now they can see the real objects and also the fire. Eventually, they can
see out of the cave and see the sunlight. After so long in the cave, they discover the real world outside and
the sun in the sky.

Bible stories, e.g. Ezekiel, chapter 17. Here is the first part:
A great eagle with great wings and long pinions, rich in plumage of many colours, came to Lebanon and
took the top of the cedar. It broke off the highest twig and carried it to a land of trade, and placed it in a
city of merchants. Then it took a seed and planted it in fertile soil beside a flowing river.
The story is not really about an eagle. The reader has to crack the code to understand it. It is about current
events and the people who were involved. The eagle represents King Nebuchadnezzar. Lebanon is the hilly
country of Judah. The highest twig symbolises the king of Judah. A land of trade means the country of
Babylonia. The place with fertile soil is Palestine.
Aesops Fables have animals and their actions representing human behaviour and attitudes.
John Bunyans Pilgrims Progress is an allegory of the Christian life, with Slough of Despond, Vanity Fair,
Celestial City.
George Orwells Animal Farm: animals represent humans, life on the farm represents conflicts in society.
William Goldings Lord of the Flies is, on the surface, a story about a group of children who find themselves
on a remote island, after an aeroplane crash. It is, beneath the surface, a chilling allegory about society, rivalry,
power, violence and the thin veneer of civilisation.
Idiom
Idiom is similar to colloquial, colloquialism, but is more specific. It refers to words or phrases used by
particular people, such as the inhabitants of a country region, or members of a social group. Some idiomatic
phrases are confined to the area or group where they started, but others spread to other areas and countries.
Etymology: 16th century from Latin idioma, peculiarity of language, from Greek idios, private, separate.
Examples:
a galah (Australia) = a fool
beyond the black stump (Australia) = far away from here
fresh out of (USA) = sold out, completely without
How are you going? said as Ow yer goin? = How are you?
No worries = It was no trouble
roo (Australia) = kangaroo
'Utch up (parts of eastern England) = Please sit closer together
mardy (parts of the English midlands) = sulky, disagreeable
bathers, cossie, togs, costume = swimming costume

STYLISTIC ANALYSIS : A CUP OF TEA by K.Mansfield

Written by ASUMAN BRDAL
The common view that a literary text is likely to be comprehended better if it is studied in parallel with
stylistic analysis which emphasizes the crucial role of the linguistic features of the text contributes much to
the development of literary criticism. M.A.K.Halliday is one of the text linguists who sees grammar as a
network of systems of relationships which account for all the semantically relevant choices in language, which
is the standpoint of the stylistic analysis as well.

In the light of M.A.K.Hallidays discipline, I will try to analyse a piece of literary text written by
Katherina Mansfield in the format of a short story titled A CUP OF TEA and try to criticise the text
objectively in relation to its grammatical (functional) features .
Before this , Id like to give a brief information about the content of the story.
A.INFORMATION ABOUT THE STORY
Scanning the story first, we come across with a rich couple named Rosemary and Philip leading an
untroubled, desirable life and they seem to love each other since- we have no implication whether they love
each other for money or not and everything goes well in their lives.Rosemary spends money without getting
into trouble and giving no reason or excuse to her husband in doing this. Everyone in a society admires
Rosemary not maybe for her beauty but for her remarkable features such as being interested in current
movements from every aspects, seeming as an intelligent young woman, reading the modern books.Philip is
not as bright as Rosemary but he makes himself realize as soon as he enters the story towards the end.
Apart from the couple, there is a girl who meets Rosemary in a street by asking for money to have a cup
of tea then is picked up by her to have a cup of tea at her home and begins to be directed by her. We infer this
from the fact that whenever Rosemary wants her to enter the scene she is there but when, at the last scene,
Rosemary is jealous of her, the girl is easily disappearad without giving no sign for us to follow the reason of
her disappearance.
And we have one more character having a part in the story :the shopman.He is also under the effect of
Rosemary; we can understand this from his polite behaviours which are made obvious in the text with
circumstantial features. But he is the person also who utilizes by the weakness of her.He tries to draw her
attraction on the enamel box and succeeds it; he promises her to keep the box for her because he knows her
and he knows that she will come to buy it; she has the power of money and gets whatever she desires without
acconting for anything to anybody.
Not only we encounter with her weakness in her dialogue with the shopman but also in her being jealous
of Miss Smith when he utters lovely words for this girl and behaves as it is predicted by Philip who knows
directing her and makes her behave as he desires taking advantage of her faulty character successfully.In that
sense Philip is an intelligent man and effective on Rosemary who is also obviously the symbol of possessive
female by being jealous of the girl she has met in the street; so she has no self-confidence ,she is a little bit
credulous. She asks directly-having no hidden meaning in her words- Am I PRETTY?, which ironically
reveals her ex-behaviours to Philip even she supposes that Philip is not aware of the truth.
B.ANALYSIS
When we look at the story from the point of transitivity functions included in the stylistic analysis which
tell us about the language and its reflection on processes ,participants ,circumstantial functions we realize that
main participant is Rosemary and most of the processes are acted by her.When we count all the sentences
describing her or the ones in which she takes place we realize her dominancy at once. The other participants
Id like to analyse on this text -apart from Rosemary- are the girl,Miss Smith, and Philip. Even though
Philip hasnt got as many turns as Rosemary and Miss Smith, Id like to examine the processes of him in
order to display the currents of events as a whole- he is the efficient figure in the sequences of events in the
story-; in other words it is vital to handle it here to maintain the entirety of the text.
To do this I will follow M.A.K. Hallidays process in which Ideational, Interpersonal, Textual
Functions of language are daelt with in order to support all my commentations on Katherine Mansfields
work.
IDEATIONAL FUNCTIONS
In order to relate the cognitive realities of the text with its language and give the accurate meaning it is
essential to deal with the ideational functions of language of it.By this way we will have a deep knowledge of

how these characters are seen as , what their mental processes are, what about the circumstantial features, and
so on.
1)Rosemary as a participant
*Relational processes:
In many ways she is presented us very active .There are descriptions both for her physical appearance
and for her characteristic features and interests:
She was young , brilliant , extremely modern, exquisitely well dressed, amazingly well read in the newest
of the new books ...
Even the words describing her are beatifully chosen ones and there is nothing which makes her inferioras it is obviously seen -she is not a woman adored for her goddess beauty but she is an active figure in a
society with her doings; however it is not clear whether she makes it to be seen like that or she is really the
one known in a society .
Her hat, really no bigger than a geranium petal, hung from a branch...
The writer of the text here uses metaphorical phrases while describing Rosemarys hat. Infact the writer
doesnt generally use such things , the language of the text is direct but here , in describing her appearance,she
does this . Infact it is to reflect the prominence that is given for her.
*Material processes:
She is mostly the actor where the girl is the goal or sometimes the beneficiary recipient:
I want you to. To please me.
Here I , Rosemary, takes part as an actor whereas you,Miss Smith, is the goal and want is the process
which is stated by Rosemary. We may infer that Rosemary is dominant and makes others do whatever she
wants to.
I only want to make you warm...
This time what she desires to be made by her is something good as a concept ; but even it is good for Miss
Smith, it is directed by Rosemary and shows her power on her by regarding Miss Smith as a helpless creature
which is to be pitied and looked after.
Come and sit down, she cried, dragging her big chair up to the fire,in this comfy chair.
And the circumstantial features where the actor is Rosemary gives clues for her rich ,comfortable life style.
To give more examples:
And there! cried Rosemary again , as they reached her beatiful big bedroom with the curtains drawn, the
fire leaping on her wonderful lacquer furniture, her gold cushions and the primrose and blue rugs.
She turned impulsively.
the money .)
*Mental processes:

(She is accustomed to speking freely in a society thanks to the power of

Looking at how she sees the world around her, we realize that she can mention about what she likes or
dislikes and reveals her ideas directly and freely; we have lots of verbs telling us about her cognition and
affection:
Yes, she liked it very much, she loved it.
Rosemary admired the flowers.
Rosemary gave no sign.
Rosemary laughed out.
She decided...
She wanted to spare this poor little thing...
She saw alittle battered creature with enormous eyes...
I hate lilac.
2)The girl as a participant
*Relational processes:
Physical descriptions are used to introduce her and these descriptions sometimes tell us about the life style of
her and mostly show us inferiority of her when compared with Rosemary basically:
...Rosemary turned. She saw a little battered creature with enormous eyes , someone quite young , no older
than herself...
...a light , frail creature with tangled hair, dark lips, deep lighted eyes,...
...thin ,birdlike shoulders.
...poor little thing.
And we have implications about her manner which are presented us from the eyes of the writer:
...she seemed dazed.
she seemed to stagger like a child,...
*Material processes:
She is the goal where Rosemary is the actor:
Rosemary says:
I simply took her with me.
I want you to.To please me.
She wanted to spare this poor little thing from being stared at by the servants.
She applied the poor little creature with ,everything,...:
And here she is the beneficiary recipient.
Even the girl says (accepting her power):
You are not taking me to police station.:
Here the actor is again Rosemary even the sentence is uttered by the other , she will act the process;
the girl is aware of this and she is the recipient again.
Rosemary drew the other into the hall.

the otheris the girl.

*Mental processes:
Although her acts are mostly led by Rosemary, we have implications about her feelings as follows:
The girl almost cried out .
...burst into tears

the girl gazed back at her.

she felt how simple and kind her smile was.
3)Philip as a participant
*Relational Processes:
There is no sign for his physical appearance and no utterance for his personality also . But we can only
guess something by means of the sentences as follows:
Philip smiled his charming smile.
The we can say that he has charming smile that makes effect on Rosenary.
But what an earth are you going to do with her?cried Philip.
So, he accounts for something and she behaves in line with Philips desires.
*Material Processes:
Even though he enters at the last scene , he is the actor in the sentences where Rosemary is the goal:
I wanted you come... Here Rosemary is the goal.(You= Rosemary)
He came in...he said, and stopped and stared.
Here the events are acted by him but this time
,unlike Rosemarys statements, there are some intransitive verbs.In Rosemarys statements ,there are generally
recipients and goals(In short there are objects) affected by the process.
Philip jumped her on his knee.
This is the statement in which Rosemary is the recipient whereas Philip is the actor.
*Mental Processes:
As soon as he takes a part in the story, he behaves like an observor as it is understood from the sentences
below:
..he said curiously, still looking at that listless figure, looking at its hands and boots...
..I wanted you to come...
Philip smiled..
... cried Philip.
INTERPERSONAL FUNCTIONS
Looking at K.Mansfields story from the point of the language use between the participants, we come
across with variability making the text closer to real,authentic usage by means of questions, answers, requests,
imperatives,exclamations and so on.
To begin with turn-takings between Rosemary and Miss Smith, it is seen that there are lots of questions
and answers:
May I speak to you a moment?
Speak to me?
(And this also presents us a part from an authentic language use by shortening the
statement.It is also the indicator of bewilderment of Rosemary against the girls behaviour.)
...

Would you let me have the price of a cup tea?

A cup of tea ?Then have you no money at all?
...
Do you like me?
And sometimes Rosemary gives answers instead of the girl. She does most of the talking:
Of course ,she will.
...She insisted on going...(She says to Philip as if it was said by Miss Smith ,herself.)
There are imperatives uttered by Rosemary again ,which proves that she does and gets whatever she wants
from helpless people :
Come along.
Come ,come upstairs.
Come and sit down.
Dont cry.
Do stop crying.
She also uses imperatives against Philip:
Be nice to her.
Kiss me.
But Philip also gives commands to her:
Explain
Look again,my child.
However Miss Smith uses polite requests such as:
May I speak to you a moment?
Would you let me have the price of a cup of tea.
...so ligthtly and strangely: Im very sorry, madam, but Im going to faint.I shall go off ,madam, if I dont
have something.
(It is not in an exact polite request form but said politely.)
I cant go on no longer like this. I cant bear no more
by consulting to politeness.)
Exclamations are used by Rosemary
sometimes to express her ideas:
Charming!
How extraordinary!
sometimes to present her while thinking to herself:
How thoughtless I am!
Pretty!
Lovely!(By repeating Philips utterances angrily.)
Sometimes to demonstrate:
There!

(Totally free in revealing her ideas and feelings not

TEXTUAL FUNCTIONS
Both the narrative statements directly by the writer and the dialogues between the participants are
involved in the story. Ideas of the characters and their acts are told by the writer of the text as a narrator
whereas the chain of particular events ,speech acts are presented via a lot of dialogues in the
text.K.Mansfield is like an observor describes the characters ,the events and gives us clues about what the
characters are thinking to themselves. For instance, Rosemary is made to think and speak to herself after being
jealous of the girl and we can follow her plans which is going to occur.
C.CONCLUSION
Having analysed this literary text by not commenting on it with my superficial impressions but examinig it
in detail considering into the linguistic features of it, I have obtained more objective criticism. Furthermore, it
has proved that our impressions supposed to be uttered intuitively and unconsciously has hidden conscious
in itself and kept hidden unless it emerges by studying it with its grammatical features which helped me to
analyse the short story of Katherine Mansfield more empirically. By means of this stylistic analysis ,
I,myself, have also seen that a literary text can be interpreted effectively,scientifically,and most correctly
when its functional features are studied in detail and one can enjoy the passage even after its linguistic
features are dealt with,which is supposed to make the meaning and charming beauty of the work of art loss.