MECNICA DE FLUIDOS

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Introduction to Flow Meters

What are Flowmeters?
A flowmeter is an instrument used to measure linear, nonlinear, mass or volumetric flow rate of a liquid or a
gas.
Selecting a Flow Meter
The basis of good flowmeter selection is a clear understanding of the requirements of the particular
application. Therefore, time should be invested in fully evaluating the nature of the process fluid and of the
overall installation. Here are some key questions which need to answered before selecting a flowmeter:

What is the fluid being measured by the flowmeter or flowmeters (air,water,etc)?

Do you require rate measurement and/or totalization from the flow meter?

If the liquid is not water, what viscosity is the liquid?

Is the fluid clean?

Do you require a local display on the flow meter or do you need an electronic signal output?

What is the minimum and maximum flowrate for the flow meter?

What is the minimum and maximum process pressure?

What is the minimum and maximum process temperature?

Is the fluid chemically compatible with the flowmeter wetted parts?

If this is a process application, what is the size of the pipe?

Flow Measurement Orientation

When choosing flowmeters, one should consider such intangible factors as familiarity of plant personnel,
their experience with calibration and maintenance, spare parts availability, and mean time between failure
history, etc., at the particular plant site. It is also recommended that the cost of the installation be computed
only after taking these steps. One of the most common flow measurement mistakes is the reversal of this
sequence: instead of selecting a sensor which will perform properly, an attempt is made to justify the use
of a device because it is less expensive. Those "inexpensive" purchases can be the most costly
installations.
The basis of good flow meter selection is a clear understanding of the requirements of the particular
application. Therefore, time should be invested in fully evaluating the nature of the process fluid and of the
overall installation.
The first step in flow sensor selection is to determine if the flowrate information should be continuous or
totalized, and whether this information is needed locally or remotely. If remotely, should the transmission
be analog, digital, or shared? And, if shared, what is the required (minimum) data-update frequency? Once
these questions are answered, an evaluation of the properties and flow characteristics of the process fluid,

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and of the piping that will accommodate the flowmeter, should take place. In order to approach this task in
a systematic manner.
Fluid and flow characteristics: In this section of the table, the name of the fluid is given and its pressure,
temperature, allowable pressure drop, density (or specific gravity), conductivity, viscosity (Newtonian or
not?) and vapor pressure at maximum operating temperature are listed, together with an indication of how
these properties might vary or interact. In addition, all safety or toxicity information should be provided,
together with detailed data on the fluid's composition, presence of bubbles, solids (abrasive or soft, size of
particles, fibers), tendency to coat, and light transmission qualities (opaque, translucent or transparent?).
Expected minimum and maximum pressure and temperature values should be given in addition to the
normal operating values when selecting flowmeters. Whether flow can reverse, whether it does not always
fill the pipe, whether slug flow can develop (air-solids-liquid), whether aeration or pulsation is likely, whether
sudden temperature changes can occur, or whether special precautions are needed during cleaning and
maintenance, these facts, too, should be stated.
Concerning the piping and the area where the flowmeters are to be located, consider:

For the piping, its direction (avoid downward flow in liquid applications), size, material, schedule, flangepressure rating, accessibility, up or downstream turns, valves, regulators, and available straight-pipe run
lengths.
The specifying engineer must know if vibration or magnetic fields are present or possible in the area, if
electric or pneumatic power is available, if the area is classified for explosion hazards, or if there are other
special requirements such as compliance with sanitary or clean-in-place (CIP) regulations.
The next step is to determine the required meter range by identifying minimum and maximum flows (mass
or volumetric) that will be measured. After that, the required flow measurement accuracy is determined.
Typically accuracy is specified in percentage of actual reading (AR), in percentage of calibrated span (CS),
or in percentage of full scale (FS) units. The accuracy requirements should be separately stated at
minimum, normal, and maximum flowrates. Unless you know these requirements, your flowmeter's
performance may not be acceptable over its full range.
In applications where products are sold or purchased on the basis of a meter reading, absolute accuracy is
critical. In other applications, repeatability may be more important than absolute accuracy. Therefore, it is
advisable to establish separately the accuracy and repeatability requirements of each application and to
state both in the specifications.
When a flowmeter's accuracy is stated in % CS or % FS units, its absolute error will rise as the measured
flow rate drops. If meter error is stated in % AR, the error in absolute terms stays the same at high or low

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flows. Because full scale (FS) is always a larger quantity than the calibrated span (CS), a sensor with a %
FS performance will always have a larger error than one with the same % CS specification. Therefore, in
order to compare all bids fairly, it is advisable to convert all quoted error statements into the same % AR
units.
In well-prepared flow meter specifications, all accuracy statements are converted into uniform % AR units
and these % AR requirements are specified separately for minimum, normal, and maximum flows. All
flowmeters specifications and bids should clearly state both the accuracy and the repeatability of the meter
at minimum, normal, and maximum flows.
If acceptable metering performance can be obtained from two different flow meter categories and one has
no moving parts, select the one without moving parts. Moving parts are a potential source of problems, not
only for the obvious reasons of wear, lubrication, and sensitivity to coating, but also because moving parts
require clearance spaces that sometimes introduce "slippage" into the flow being measured. Even with
well maintained and calibrated meters, this unmeasured flow varies with changes in fluid viscosity and
temperature. Changes in temperature also change the internal dimensions of the meter and require
compensation.
Furthermore, if one can obtain the same performance from both a full flowmeter and a point sensor, it is
generally advisable to use the flowmeter. Because point sensors do not look at the full flow, they read
accurately only if they are inserted to a depth where the flow velocity is the average of the velocity profile
across the pipe. Even if this point is carefully determined at the time of calibration, it is not likely to remain
unaltered, since velocity profiles change with flowrate, viscosity, temperature, and other factors.
Before specifying a flow meter, it is also advisable to determine whether the flow information will be more
useful if presented in mass or volumetric units. When measuring the flow of compressible materials,
volumetric flow is not very meaningful unless density (and sometimes also viscosity) is constant. When the
velocity (volumetric flow) of incompressible liquids is measured, the presence of suspended bubbles will
cause error; therefore, air and gas must be removed before the fluid reaches the meter. In other velocity
sensors, pipe liners can cause problems (ultrasonic), or the meter may stop functioning if the Reynolds
number is too low (in vortex shedding meters, RD > 20,000 is required).
In view of these considerations, mass flowmeters, which are insensitive to density, pressure and viscosity
variations and are not affected by changes in the Reynolds number, should be kept in mind. Also
underutilized in the chemical industry are the various flumes that can measure flow in partially full pipes
and can pass large floating or settleable solids.

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TABLE 1.
FLOWMETER SELECTION GUIDE
Recommended
Pressure
Rangeability
Service
Loss

Required
Typical
Upstream Viscosity Relative
Accuracy,
pipe,
effect
Cost
percent
diameters

Orifice

Clean, dirty
liquids; some
slurries

4 to 1

Medium

2 to 4
of full
scale

10 to 30

High

Low

Wedge

Slurries and
3 to 1
Viscous liquids

Low to
medium

0.5 to 2
of full
10 to 30
scale

Low

High

Venturi tube

Clean, dirty
and viscous
liquids; some
slurries

4 to 1

Low

1 of full
scale

5 to 20

High

Medium

Flow nozzle

Clean and
dirty liquids

4 to 1

Medium

1 to 2
of full
scale

10 to 30

High

Medium

Pitot tube

Clean liquids

3 to 1

Very low

3 to 5
of full
scale

20 to 30

Low

Low

Elbow meter

Clean, dirty
liquids; some
slurries

3 to 1

Very low

5 to 10
of full
scale

30

Low

Low

Target meter

Clean, dirty
viscous
liquids; some
slurries

10 to 1

Medium

1 to 5
of full
scale

10 to 30

Medium

Medium

Variable area

Clean, dirty
viscous liquids

10 to 1

Medium

1 to 10
of full
scale

None

Medium

Low

Positive
Clean, viscous
Displacement liquids

10 to 1

High

0.5 of
rate

None

High

Medium

Turbine

Clean, viscous
liquids

20 to 1

High

0.25 of
rate

5 to 10

High

High

Vortex

CLean, dirty
liquids

10 to 1

Medium

1 of rate 10 to 20

Medium

High

40 to 1

None

0.5 of
rate

None

High

10 to 1

None

5 of full
scale

5 to 30

None

High

20 to 1

None

1 to 5
of full
scale

5 to 30

None

High

10 to 1

Low

0.4 of
rate

None

None

High

Flowmeter
element

Clean, dirty
viscous conElectromagnetic
ductive liquids
and slurries
Ultrasonic
(Doppler)

Dirty, viscous
liquids and
slurries

Ultrasonic
Clean, viscous
(Time-of-travel) liquids
Mass
(Coriolis)

Clean, dirty
viscous
liquids; some
slurries

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Mass
(Thermal)

Clean, dirty
viscous
liquids; some
slurries

10 to 1

Low

1 of full
scale

None

None

Weir
(V-notch)

Clean, dirty
liquids

100 to 1

Very low

2 to 5
of full
scale

None

Very Low Medium

Flume
(Parshall)

Clean, dirty
liquids

50 to 1

Very low

2 to 5
of full
scale

None

Very low Medium

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High

MECNICA DE FLUIDOS
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FLOWMETER TYPES

Differential Pressure Meters

The use of differential pressure as an inferred measurement of a liquid's rate of flow is well
known. Differential pressure flowmeters are, by far, the most common units in use today.
Estimates are that over 50 percent of all liquid flow measurement applications use this type of
unit.

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Orifices are the most popular liquid flowmeters in use today. An orifice is simply a flat piece of
metal with a specific-sized hole bored in it. Most orifices are of the concentric type, but
eccentric, conical (quadrant), and segmental designs are also available.
In practice, the orifice plate is installed in the pipe between two flanges. Acting as the primary
device, the orifice constricts the flow of liquid to produce a differential pressure across the plate.
Pressure taps on either side of the plate are used to detect the difference. Major advantages of
orifices are that they have no moving parts and their cost does not increase significantly with
pipe size.
Venturi tubes have the advantage of being able to handle large flow volumes at low pressure
drops. A venturi tube is essentially a section of pipe with a tapered entrance and a straight
throat. As liquid passes through the throat, its velocity increases, causing a pressure differential
between the inlet and outlet regions.
The flowmeters have no moving parts. They can be installed in large diameter pipes using
flanged, welded or threaded-end fittings. Four or more pressure taps are usually installed with
the unit to average the measured pressure. Venturi tubes can be used with most liquids,
including those having a high solids content.
Flow Nozzles, at high velocities, can handle approximately 60 percent greater liquid flow than
orifice plates having the same pressure drop. Liquids with suspended solids can also be
metered. However, use of the units is not recommended for highly viscous liquids or those
containing large amounts of sticky solids.
Pitot tubes sense two pressures simultaneously, impact and static. The impact unit consists of
a tube with one end bent at right angles toward the flow direction. The static tube's end is
closed, but a small slot is located in the side of the unit. The tubes can be mounted separately
in a pipe or combined in a single casing.
Pitot tubes are generally installed by welding a coupling on a pipe and inserting the probe
through the coupling. Use of most pitot tubes is limited to single point measurements. The units
are susceptible to plugging by foreign material in the liquid. Advantages of pitot tubes are low
cost, absence of moving parts, easy installation, and minimum pressure drop.
Elbow meters operate on the principle that when liquid travels in a circular path, centrifugal
force is exerted along the outer edges. Thus, when liquid flows through a pipe elbow, the force
on the elbow's interior surface is proportional to the density of the liquid times the square of its
velocity. In addition, the force is inversely proportional to the elbow's radius.
Any 90 deg. pipe elbow can serve as a liquid flowmeter. All that is required is the placement of
two small holes in the elbow's midpoint (45 deg. point) for piezometer taps. Pressure-sensing
lines can be attached to the taps by using any convenient method.
Variable-Area meters
Often called rotameters, consist essentially of a tapered tube and a float, Fig. 3. Although
classified as differential pressure units, they are, in reality, constant differential pressure
devices. Flanged-end fittings provide an easy means for installing them in pipes. When there is
no liquid flow, the float rests freely at the bottom of the tube. As liquid enters the bottom of the
tube, the float begins to rise. The position of the float varies directly with the flow rate. Its exact
position is at the point where the differential pressure between the upper and lower surfaces
balance the weight of the float.
Because the flow rate can be read directly on a scale mounted next to the tube, no secondary
flow-reading devices are necessary. However, if desired, automatic sensing devices can be

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used to sense the float's level and transmit a flow signal. Rotameter tubes are manufactured
from glass, metal, or plastic. Tube diameters vary from 1/4 to greater than 6 in.
Velocity Meters
These instruments operate linearly with respect to the volume flow rate. Because there is no
square-root relationship (as with differential pressure devices), their rangeability is greater.
Velocity meters have minimum sensitivity to viscosity changes when used at Reynolds numbers
above 10,000. Most velocity-type meter housings are equipped with flanges or fittings to permit
them to be connected directly into pipelines.

Turbine meters have found widespread use for accurate liquid measurement applications. The
unit consists of a multiple-bladed rotor mounted with a pipe, perpendicular to the liquid flow. The
rotor spins as the liquid passes through the blades. The rotational speed is a direct function of
flow rate and can be sensed by magnetic pick-up, photoelectric cell, or gears. Electrical pulses
can be counted and totalized, Fig. 5.
The number of electrical pulses counted for a given period of time is directly proportional to flow
volume. A tachometer can be added to measure the turbine's rotational speed and to determine
the liquid flow rate. Turbine meters, when properly specified and installed, have good accuracy,
particularly with low-viscosity liquids.
Open Channel Meters
The "open channel" refers to any conduit in which liquid flows with a free surface. Included are
tunnels, nonpressurized sewers, partially filled pipes, canals, streams, and rivers. Of the many
techniques available for monitoring open-channel flows, depth-related methods are the most
common. These techniques presume that the instantaneous flow rate may be determined from
a measurement of the water depth, or head. Weirs and flumes are the oldest and most widely
used primary devices for measuring open-channel flows.
Weirs operate on the principle that an obstruction in a channel will cause water to back up,
creating a high level (head) behind the barrier. The head is a function of flow velocity, and,
therefore, the flow rate through the device. Weirs consist of vertical plates with sharp crests.

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The top of the plate can be straight or notched. Weirs are classified in accordance with the
shape of the notch. The basic types are V-notch, rectangular, and trapezoidal.

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