On Electrodynamics of a Moving Charge

Yao Liu
August 3, 2009
Abstract
In classical electrodynamics, the electric field of a moving point charge can be formulated
in a simple geometrical way free from Maxwells equations. The point charge, in its rest frame,
constantly emits signals that travel radially outward at the speed of light. In an inertial lab
frame, at an instant of time, the signals would line up exactly as the field line for the electric
field as given by the retarded Lienard-Wiechert formula. Two relativistic effects are involved:
relativistic Doppler effect and Thomas precession.

Introduction

Historically, Einsteins theory of special relativity was motivated by considerations in Maxwells

electrodynamics. In the new framework of space and time, Maxwells theory remains relativistically
correct, and needs no modification. Moreover, the existence of magnetic fields and the laws of
electrodynamics can be deduced as consequences of electrostatics (i.e. Coulombs law) and special
relativity.
Edward M. Purcell, in his classic introductory text in electricity and magnetism [1], took this
approach; in particular, he devised an intuitive way of visualizing radiation from an accelerated
charged particle. He first derived, based on the empirical fact that the electric charge is Lorentz
invariant, that the electric field of a moving charge is still radial, but stronger in the perpendicular
direction. According to Faradays rules of drawing electric field lines, one should have radially
outgoing straight lines that are denser in the plane perpendicular to the direction of motion. If
a charged particle undergoes a sudden acceleration, the information propagates out as a sphere
expanding at the speed of light. The field lines outside and inside the sphere dont line up, and
shall be connected properly, with the resulting transverse segments indicative of electromagnetic
radiation. A quantitative analysis even gives the (non-relativistic) Larmors formula for the total
power radiated. The earliest account of a similar analysis is probably due to J. J. Thompson before
the advent of relativity [2].
Roger Y. Tsien, then an undergraduate student under Purcell, sought to visualize more sophisticated radiation systems such as synchrotron radiation with the aid of computers [3]. His approach
was to analytically integrate the field lines from the known Lienard-Wiechert formula. What was
not realized is that the field lines can be generated completely free from the known results of electrodynamics, by means of a mechanism in which signals (which one could identify as the photons)
are being constantly emitted at the speed of light as the charged particle traverses through space.
A crucial ingredient in this mechanism is Thomas precession, which can be seen in the pattern of
synchrotron radiation [5]. Still it is arguable whether people understood it as a separate approach
1

to electrodynamics, more than merely a tool to obtain the field line pattern. Moreover, much of
the previous work was restricted to the case of a particle moving in a plane, and the electric field
within this plane. It will be shown that this approach is correct in its full generality in all space.
One way to interpret it is to view the mechanism as providing a re-parameterization of fourdimensional spacetime: instead of one time (field time) and three for space (field position), we
use two different times (field time and retarded time) and two for the direction of emission. This
parametrization of course depends on the specific trajectory of the particle, and it seemingly, if not
in fact, circumvents the problem of solving for the retarded position and time in terms of the field
position and time, which often is difficult analytically even for the simplest trajectories. The upshot
is that the electric field, and hence the magnetic field, is encoded in this parametrization. As will
be shown in Section 5 in its full generality, it reproduces exactly the Lienard-Wiechert field, which
is the retarded solution to Maxwells equations with the given trajectory. This purely geometric
derivation is independent of Maxwells equations, and one might even say that in principle this
amounts to another formulation of electrodynamics equivalent to that of Maxwells. Feynman, for
one, has said something to the effect that Lienard-Wiechert field and Lorentz force law constitute
all of electrodynamics, saving radiation reaction and other quantum effects. [Citation needed]
Of particular note is that the magnitude of the electric field, which has a part that falls like r2
and one that falls like r1 , can be seen easily in this geometric formulation. It is often said that
the field lines are mere tools in getting a sense of the direction of the field, and one should not rely
on the density of field lines in giving the magnitude. It turns out that Faradays intuition is, once
again, correct in a precise sense, at least in our case of a single charge, provided that we make it
mathematically precise what one means by the number of field lines per unit area.

Formalism

Consider a point charge q moving along a trajectory S(t) in the lab frame, with |S(t)|
< c for all
t. At each instant, the charge is emitting signals which travel at the speed of light along straight
lines, isotropically in the charges rest frame. Viewed in the lab frame, the signals still travel at c,
but at different angles, which are no longer isotropic. This is called the aberration of light, also
known as the relativistic Doppler effect, one of the first results that appeared in Einsteins original
1905 paper. Let be the angle that a particular direction makes with in the rest frame, then a
Lorentz boost gives the angle in the lab frame:
p
1 2 sin
+ cos
sin =
(1)
cos =
1 + cos
1 + cos
There two expressions will be used again and again. Incidentally, another expression for the angle
follows from a trigonometric identity:
s
p

sin
1 2 sin
1

tan =
=
=
tan
2
1 + cos
1 + 1 + cos
1+
2
which was used by Tsien [3] but was not given this interpretation. Note that 0 < < , with
= only when = 0.
This is the angle that the new direction in which the signal travels in the lab frame makes
with . More concretely, we define a set of three orthogonal unit vectors by
= e1

n = cos e1 + sin e2
2

e3 = e1 e2

 then is given by
and n
= cos e1 + sin e2
n
with the understanding that , e1 and e2 all depend on , hence on t. Therefore, as the particle
varies in a non-trivial fashion.
traverses through space long its trajectory S(t), n
at time t0 is at position
In the lab frame, the signal which was emitted in this new direction n
= S(t0 ) + c(t t0 )
n
0

(2)
0

is a function of n and t , hence is a function of t, t , and n, and is regarded

at time t. Note that n
as a re-parametrization of space-time (minus the charges worldline). A great deal, if not all, of
electrodynamics is contained in this , hence it deserves a symbol of its own.
With n and t fixed, for all t0 < t is conjectured to be a field line that extends from the
present location of the particle S(t) out to infinity. The tangent direction to the curve is found by
differentiation with respect to t0



0
0 n
0 n

= S(t ) c
n ) (t t ) 0
(3)
n + c(t t ) 0 = c (
t0
t
t
I would like to point out here that the important features of the Lienard-Wiechert radiation is
already present: at large distances, the second piece (radiation field) dominates over the first piece
, evaluated at time t0 .
(velocity field) by a factor of t t0 , and one might also recognize the n
Recall that the Lienard-Wiechert field (in cgs units) is given by [4]






(
n

2
(1 )(
n )
q

E(x, t) = q
+
(4)
3 |x x0 |2
c
3 |x x0 |
ret
ret

where the subscript ret means that all quantities to wit,

x0 = S(t0 )

0)
S(t
c

x x0
|x x0 |

1n

are to be evaluated at the retarded time t0 , which itself is an (implicit) function of x and t:
|x S(t0 )| = c(t t0 ).
If we put the field point x = (n, t, t0 ) as in Eq. (2), then the retarded time is just the parameter
=n
(n, t0 ) and |x x0 | = c(t t0 ), by construction. Putting these all together,
t , and n



q
n

(
n

2
q(1 )(
n )
E((n, t, t0 ), t) =
+
c2 3 (t t0 )2
c2 3 (t t0 )



(
n
n )
q(1 2 )

= 2 3
(
n ) + (t t0 )
c (t t0 )2
1 2
0

Comparing with Eq. (3), it suffices to show



(
n
n )

n
=
t
1 2

(5)

where t0 is switched to t with no risk of ambiguity. Note first of all that both sides are perpendicular
. We first prove it for linear motion, which avoids a lot of complications.
to n
3

Linear motion

Proof. If the trajectory S(t) is (back and forth) along a line, then e1 is fixed (if we allow (t) to
go negative), and e2 is also fixed for a given n (to be justified in Section 4). Writing out the t
dependence explicitly,
(t) = (t)
e1

e1
(t)
= (t)

(n, t) = cos (t)

n
e1 + sin (t)
e2

where
cos (t) =

(t) + cos
1 + (t) cos

sin (t) =

p
1 (t)2 sin
1 + (t) cos

Then its merely a check on the two sides of Eq. (5). The left hand side is

d cos
d sin
n
=
e1 +
e2
t
dt
dt
where
d cos
dt

d sin
dt

sin2
sin2
=
(1 + cos )2
1 2
+ cos ) sin
(
cos sin
p
=
1 2
1 2 (1 + cos )2

On the other hand,




 h
i
h
i
(
n
= sin2 e1 + cos sin e2
n
n ) = n
which completes the proof for


(
n
n )

n
=
t
1 2
in this case.
The simplest situation is when (t) = constant, in which case = 0 and the entire radiation
field drops out. It is easily seen that the field lines (t0 ) are straight lines, a well-known fact. The
angle 0 between the field line and the direction of motion is related to from simple geometry,
and in turn to from Eqs. (1):
p
sin
1 2 sin
0
tan =
=
= tan
cos
cos 2 cos
This simple formula [1] [3] justifies the heuristic argument that a field line, as the trace of relativistic
signals, can be regarded as a physical object that extends in space and undergoes length contraction.

Thomas precession

To say n remains in the same direction in the rest frame does not mean n is fixed, but it actually
would undergo Thomas precession. An observer riding along with the charge would indeed be seeing
signals being sent out in fixed directions; its the frame itself, along with everything affixed to it,
that appears precessing to us in the lab frame. Its ultimately due to the fact that two successive
boosts along different directions is not a boost, but a boost with a spatial rotation.
Define a four-vector n , which is (0, n) in rest frame. Recall that the four-velocity u = (c, v)
is tangent to the particles worldline, and in rest frame it is simply u = (c, 0). Note n u = 0 in rest
frame, hence in any frame. Then n evolves in a fashion that it keeps orthogonal to the worldline
while remains otherwise rotationless, i.e. change in n is only in the direction of u ,
dn
= ku
d
To determine the factor k,
0=

dn
du
d(n u)
=
u+n
= kc2 + n a
d
d
d

hence

dn
na
= 2 u
d
c
which is a differential equation for n ( ) with given trajectory and given initial condition. This
is called Fermi-Walker transport. An important property of Fermi-Walker transport is that it
preserves inner product
d(p q)
dp
dq
=
q+p
= ku q + k 0 u p = 0
d
d
d
since p and q are orthogonal to u to begin with. In particular, the length of n is always unity.
The relativistic acceleration a is given by
a =

du
d
d
v v
+ 4 2 (c, v)
=
(c, v) = (c, v) = 2 (0, v)
d
d
dt
c

which in rest frame becomes

a =

0, v +


v
v( 1)
v2

2v

thus
n a = 0 2 n v . . .
Result:

dn
= T n
dt

where
T =
hence

2 v v
1 v v
=
+ 1 c2
2
c2



dn
1

=
n

dt
2
5

General motion

We want to prove


(
n
n )

n
=
t
1 2
for a general trajectory. Note that e1 , e2 and e3 , and n all depend on t.
. Lets check the projection in e1
Proof. First, observe that both sides are perpendicular to n
direction

n
(
n e1 )

e1
(cos )

e1

LHS =
e1 =
n
=
n
t
t
t
t
t
but instead = a1 .)
Let = e1 a1 + e2 a2 + e3 a3 . (Take special care that 6= ||,

a2

e1


a3

e1
a2 sin

= e2 + e3
=
=
n
=
2
t
t




1
n
1
=
n =
e1 (a2 sin ) + e2 (a2 cos ) + e3 (a3 cos )
2
2
t

(cos )
n

e1
1
a2 sin
a2 sin
=
e1 + n
=
a2 sin +
=
2
t
t
t

(cos )(1 2 )
sin2 + t
+ cos
(cos )
=
=
t
t 1 + cos
(1 + cos )2
p
2
sin
sin
1 2
= a1
+ a2
2
(1 + cos )
(1 + cos )2

Thus,
!
p
1 2
sin
sin

(1 + cos )2

p
1 2 sin cos
sin2
= a1
a2
2
(1 + cos )
(1 + cos )2

sin2
LHS = a1
+ a2
(1 + cos )2

On the other hand,

n

o


(
) (
e1 n
n )
= (
e1 n
n )



0
0
sin 



0  = a1 sin2 + a2 (cos ) sin
= cos sin

a1
a2
a3 
thus
(cos ) sin
sin2
a2
1 2
1 2
p
sin2
1 2 sin cos
= a1

a
= LHS
2
(1 + cos )2
(1 + cos )2

RHS = a1

Its left to check the projection of both sides in a third direction which is linearly independent from
and e1 ; the obvious choice is e3 :
n

e3
e1 n
n
e3 =
n
=
n
=
n
t
t
t sin

e1
t (

n) sin t
(sin )(
e1 n)
2
sin

, so the second term drops out and we are left with

but e1 n is perpendicular to n
e1
t

n + e1 n
t
sin



cos sin 0 
 cos


1 
1 
a2
a3 
0
1
=

 2
sin 
sin 
a2 sin
cos sin 0 
a3 cos sin a3 cos
a3
=
+
=

sin

1 + cos

LHS = n

sin
0
a2 cos



0


0

a3 cos 

And,
n

o


(
) (
e3 n
n )
= (
e3 n
n )


 sin
cos 0 

= cos sin 0  = a3 (1 cos )

a1
a2
a3 
thus
RHS = a3

1 cos
a3
=
= LHS
1 2
1 + cos

There must be a better proof than this!!!

Magnitude of the electric field

We try to explain the factor

q(1 2 )
t0 )2

3 c3 (t

where
.
1n
is tilted in the forwards direction; this is sometimes called relativistic beaming.
From Eq. (1), the n
, with a larger density in the direction
Therefore an isotropic distribution of n gives a non-isotropic n
of motion. This speaks directly to Faradays notion of the number of field lines as indicative of the
strength of the electric field.
as given by Eq. (1) induces a measure on the unit sphere S 2
The map T : S 2 S 2 , n 7 n


(A) = T 1 (A) ,
A B(S 2 )

where is the standard uniform measure on S 2 with (S 2 ) = 4. A theorem in measure theory

states that, since is absolutely continuous to (i.e., no singularities),
Z
(A) =
f d,
A B(S 2 )
A

d
is the Radon-Nikod
ym derivative. This describes precisely what one means by the
d
number of field lines (d) per unit area (d) at a particular point. To determine f , consider a
subset of S 2
A = {(, ) | a < < b, c < < d}
where f

where the first coordinate is the polar angle from the forward direction, and the second coordinate
is the azimuthal angle. The pre-image of A is
T 1 (A)

Then

= {(, ) | a < () < b, c < < d}

= {(, ) | cos b < cos () < cos a, c < < d}



 + cos b
+ cos a

< cos <
,c<<d
=
(, ) 
1 cos b
1 cos a
Z

Z
f d =

d
T 1 (A)

so f , which does not depend on , has to satisfy

Z b
+ cos a + cos b
f () sin d =

1 cos a
1 cos b
a
for any 0 < a < b < . Differentiating both sides with respect to b yields
f (b) sin b =

(1 2 ) sin b
(1 cos b)2

hence
f () =

1 2
2

(1 cos )

or
f (
n) =

1 2
2

)
(1 n

(6)

For a sphere with radius R, the measure density is reduced by 1/R2 to compensate the total area
4R2 . That explains the c2 (t t0 )2 in the denominator. Lastly,



0 n
0 =n
c(
)
n
n ) + c(t t ) 0 = c(1 n
t
t
and the actual E field direction.
accounts for the angle between the radial direction n
Another way to interpret it is the partial derivative of with respect to n, denoted suggestively

as
or n . More precisely, with fixed t and t0 , n 7 is a map from a sphere to a sphere,
n
8

for which the appropriate notion of derivative is the pushforward map from the the tangent space
at n to the tangent space at . We take the determinant of that pushforward map. In either
interpretation, we have a derivative of some sort. Thus all three partial derivatives of (t, t0 , n)
have direct physical meanings.

t0

= c
n, that information propagates at the speed of light
=

the direction of E field

the magnitude of E field

Covariant formulation

We set c = 1. The trajectory x ( ) = (t, S(t)) is time-like. The four-velocity

u =

dx
= (1, v)
d

and
n = (0, n)
=

Radiation

In this formulation, one is able to picture the field rather easily.

8.1

Synchrotron Radiation

Consider uniform circular motion with radius R and angular frequency

S(t) = x
R cos t + yR sin t
where and R are subject to the constraint
=

R
<1
c

The precessional frequency is constant

T =

2 3 R2
22
= ( 1)
=
2
+1 c
+1

where the minus sign indicates its precessing in the opposite direction to .
Consider n in the xy plane. n rotates at T , while e1 rotates at , so the (directed) angle
from e1 to n is
(t) = 0 + (T )t = 0 t
9

where 0 is viewed as a parameter. With = (0 , t0 ) calculated from the usual formula, the
direction of emission is
(0 , t0 ) =
n
x sin(t + ) + y cos(t + )
If one plots the field lines (0 , t, t0 ) as functions of t0 for various 0 , one can discern a strip of region
of dense field lines in the shape of a spiral [3] [4]. The spiral can be thought of as the locus of
transmitters emitted tangent to the circular trajectory, at the speed of light c. As approaches 1,
the spiral curve becomes the involute of the circle.

8.2

Dipole radiation

If the particle only oscillates up and down, there is no Thomas precession since a is in the same
direction as v.

Magnetic field

We want to identify the magnetic Lienard-Wiechert field

E
B=n

(7)

under this formalism. It is well known that magnetic field and Lorentz force law can be deduced
from electrostatics and special relativity [1] [4]. Imagine that for any observer, we boost the lab
frame to be the observers rest frame, and carry out the above procedure to obtain the E at that
point. The observer, as a stationary test particle with charge q, will experience a force F = qE. In
any other inertial frame, in which the observer is moving at velocity v, the E is different, and we
identify the difference to be (v/c) B. The fact that this B agrees with the Lienard-Wiechert is a
consequence of the consistency of Maxwells theory with special relativity.




v
v
n E)
F = q E + B = q E + (
c
c
However, one would like a more direct visualization of the magnetic field. The reason why this
has not been much explored is that we can no longer work in two dimensions.

10

Advanced field

Similarly, we have the advanced solution as a parametrization of space-time by the past light-cones
(t, t0 , n) = S(t0 ) + c(t0 t)
n(n, t0 )

t < t0 , n S 2

(8)

shall be modified by
corresponding to the other half of the time plane. The expression for n
replacing .

n
= c(t0 ) + c
n(n, t0 ) + c(t0 t) 0 (n, t0 )
t0
t
+ , i.e., from the present position instead of the advanced
Velocity field is in the direction of n
position S(t0 ).

10

11

Radiation reaction

References
[1] Edward M. Purcell, Electricity and Magnetism, ed. 2 (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1983); Berkeley
Physics Course, Vol. 2, Chap. 5.
[2] Jack R. Tessman, Joseph T. Finnell, Jr., Electric Field of an Accelerating Charge Am. J.
Phys. 35, 1015 (1968).
[3] Roger Y. Tsien, Pictures of Dynamic Electric Fields Am. J. Phys. 40, 46 (1972).
[4] J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics (Wiley, New York, 1998), 3rd ed., Sec. 11.8.
[5] R. J. Philpott, Thomas precession and the Lienard-Wiechert field Am. J. Phys. 64, 552
(1996).

11